Polio vaccine

Two polio vaccines are used throughout the world to combat poliomyelitis (or polio).
The first was developed by Jonas Salk and first tested in 1952. Announced to
the world by Salk on April 12, 1955, it consists of an injected dose of
inactivated (dead) poliovirus. An oral vaccine was developed by Albert Sabin
using attenuated poliovirus. Human trials of Sabin's vaccine began in 1957
and it was licensed in 1962.[1] Because there is no long term carrier state for
poliovirus in immunocompetent individuals, polioviruses have no non-primate
reservoir in nature, and survival of the virus in the environment for an
extended period of time appears to be remote. Therefore, interruption of
person to person transmission of the virus by vaccination is the critical step in
global polio eradication.[2] The two vaccines have eradicated polio from most
countries in the world,[3][4] and reduced the worldwide incidence from an
estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to 1,652 cases in 20 Development

In the generic sense, vaccination works by priming the immune system with an
'immunogen'. Stimulating immune response, via use of an infectious agent, is known as
immunization. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person
transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and
the wider community.[2]

In 1936, Maurice Brodie, a research assistant at New York University, attempted to

produce a formaldehyde-killed polio vaccine from ground-up monkey spinal cords. His
initial attempts were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining enough virus. Brodie first
tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to
three thousand children, many of whom developed allergic reactions, but none developed
immunity to polio.[8] Philadelphia pathologist John Kolmer also claimed to have
developed a vaccine that same year, but it too produced no immunity and was blamed for
causing a number of cases, some of them fatal.

Hepatitis B vaccine
Hepatitis B vaccine is a vaccine developed for the prevention of hepatitis B virus
infection. The vaccine contains one of the viral envelope proteins, hepatitis B
surface antigen (HBsAg). It is produced by yeast cells, into which the genetic
code for HBsAg has been inserted[1]. A course of three (3) vaccine injections are
given with the second injection at least one month after the first dose and the
third injection given six months after the first dose.[2] Afterward an immune
system antibody to HBsAg is established in the bloodstream. The antibody is
known as anti-HBsAg. This antibody and immune system memory then provide
immunity to hepatitis B infection.[3] The first vaccine became available in 1981.
A range of vaccines are available in the market. Presently recombinant DNA vaccines are
available, which means they are produced by inserting the gene for HBV into common
baker's yeast where it is grown, harvested, and purified. HBV infection cannot occur
from receiving hepatitis B vaccine.The common brands available are Ingerix B (GSK),
Elovac B (Human Biologicals Institute, A division of Indian Immunologicals Limited),
Genevac B (Serum Institute), Shanvac B etc.These vaccines are given intramuscularly.

The invention
The invention of the vaccine began with the realization (by virologist Alfred Prince, in
1968) that the Australia antigen was part of a virus that caused hepatitis. Maurice
Hilleman at Merck used three treatments (pepsin, urea and formaldehyde) of blood serum
together with rigorous filtration to yield a product that could be used as a safe vaccine.
This was first licensed by the FDA in 1981. It was not very successful in the marketplace
because clinicians knew that it was a product made from human blood serum. It was
withdrawn from the marketplace when Hilleman's collaborators succeeded in 1986 in
making the antigen in yeast. This is the vaccine still in use today.

Safety
Several studies looked for a significant association between recombinant hepatitis B
vaccine (HBV) and multiple sclerosis (MS) in adults. Most published scientific studies do
not support a causal relationship between hepatitis B vaccination and demyelinating
diseases such as MS.[21] A 2004 study[22] reported a significant increase in risk within 3
years of vaccination. Some of these studies were criticized for methodological problems.
This controversy created public misgivings about HB vaccination, and hepatitis B
vaccination in children remained low in several countries. A 2007 study found that the
vaccination does not seem to increase the risk of a first episode of MS in childhood