Veterinary College, Bengaluru

Monthly e-Bulletin

Newsletter Date : 31st October 2014 Volume No: 3 Issue : 10

Dr. Prakash Nadoor

Professor &Head, Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Veterinary College, Shivamogga
(Email: pnadoor@rediffmail.com )
Poisoning in most occasions is accidental in farm animals, but it may occasionally be deliberate or
what we call criminal poisoning. In the veterinary field (farm animals) toxicities are often found as a
result of ingestion of poisonous substances while grazing or through water. Suspicion of poisoning is also
aroused when illness occurs in a number of previously healthy animals, all affected at a same time, sharing
the same signs, necropsy findings, to the same degree of severity. The
necropsy of the animals and the rapid diagnosis is helpful in the treatment
of other affected animals in case of accidental poisoning. In case of
malicious poisoning, which may turn up into medico legal case, the
identification of poison is a must to establish the cause of death. In all
poisonous cases, chemical analysis of the biological specimens is essential
to know the cause of death or illness. Therefore, every veterinarian should
know the salient points in collection and despatch of toxicological specimens to a laboratory.
History of the case is of great importance in the diagnosis of poisoning. This includes the number
of animals in the farm, number of affected, method of feeding, regularity of feeding, recent changes in
the rations or attendants, whether pastures have been sprayed with pesticides or fertilizers, if rodenticides
have been used and remnants of the bait removed and disposed properly, storage of poisonous substances
etc. Inspection of the surroundings for empty pesticides or paint containers that are not really empty,
presence of poisonous plants in the farm environment. Also, the possibility of industrial effluents coming
in contact with grazing/watering sources should be given thought of.
History of the case is of great importance in the diagnosis of poisoning. This includes the number
of animals in the farm, number of affected, method of feeding, regularity of feeding, recent changes in the
rations or attendants, whether pastures have been sprayed with pesticides or fertilizers, if rodenticides have
been used and remnants of the bait removed and disposed properly, storage of poisonous substances etc.
Inspection of the surroundings for empty pesticides or paint containers that are not really empty ,presence

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of poisonous plants in the farm environment. Also, the possibility of industrial effluents coming in contact
with grazing/watering sources should be given thought of.
Post-Mortem Proper:
Necropsy by routine procedure is to be performed as soon as possible after the death of animal.
Examine the animal externally and note incisions (for sui poisoning, snake bite etc.,) on the skin or
mucous membranes. Examine the oral cavity for corrosive lesions (acids/alkali) or changes in colour of
mucous membrane (nitrate, co, cyanide poisoning). As most of the toxins gain entry through gut,
examination of gut mucosa, the contents, their smell, colour and pH (acids, alkali, and urea) is a valuable
guide in diagnosing toxicoses.
Poisoning by salts of heavy metals results in significant post mortem lesions but poisoning by
alkaloids like strychnine produces very feeble lesions. The natural orifices, sub-cutaneous fat tissue,
muscles, bones and teeth (in fluorine poisoning), body cavities, and internal organs should be examined.
The stomach should be punctured rather than cut open for or ganoleptic examination to note the
character of smell. Puncture ensures greater accuracy and a longer time smell.
Some of the poisons which emit characteristic smell are: bitter almond -hydrogen cyanide
poisoning, garlic odour - phosphorus poisoning, rotten garlic or horse radish smell - selenium, tobacco
odour nicotine, acetylene odour - zinc phosphide and ammoniacal odour- urea. Check the pH of the
stomach contents by pH paper. Any variation in the normal pH of the species being examined indicates
abnormality. (in urea poisoning-alkaline pH is observed in rumen liquor due to release of ammonia). The
colour of stomach contents also indicates the cause of poisoning. Copper salts impart a greenish blue
colour whereas picric and nitric acid impart yellow colour to the contents. The contents of the stomach
vary from traces to flakes of paints or lead objects, grains or baits, seeds etc., like wise small and large
intestine should be examined. Blood should be examined for its colour and clotting characters.
Cyanide poisoning imparts cherry red colour, arsenic imparts rose red colour and nitrate poisoning
turns blood brown in colour. In abrus and cyanide poisoning-blood remains fluid after death.
Examination of other visceral organs should be done in relation to their size, colour etc. eg: - spleen size is
decreased and colour is changed to dark brown or black in copper poisoning and spleen size is increased in
T-2 mycotoxicoses. Lymph nodes are swollen, haemorrhagic, oedematous and dark upon exposure to
radiation. Bone marrow becomes pale and gelatinous with yellowish tint. The description of
morphological changes should be noted clearly and absence of changes should be notified. The most
important lesions found should be underlined. In case of small animals (poultry, small dogs, lab animals)
the cadavers are sent as it is, in case of large animals the stomach contents are collected from the vicinity
of pathological or anatomical changes in the gastric mucosa. If there are no changes, a representative
sample is collected, but in medium sized animals the stomach should be tied at oesophageal and duodenal
end, intestine tied at both ends and bladder with tied ends is sent separately.
Specimens for Toxicology
A successful toxicological investigation requires appropriate specimens, history and clinical signs,
necropsy lesions and circumstantial evidences. Sample for analysis should include a suspected source
material; often gut contents, so that ingestion of suspected material can be proved. Secondly ,a sample of

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tissue (depending on tissue affinity of the suspected poison) must be included, to prove that absorption of
the poison has occurred. It is always advisable to include a sample of liver Samples Quantity
to confirm absorption of orally ingested poison. Whole blood 10-20 ml
In survival cases the following materials may be sent for analysis: Serum 10-20 ml
stomach wash, ruminal contents, vomitus, blood, urine, saliva, dung, water Milk 50-100 ml
and feed, suspected forage/ poisonous plant/s is the ideal samples for Urine 50-100 ml
laboratory analysis. Most xenobiotics are ingested. Therefore, one of the Water 200 ml
unique advantages of analyzing gastrointestinal contents is that qualitative Faeces 50 g
tests can be easily carried out in order to determine the animal has oral Feed 0.5- 1kg.
access or not. Guidelines for submitting specimen for toxicological
examination is listed in Table 1.
It is always preferable to send the specimens through a special messenger. In medicolegal cases,
the specimens should be sealed in the presence of a witness.
Table 1: Toxicological specimens for laboratory examination
Sl. Suspected poison Specimen required Remarks
No.
1. HCN/Cyanide Forage / ingesta, whole Rush samples frozen in air tight
blood bottle to laboratory
Liver GIT/ Stomach contents in 1%
mercuric chloride is ideal
2. Organochlorine pesticides/ Cerebrum, fat, liver, kidney, Use only glass containers, Avoid
Chlorinated hydrocarbons ingesta aluminum foil for wrapping
specimens

3. Organophosphates & Feed, ingesta, liver, urine -

Carbamate pesticides
4. Znic phosphide Liver, kidney, gastric -
contents
5. Nitrate/nitrite Forage, ingesta, body fluids, Ingesta in chloroform or formalin
Serum samples. Occular filled air tight container
fluid
Suspected water samples
6. Oxalates Fresh forage, kidneys Fix in formalin

7. Ammonia/Urea Whole blood or serum, urineFrozen or add 1-2 drops of

Rumen contents saturated solution of mercuric
chloride
8. Heavy metals Kidney, whole blood, liver Heparinized, do not use EDTA
(Lead, Mercury) and urine
9. Mycotoxins Forages, feed sample, liver, Use airtight containers or plastic
kidney, brain bags. Cloth bags for dry feeds

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Note: Always send a sample of preservative if used in separate container with proper label Forensic/
diagnostic laboratory
Mode of Preservation:
1. Ice up to 72 hours. 2. Alcohol (95% ethyl alcohol) 1 ml/g of tissue is the ideal preservative for
toxiclogical specimens. Formaline should never be used as it hardens the tissue without giving scope for
scraping and interferes in the analysis. Blood and serum should be refrigerated and never frozen. A
sample of the preservative used should be sent. It is always better to have a duplicate sample stored
properly in a refrigerator for future reference. Sample for analysis should include a suspected source
material; often gut contents, so that ingestion of suspected material can be proved. Secondly, a sample of
tissue (depending on tissue affinity of the suspected poison) must be included, to prove that absorption of
the poison has occurred. It is always advisable to include a sample of liver to confirm absorption of orally
ingested poison.

Dr. Madhukar* and Prof. H. A. Upendra#

*
Assistant Professor, # Director, Institute of Wildlife Veterinary Research, KVAFSU, Doddaluvara,
Kodagu(E-mail: madhukar262@gmail.com, uppisri2003@yahoo.com )

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the worlds favourite animal. Tiger is a symbol of royalty, courage,
anger and wrath in several Asian nations. Hence the reason, it is also being called the king of the beasts.
The present day tigers have evolved from its ancestor Panthera palaeosinensis over last 2 million years. It
is native to east and south Asia. Its popularity became its weakness. Though very popular, its current
population is less than 3500 in the wild. It is a highly endangered species. Due to their solitary nature and
isolated existence, tiger behavior studies have been very limited. Captive tiger behaviour, though docu-
mented extensively, does not correlate with wild tiger behavior.
This article outlines the basics of territorial, hunting, social and mating behaviour in wild tigers.
Territorial behavior
Tigers live most of their life alone.
Their territory can range upto several thousand square kilometers.
This reduces the chances of encounter with another tiger.
Many factors play role in tiger density. Most important is prey
abundance, other factors being sex, tiger subspecies and climate.
With change in these factors, tiger densities will automatically realign.
Prey abundance can be used to indirectly estimate the tiger density.
The male and female have areas of overlapping territory, which facilitates mating.
A young tigress separates gradually from mother with initial overlapping territories that diminishes
gradually to become separate territories.
Males start looking for their own territory earlier than females and make a territory much farther than
birthplace.

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 A male may not get his territory easily. He may have to challenge and win over a resident male. Till
such opportunity arises, he will live as a subordinate.
Male tigers tolerate females in their territory but not other males.
If two male exists in an area, one will be subordinate.
Subordinate tigers roll over and show their belly as a sign of surrender.
Presence of a receptive tigress in territory can increase the aggression of males.
A male marks his territory by spraying urine, defecation, tree scratching and anal gland secretions.
The males mark more frequently when the female tigers are in oestrus, with higher frequency during
early stages of estrous.
Scent glands around the tail and between the toes help in recognition of individuals by others.
Females have a much stable territory and show mild territorial behaviors.
A tiger maintains one to many lairs within territory.
The lair is preferably located in a shaded area, such as a cave or a cavity below a fallen tree.
Not all tigers may have a lair.
Mating behaviour
Mating can occur any time of the year.
Mating could be often noisy involving vocalization, growling, hissing,
paw swiping, roars, groans and rolling.
Purring and low growling sounds are often made to indicate interest and
to withdraw the mating partner.
The copulation lasts for only 15-20 seconds, however the mating may
occur several times a day. The male and the female stays together for up to a week performing these
sexual activities before they then separate and search for a new partner.
Hunting behavior
Tigers hunt mainly medium to large sized ungulates, mostly alone in the night.
Tiger moves around the territory and locates prey through hearing and
sight rather than vision.
The hunting technique used usually includes an ambush attack which
surprises the prey, knocking it off balance.
Tigers kill their victims by powerful bites through the nape or throat,
pressuring the prey down toward the ground. This disarms the preys
even if it is very large with horns.
This method also necessitates the tiger to come very close to its prey before it could attack.
Tiger can run at a speed of 50-69 kilometers per hour, but its stamina is low.
After the kill, the prey is drawn to a quite place for immediate consumption.
They will eat the meal for an hour, and then rest for several hours and then again eat. Each time eating
about not more than an hour continuously.
The success rate of hunts is only about 5%.
Adults hunt alone, but siblings separated from mother may hunt in pairs.
It is the mothers task to teach the cubs hunting before she lets them go.

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 The father plays almost no role in teaching hunting skills to its cubs.
Tigers may be willing to share other tigers they know. This could be other females with cubs, related
tigers, or tigers with familiar scent.
Unlike lions, male tigers allow female and cubs to eat the meal before it could take a bite. Lions do the
exact opposite.
Social interaction
Despite their solitary lifestyle, several types of social interactions happen between wild tigers.
Most frequent interactions occur between siblings and mother.
Visual communication
Tigers communicate through numerous gestures and movements.
While arching back and display of claws is a warning to back-off , erect ears and straight tail is a sign
of curiosity.
Tail is an important tool for communication with different meanings for twitching, sideward
movements or hanging.
Tigers have in addition several facial expressions. For instance, dilated pupils with flattened ears and
exposed canines is the so-called defense threat. This display is also used during an attack.
Vocal communication
Tigers have typical vocal communications. Though we may never understand the full spectrum of these,
some are well known.
Well documented are pooking ( sambar-call), grunting meowing,
woofing, moaning, roaring, growling, snarling, hissing and coughing roars.
A mother moans frequently to pursue its young to follow her instructions
and try new things.
Males moan to make the females comfortable during courtship.
A threatened tiger, especially females snarl when threatened and helps it to
keep the intruders at bay.
Tigers are famous for their massive roar, which is emitted three-four times, and can be heard upto three
kilometers far. Tigers roar after a kill or during courtship. During attacks, a tigers emits a variation of
roar called a coughing roar.
Vocalization is inherent and does not require learning.
Scent communication
Scenting is used most frequently for territorial marking by both the sexes.
Tigers display Flehmen expression during scent sniffing, with the tongue
hanging on incisors, exposing upper canines and wrinkling the nose.
Flehmens reaction is non-specific and occurs on sniffing urine or scent of
self or non-self origin. It may also be displayed after sniffing an oestrus tigress or a cubs urine.
Other behavior
Tigers usually do not climb trees, whereas tigress can easily climb a tree or jump over barriers.
Tigers have also been found to understand human behavior. For instance, a tiger may differentiate a
helpless victim from an armed man.

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 In contrast to other felines, tigers love swimming and can move several
kilometres and spend hours in water.
Summary
Tigers are territorial animals, perform several rituals to mark their
territory with scratching, defecation, anal gland secretion and urination. Males
are more territorial than the females; requiring relatively larger habitats than
the females. The tigers are meat eaters, and hunt mainly medium to large sized ungulates. They are very
successful hunters and hunt usually alone during the night. The combination of a powerful bite, high body
strength and remarkable swiftness makes them capable of killing relatively large animals. They are found
on top of the food chain having no predators (excluding the humans), however some records have been
made of tigers being killed by crocodiles and black bears. Mating occurs all year long and is performed
with a partner up to a week, several times a day. It is generally noisy and includes several mating rituals.
Social interaction among tigers includes both visual, vocal and scent communication. Several facial
expressions, vocalizations and movements play important roles in the communication. The tiger behavior
is still not fully understood and needs to be investigated further. However due to its endangered status it is
worth spending time and resources to understand them better. That is the only way to bring back these
majestic animals from the threat of extinction.

M.A.Kshama and A.Muralidhara

Dept of TVCC, Veterinary College, Bangalore, KVAFSU
(E-mail id:kshamabopanna@rediffmail.com)
The Dalmatian with its regal carriage and unique spots, is probably one of the most attractive
breeds on the planet. Many people are attracted to this breeds dashing good looks, but they are definitely
not for everyone and their high energy level can be exhausting to live with.
The Dalmatian is a breed of dog whose roots trace back to Croatia and its historical region
of Dalmatia.The first documented descriptions of the Dalmatian trace back to the
early 18th century and the archives of the Archdiocese of Dakovo, where the dog
was mentioned and described as Canis Dalmaticus in the church chronicles from
1719 by Bishop Petar Bakic and then again by church chronicles of Andreas
Keczkemty in 1739. In 1771, Thomas Pennant described the breed in his
book Synopsis of Quadrupeds, stating that the origin of the breed is Dalmatia and
hence he referred to it as Dalmatian. The book by Thomas Bewick A General History of
Quadrupeds published in 1790 refers to the breed as Dalmatian or Coach Dog. This breed was then
developed chiefly in England. The first unofficial standard for the breed was said to have been
introduced by an Englishman Vero Shaw in 1882. In 1890 with the formation of the first Dalmatian Club
in England the standard became official. When this dog with distinctive markings was first shown in
England in 1862, it was said to have been used as a guard dog and companion to the nomads of Dalmatia.
The breed's unique coat became popular and the breed became widely distributed over the continent of

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Europe beginning in 1920.
Description
The Dalmatian is a strong muscular medium sized well defined breed with excellent endurance and
stamina. When full grown, its weight normally ranges between 35 and 70
pounds (16 and 32 kg) and it stands from 19 to 24 inches (48 to 61 cm) tall,
with males usually slightly larger than females. The body is as long from fore
chest to buttocks as it is tall at the withers, and the shoulders are laid back. The
Dalmatian's feet are round with well-arched toes, and the nails are usually
white or the same colour as the dog's spots. The thin ears taper towards the tip
and are set fairly high and close to the head. Eye color varies between brown,
amber, or blue, with some dogs having one blue eye and one brown eye, or
other combinations.
Dalmatian puppies are born with plain white coats and their first spots usually appear within three
weeks after birth. After about a month, they have most of their spots, although
they continue to develop throughout life at a much slower rate. Spots usually
range in size from 30 to 60 mm, and are most commonly black or brown
(liver) on a white background. Other, more rare colors, include blue, brindle,
mosaic, tricolored and orange or lemon (dark to pale yellow). Patches of color
appear anywhere on the body, mostly on the head or ears, and usually consist
of a solid color. The coat is usually short, fine, and dense, although
smooth-coated Dalmatians occasionally produce long-coated offspring, which shed less often. They shed
considerably year-round. Due to the minimal amount of oil in their coats, Dalmatians lack the typical dog
smell and stay fairly clean.
Temperament
The Dalmatians were earlier used to run along side or under the carriages and hence have a lot of
energy. They do not like to sit around doing nothing. They are playful, active, easy going, happy and
dedicated .They need leadership and human company to be happy. They require a lot of physical and
mental exercise and become highly strung otherwise. They get along well with other pets but without
proper human guidance and instructions they become excitable and aggressive. They are quite intelligent
and if they sense that their owners are slightest bit meet they take advantage and become willful. They
generally do well firm, consistent training and can be trained to a high degree of obedience. If you are
planning to buy a Dalmatian puppy, make sure that you have the time, authority and most importantly
energy to keep them. Otherwise they become highly strung, hard, destructive and difficult to manage.
They are not suited for apartment dwellers and also for cold climates.
Issues regarding Health
The Dalmatians are by and large a healthy breed and have an average lifespan of 11-13 years.
Deafness
This breed is prone to deafness and 10-12 % of pups are said to be born deaf .Only 70% of dogs
are believed to have normal hearing. Blue eyed Dalmatians are thought to have a greater incidence of
deafness than brown-eyed Dalmatians, although a mechanism of association between the two

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characteristics has yet to be conclusively established. Some kennel clubs discourage the use of blue-eyed
dogs in breeding programs
Kidney and bladder stones , gout
Dalmatians, like humans, can suffer from hyperuricemia. Dalmatians' livers have trouble breaking
down uric acid, which can build up in the blood serum (hyperuricemia) causing gout. Uric acid can also be
excreted in high concentration into the urine, causing kidney stones and bladder stones. These conditions
are most likely to occur in middle-aged males. Males over 10 are prone to kidney stones and should have
their calcium intake reduced or be given preventive medication. To reduce the risk of gout and stones,
owners should carefully limit the intake of purines by avoiding giving their dogs food containing organ
meats, animal byproducts, or other high-purine ingredients. They may be also prone to hip dysplasia, skin
allergies and Iris sphincter dysplasia

Dr A. S. Patil, Dr B. N. Nagaraj, Dr Ramesh Rathod, Dr L. Ranganath and Dr M. S. Vasanth

Department of Veterinary Surgery & Radiology, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bengaluru
(Email: anilpatiluasd@yahoo.co.in)

Although dogs don't walk upright, they do lot of side bending, jumping and twisting. So they do
suffer from back problems. Besides the occasional pulled muscle, they also suffer from more serious back
problems such as intervertebral disk disease (herniated disk), vertebral dislocations, bone fractures,
vertebral malformations and even cancer of the vertebrae. Long-bodied dogs with short legs (e.g. Basset
hounds, Dachshunds, Beagle, Shih Tze, and Pekingese) are prone to disk extrusion. It is a genetic
predisposition due to the animal's stretched-out shapes with relatively little support for the spine. Dogs that
are obese are also more prone to develop back problems because of the extra pressure on the spine. It is
therefore important to keep the dog's weight in check - this will help relieve or even eliminate some back
problems in dogs.
Dogs have high pain thresholds and an instinct not to reveal when they're in pain. After all, in the
wild, the obviously injured animal is the one that gets picked off by the
predators. But if you pay attention, you can tell whether your dog is in
pain from a spinal injury.
Look for the following warning signs of spinal injury:
Shivering combined with unusual inactivity
Refusal to get up and play, even for food
Haul or Cry when you pat your dog or try to pick him up
A pulled-in head, arched back, or any other strange position
A refusal to bend down to the food or water dish to eat or drink
Limping of any kind A "drunken" rear end (wobbling gait), which moves but looks as if it isn't
completely under control
Dragging of the back legs / paralysis

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 If your Dog shows any of these warning signs, first thing to do is box / cage confinement and rest
with minimal physical activity. In the case of dragging the back legs
or showing any other signs of paralysis or severe pain, call your vet
immediately.
Dont give medications (Pain killers / Non steroidal anti
inflammatory drugs) to reduce pain and inflammation without an
accurate diagnosis. The dog may feel better once its symptoms are
treated, but the injury still exists and mobility and behavior may
result in re-injury rather than recovery. As the pain killers mask the
pain, animal with spinal fracture and or dislocation tries to make movements because of which it may
lead to severance of spinal cord by the sharp fractured ends of bones. Once spinal cord is cut, no treatment
is effective and the animal may have to euthanized.
Always suspect a broken back or spinal cord injuries in all
dogs that are unconscious or are unable to stand after a fall from a
height or being struck by a motor vehicle. Dogs with these kinds of
injuries should be moved as gently as possible onto a flat surface
(such as a door or a piece of plywood) causing as little twisting to the
head, neck and spine as possible. Place a blanket over flat surface
and also the animal so that the dog doesnt slip. Using whatever
means available (duct tape or rope) secure the dog to the flat
surface so that movement will be minimized during transportation.
Next, drive immediately to the vet's office or nearest pet emergency facility. Don't wait. because,
you have just hours to act. Immediate surgery on a Dog with a spinal injury has a much better success
rate than a similar surgery at a later stage. For Dogs still feeling pain (a good sign that the spinal cord is
still functioning), the success rate for restoring function is 95 percent. The success rate is 50 percent for
Dogs experiencing total paralysis, as long as the dog was feeling pain within the last 24 hours. But if you
wait longer than 24 hours after a spinal injury, the success rate plummets to a meager 5 percent. If that
isn't reason enough to rush your injured Doggie to treatment, nothing is.

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 Dr. Kantha raju M.K1, Dr. V. Jagadeeswary**,Dr. K. Satyanarayan*, Dr. Mohankumar. S2,
Dr. Sakshi. S3
Professor and Head , Assistant professor**, Senior M.V.Sc.1,2,3
*

Dept. of VAHEE, Veterinary College Hebbal, Bengaluru-024.

(drkantharajuvet@gmail.com)
Water is vital, but poorly studied component of livestock production. It is estimated that livestock
industries consume 8% of the global water supply, with most of that water being used for intensive,
feed-based production (7%). Overall, water used for product processing, drinking and servicing livestock
is insignificant at global levels (less than 1% of global water), but it may be important in dry areas, in
terms of the proportion of water used (e.g. livestock drinking water represents 23% of the total amount of
water).
Livestock spend between 10 and 15 minutes per day drinking water. The water content of feed is
highly variable and may range from as low as 5% in some dried grains or seeds to about 90% in
early-growth pastures and succulent species.
Catabolism of fat, carbohydrate and protein produces 1,190 g, 560 g and 450 g of water/kg,
respectively, and these metabolic waters are important sources for all animals.
Animals lose water principally through: milk-when lactating, urine, faeces, evaporation from the
body surface, the respiratory tract. Under severe stress, cattle and other species may also lose significant
amounts of water through drooling.
When protein production is adjusted for biological value in the human diet, no plant protein is
significantly more efficient at using water than protein produced from eggs, and only soybean is more
water efficient than milk and goat and chicken meat.
The livestock sector is the fastest-growing agricultural sector, which has led to increasing
industrialisation and, in some cases, reduced environmental constraints.
In emerging economies, increasing involvement in livestock is related to improving rural wealth
and increasing consumption of animal protein. Water usage for livestock production should be considered
an integral part of agricultural water resource management, taking into account the type of production
system (e.g. grain-fed or mixed croplivestock) and scale (intensive or extensive), the species and breeds
of livestock, and the social and cultural aspects of livestock farming in various countries.
The water demands of livestock may also compete with those of the human population and water
required for crop production. Crops can make direct use of rainfall or stored water through irrigation,
whereas animals consume crops or pastures, leading to potential reductions in water efficiencies for food
production. This water must be added to the water directly consumed by the animals to maintain life as
well as to the water used during product processing. This apparent inefficiency of water use has been
highlighted in recent accounting models of global water use.
It is necessary to recognise that there is no single water requirement for a species or an individual.
The amount of water consumed depends on a number of factors, such as body weight, physiological state
(stage of pregnancy, lactation, etc.), diet, temperature, frequency of water provision, type of housing,

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species to species but, in all cases, the predictions developed should be used as an approximate guide to
the amount of water consumption, not an absolute predictor of water intake.
Livestock need water of similar quality to that required by humans. However, like water intake
requirements for livestock, water quality requirements are poorly researched and usually defined by
acceptability and their effects on livestock performance.
Water quality is defined by the presence or absence of certain substances, by taste, smell, turbidity
and electrical conductivity.
Water usage included not only water consumed directly by various classes of animals but also
water used to irrigate crops consumed by animals, water applied to irrigated pastures, and water used to
process animals for marketing.
A significant proportion of the world crop production is dependent on animal draught power,
without which crop productivity would decline significantly. Livestock also provide fertiliser and fuel, and
make use of fibrous plants and crop by-products that are effectively not considered by the current water
accounting models.
The productivity of water in livestock production is dependent on factors such as the type and scale
of livestock production systems, the type of livestock farming (species and breeds) and environmental
conditions (e.g. soil type and amount of rainfall). Understanding the relative importance of these factors to
livestock water productivity under diverse production systems and in specific locations will help us to
develop appropriate strategies to improve water use efficiency and conserve land and water resources for
sustainable livestock farming.
Since poor water quality can potentially affect livestock performance and thus sustainable livestock
production systems, it is important to develop integrated, soil-animal management practices that avoid
degradation of land and water resources.
Livestock farming is likely to compete with other farming sectors for water because of increasing
pressures from global climate change and the variability of water availability and distribution. The
challenge for the future is to optimise livestock water productivity by improving animal productivity
within the framework of integrated soil-water-animal management, under both rain-fed and irrigated
conditions.
The challenge for the future is to optimise livestock water productivity by improving animal productivity
within the framework of integrated soil-water-animal management, under both rain-fed and irrigated
conditions.
Current Water Usage
Usage (%) World Europe Africa India
Agriculture 69 33 88 83
Industry 23 54 5 12
Domestic 8 13 7 5
( Source: Government of India, 2009.)
The per capita water use in India will increase from the current level of 99 litres per day to 167 litres
per day in 2050.

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 The consumption of water in India will increase by over 50%, the supply will increase only by
5-10% during the next 12-15 years. This will lead to water scarcity situation and most of the people;
particularly those who are dependent on agriculture, animal husbandry and living in poverty will suffer the
most. Water scarcity will affect the food production, biodiversity and the environment. Environmental
degradation will accelerate global warming, which in turn will accelerate water crisis.
Pollution of water resources is another major concern which is affecting the water supply as well as
human health conditions.
A number of water accounting systems are used to determine water usage by industries. The
virtual water concept has recently gained wide acceptance. The concept of virtual water has been
introduced by Tony Allan.
Virtual water is the water embodied in a product, not in real sense, but in virtual sense. It refers to
the water needed for the production of the product. Virtual water has also been called embedded water or
exogenous water, the latter referring to the fact that import of virtual water into a country means using
water that is exogenous to the importing country.
Producing goods and services generally requires water. The water used in the production process of
an agricultural or industrial product is called the 'virtual water' contained in the product. For producing
1 kg of grain we need for instance 1000-2000 kg of water, equivalent to 1-2 m3. Producing livestock
products generally requires even more water per kilogram of product. For producing 1 kg of cheese we
need for instance 5000- 5500 kg of water and for 1 kg of beef we need in average 16000 kg of water
(Chapagain and Hoekstra, 2003).
The practical use of the virtual water concept lies in the fact that the virtual water content of a
product tells something about the environmental impact of consuming this product. Knowing the virtual
water content of products creates awareness of the water volumes needed to produce the various goods,
thus providing an idea of which goods impact most on the water system and where water savings could be
achieved. Hoekstra and Hung (2002) have introduced the concept of the water footprint, being the
cumulative virtual water content of all goods and services consumed by one individual or by the
individuals of one country. In analogy of the water footprint can be a strong tool to show people their
impact on the natural resources.
Net import of virtual water in a water-scarce nation can relieve the pressure on the nations own
water resources.
Virtual water is a broad-scale, global water-use concept, developed to place all industries and
countries on an equal basis when describing their use of water as part of global trading and environmental
accounting systems. Virtual water content has been devised as a tool to estimate the amount of water used
to produce different products and services, and to help plan the best use of scarce water supplies.
If one country exports a water-intensive product to another country, it exports water in virtual
form. In this way some countries support other countries in their water needs. Trade of real water between
water-rich and water- poor regions is generally impossible due to the large distances and associated costs,
but trade in water-intensive products (virtual water trade) is realistic. For water-scarce countries it could
therefore be attractive to achieve water security by importing water-intensive products instead of
producing all water-demanding products domestically. Reversibly, water-rich countries could profit from

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their abundance of water resources by producing water-intensive products for export.
The requirement of water for livestock will rise from 2.3 billion m3 in 2000 to 2.8 billion m3 in
2025 and 3.2 billion m3 in 2050.
Water Use Efficiency in Agriculture (Water foot print (Lit/kg)
Crops India World
Wheat 1654 1334
Rice 2850 2291
Sugarcane 159 175
Cotton 18694 8242
Milk 1369 990
Eggs 7531 3340
Chicken 7736 3918

Source :Dr. Narayan G. Hegde, Sharad Krishi. Water Scarcity and Security in India. Centre for International Trade in
Agriculture & Agro-based Industries, Pune : 18-20.

India is not a water deficit country, but due to severe neglect and lack of monitoring of water
resources development projects, several regions in the country experience water stress from time to time.
Further neglect in this sector will lead to water scarcity during the next 1-2 decades. The consumption of
water in India will increase by over 50%, the supply will increase only by 5-10% during the next 12-15
years.
Immediate attention is needed to shift from flood irrigation to micro irrigation (eg: Drip irrigation)
and to increase the water use efficiency, which can ease the water scarcity to a great extent.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE LIVESTOCK WATER PRODUCTIVITY

Drinking water
Provide optimal quality water.
Combine with zero-grazing strategies .
Integrate livestock watering infrastructure into water development for domestic and irrigation needs.
Develop drinking water sources to allow utilization of previously unused rangelands.
Constrain herd sizes and animal movements.
Separate livestock watering from water source used by people for domestic consumption.
Keep livestock out of water reservoirs to prevent erosion, sedimentation, and spread of water-borne
diseases involving livestock.
Feeding sourcing
Integration within cropping systems, utilization of residues for feed, manure inputs.
Utilization of food feed crops instead of sole purpose forage crops.
Import feed if water (virtual water) is scarce or highly valued.
Soil and ground water conservation.
The greater the water content of feed, the less drinking water they require.
Increasing the proportion of fresh grass or silage in the diet thus decreases drinking water intake.
Some breeds adapted to drought, such as goats and camels, consume less water because of better water
recycling.

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 Use drip irrigation.
Mulching.
Composting.
Limited use of chemical fertilizers.
Grow drought resistant fodder/Tree based farming.
Raise awareness.
Drought forecast.
Public education.
Conservation campaign.
Drip irrigation

Sesbania fodder tree Mulching

Water conservation campaign.

There is not enough water left for everyone..

So we must try to conserve water and harvest rain.. whenever we can.
Motivating all the stakeholders for judicious usage of water in animal husbandry activities, fodder
production, processing technology of animal products, we the veterinarians can contribute to
overcome the water scarcity, to enhance the animal husbandry sector contribution to the national GDP
and poverty alleviation.

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 Predicted per capita water availability in India
(Source: Government of India, 2009.)
Year Population (Million) Per capita water
availability (m3/year)

1951 361 5177

1955 395 4732

1991 846 2209

2001 1027 1820

2025 1394 1341

2050 1640 1140

monthly e-Bulletin
Published and circulated by Veterinary College, Hebbal Bengaluru

Editor: Associate Editior:

Dean, Veterinary College, Hebbal, Bengaluru Head, Dept of Vety & Animal Husbandry Extension Education
Dr.S.Yathiraj (Ex-Officio) Dr.K.Satyanarayana (Ex-Officio)

Contact :
Dept of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry Extension Education
Veterinary College, Hebbal Bangalore
email: pashubandhavch@gmail.com
Blog: pashubandhavch.blogspot.in

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