Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499

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Wake effect in interactions of fast ions with carbon nanotubes

D.J. Mowbray a , Z.L. Mikovic a, , F.O. Goodman a , You-Nian Wang b
a Department of Applied Mathematics, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
b The State Key Laboratory of Materials Modification, Department of Physics, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116023, PR China

Received 27 May 2004; accepted 7 June 2004

Available online 14 July 2004
Communicated by R. Wu

Abstract
We use a two-dimensional hydrodynamic model to describe the linear response of electrons on a single-walled carbon nano-
tube to a charged particle moving paraxially inside or outside the nanotube. We show that, when the particle speed exceeds a
threshold value, the oscillatory wake effect develops both in the electron density perturbation on the nanotube surface and in
the three-dimensional induced potential trailing the particle. This induced potential provides a means of localizing the toroidal
electron image states around nanotubes, deflecting charged particle channeled through nanotubes, or capturing other charges
into the wake riding states localized on the opposite side of the nanotube wall.
2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

PACS: 79.20.Rf; 34.50.Bw; 34.50.Dy

Keywords: Carbon nanotube; Plasmon excitation; Hydrodynamic model; Wake effect

The ability to screen an external electric field is
an increasingly important property of any material
if it is to perform a function in a nano-meter scale
structure. In that context, carbon nanotubes are par-
ticularly intriguing objects in various situations, e.g.,
when they act as transistors in nano-electronic logic
circuits [1], or as transporting elements for ion or elec-
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zmiskovi@math.uwaterloo.ca
(Z.L. Mikovic).
0375-9601/$ see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2004.06.090
tron nano-scale beams [2], or are themselves probed
by the electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) [3].
For example, electron polarization on carbon nano-
tubes in response to external charges has been re-
cently shown to provide efficient screening of charged
impurities in the longitudinal directions [4], as well
as to generate strong radial attractive forces giving
rise to toroidal electron image states around nano-
tubes [5].
Depending on the speed of the external charge, the
screening mechanism changes its character dramat-
ically, going from a Debye-like screening potential
 D.J. Mowbray et al. / Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499
of a static charge to a dynamic regime characterized
by an oscillatory potential contained in a cone trail-
ing a fast moving charge, which is commonly known
as the wake effect. While the wake effect in three-
dimensional (3D) plasmas has been known for almost
fifty years [6], its current significance encompasses
diverse new areas, such as dust-crystal formation in
complex plasmas [7], or Coulomb explosion of large
clusters, such as C60 , in thin solid foils [8]. In par-
ticular, Arista was the first to show that the wake
effect may play a very prominent role in channel-
ing of fast ions through nano-capillaries in solids [9],
thus opening a new area of interest regarding nano-
structures.
The wake effect is characterized by the onset of col-
lective oscillations in the polarization of the medium,
which provide effective mechanisms of energy loss
for a fast external charge. In that context, carbon
nanotubes have been extensively studied by EELS
technique, which is the main diagnostic tool for deter-
mining their collective electron oscillations, or plas-
mon spectra [3]. However, much less is known about
the electric potential around the nanotube walls, in-
duced by the passage of an external charge. This
potential is important, e.g., for studying the possibil-
ities to manipulate the electron image states around
nanotubes [5,10], or for transport in a channeling-
lake fashion of fast ions through nanotubes [2,9].
Our previous study [11] considered fast ions moving
paraxially inside single-walled nanotubes (SWNT),
for which we have evaluated the self-energy (akin
to the image potential) and the stopping power as
mere local features of the induced wake potential at
the ion position, without explicitly calculating this
potential. In this Letter, we present calculations of
the charge polarization on the nanotube surface and
the full 3D spatial dependence of the wake poten-
tial, induced by a fast point charge moving paraxi-
ally, either inside or outside a SWNT. These results
will demonstrate withering of the ability of nano-
tubes to screen external charges when their speed
increases and, at the same time, will indicate a pos-
sibility of realizing the so-called wake riding ef-
fect [12], where other charged particles may be cap-
tured, or their state manipulated, by the presence of
the wake potential induced by the primary external
charge.
95
Our description of the electron response of a carbon
nanotube is based on the linearized two-dimensional
(2D) hydrodynamic model, which has been success-
fully used in theoretical studies of the plasmon exci-
tation properties of carbon nanotubes [1315]. Given
the complexity of calculations of the wake potential,
the main merit of the hydrodynamic model is in its
analytical simplicity and physical transparency, while
retaining robustness in describing the main physical
processes dominated by the plasmon excitations in
many-electron systems. In addition, we have recently
shown [11] that, as far as the energy losses and the
ion self-energy are concerned, the 2D hydrodynamic
model gives results which agree very well with those
from the dielectric-response formalism in random-
phase approximation (RPA) [16]. Noting that the work
on the wake effect on multi-walled nanotubes [15],
within the two-fluid approximation [13] for their and
electrons is in progress, we limit our present study
to SWNT represented by a 2D quasi-free electron fluid
with surface density n0 = 0.428 (here, and throughout
the Letter, we use the atomic units, a.u.), uniformly
distributed on an infinitely long cylinder of radius a.
Even such a simple model will give the spatial depen-
dence of the wake potential in a rich parameter space,
involving the speed v of the external charge, its ra-
dial distance form the nanotube axis r0 , as well as the
nanotube radius a ranging from the smallest experi-
mentally attained value of about 6.6 up to several tens
of a.u.
We use cylindrical coordinates x = {r, , z}, and
consider a point-charge particle with charge Q, mov-
ing on a trajectory parallel to the nanotube axis z, such
that the particles instantaneous position is given by
x0 (t) = {r0 , 0 , vt}. With xa = {a, , z} being the co-
ordinates of a point on the cylindrical surface r = a of
the nanotube, the perturbed state of the electron fluid
is described by the electron number density per unit
area, n0 + n1 (xa , t), and by the velocity field u(xa , t)
which only has components tangential to the nanotube
surface. Based on the linearized hydrodynamic model
[11], the electronic excitations on the nanotube can be
described by the continuity equation for the induced
density n1 ,
n1 (xa , t)
+ n0  u(xa , t) = 0, (1)
t
96 D.J. Mowbray et al. / Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499
and the momentum-balance equation,
u(xa , t)
= (r,
=  (x, t)
r=a  n1 (xa , t)
t n0
 
+  2 n1 (xa , t) u(xa , t), (2)
n0
where  = ez /z + a 1 e
/ differentiates only
tangentially to the nanotube surface [11]. The first
term on the right-hand side of Eq. (2) is the force on an
electron due to the tangential component of the elec-
tric field, evaluated from the values of the total electric
potential which are constrained to the nanotube sur-
face, r = a. This potential is a solution of the fully 3D
Poisson equation [11], which we express as the sum
= ext + ind , consisting of the Coulomb poten-
tial of the external point charge, ext (x, t) = Q/x
x0 (t), and the induced potential due to the perturba-
tion of the electron fluid on the nanotube surface,
 Km are cylindrical Bessel functions of integer order
n1 (xa , t)
ind (x, t) = d 2 xa , (3)
x xa 
where xa = {a,  , z }, while d 2 xa = a d  dz is the
differential surface element on the nanotube. The sec-
ond term on the right-hand side of Eq. (2) is the
force due to internal pressure in a 2D homogeneous
ThomasFermi
electron fluid having Fermi velocity
vF = 2n0 , with = vF2 /2 being the speed of
propagation of the density disturbances in the fluid,
whereas the third term with = 1/4 comes from the
first gradient quantum correction to the kinetic energy
in the electron fluid and, as such, describes the single-
electron excitations in the fluid [11]. The last term in
Eq. (2) represents the frictional force on an electron
due to scattering on the positive-charge background,
with being the friction coefficient, which we take
here as 0+ .
By using the FourierBessel expansion of the
Coulomb potential 1/x x  in cylindrical coordi-
nates, one is ensured that the potential will satisfy
the necessary boundary conditions on the cylinder
r = a [11]. Moreover, the FourierBessel transform
of the and z dependences of the unknowns , n1 ,
and u, as well as the Fourier transform of their time
dependence, facilitate straightforward solution of the
coupled equations (1)(3). It should be noted that, ow-
ing to the translational invariance of the system in the
z direction, the solutions are stationary in the mov-
ing frame of reference attached to the external charge,
so that we finally obtain n1 = n1 ( 0 , z vt) and
0 , z vt), where
 
dk
n1 (, z) = Qn0
m=
(2) 2
(k 2+ m /a 2 )gm (a, r0 ; k) ikz+im
2
e ,
kv(kv + i ) m
2 (k)
(4)
 
dk
ind (r, , z) = Qn0 a gm (r, a; k)
m=
(2)2
(k 2 + m2 /a 2 )gm (a, r0 ; k) ikz+im
e ,
kv(kv + i ) m 2 (k)
(5)
with gm (r, r  ; k)
= 4Im (|k|r< )Km (|k|r> ), where
r< = min(r, r  ) and r> = max(r, r  ), while Im and
m. In Eqs. (4), (5), the resonant frequencies m (k),
describing the collective plasma oscillations of the
2D electron fluid with the angular momentum m for
motion around the nanotube perimeter and the linear
momentum k for longitudinal motion, are given by
m2 (k) = (k 2 +m2 /a 2 )+(k 2 +m2 /a 2 )2 +n a(k 2 +
0
m2 /a 2 ) gm (a, a; k) [11].
In evaluating the above expressions, we have found
that there exists a threshold speed of about v = 2, be-
low which the induced electron density on the nano-
tube surface has a bell-like distribution concentrated
in the proximity of the charge, whereas for the speeds
above the threshold, the distribution exhibits wake-like
oscillations. As an example, we show in Fig. 1 the in-
duced electron density n1 from Eq. (4) on a nanotube
of radius a = 14, for a point charge Q = 1 moving at
speed v = 3 at the distances (a) r0 = 7 and (b) r0 = 21,
with the intercept of the line and the circle drawn at
each cylinder in Fig. 1 defining the point on the nano-
tube closest to the charge in a moving frame of refer-
ence. With the darker (lighter) areas in Fig. 1 display-
ing an increase (decrease) in electron density, one can
clearly see the wake oscillations trailing the charge, as
well as the characteristic cone shape developed over
the surface of the cylinders. For the charged particle
moving outside the nanotube (b), the density pertur-
bation appears to be more localized around the solid
line on the cylinder than in the case of the particle in-
side the cylinder (a) moving at the same distance from
 D.J. Mowbray et al. / Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499 97

Fig. 1. Surface electron density n1 on a SWNT with a = 14, induced by a proton moving paraxially with speed v = 3 at (a) r0 = a/2, and
(b) r0 = 3a/2.

the nearest wall of the nanotube. In order to provide

a more quantitative information for the situation de-
picted in Fig. 1, we show in Fig. 2 the z dependence
of the induced electron density on the nanotube in the
moving frame, taken at = 0 , that is, along the solid
lines of Fig. 1. In addition to showing the oscillatory
patterns for the particles with v = 3 at r0 = 7 and
r0 = 21 near the nanotube with a = 14, we also show
in Fig. 2 the bell-shaped induced densities for the static
(v = 0) unit point charges, at the same radial positions,
r0 = 7 and r0 = 21.
We further use Eq. (5) to calculate the 3D spatial
variation of the total potential for a point charge
Q = 1 at the distances r0 = 7 and r0 = 21 from the
axis of a nanotube with a = 14, and show the results
in Figs. 3 and 4 for the r and z dependence of Fig. 2. The z-dependence of surface electron density n1 in the plane
in the plane = 0 (defined by the position of the = 0 on a SWNT with a = 14, induced by protons moving parax-
particle and the solid lines drawn on the cylinders in ially with speeds v = 0 and 3, at radial distances r0 = a/2 and 3a/2.
Fig. 1). In Fig. 3, we show the cases of particles in-
side the nanotube (r0 = 7) at the speeds (a) v = 0 and Fig. 3(b) shows a wake potential trailing the particle
(b) v = 3. One can observe from Fig. 3(a) that, in the with quite pronounced oscillations along the z-axis,
static case, the Coulomb potential of the charged par- which are radially localized at the nanotube surface
ticle is effectively screened by the nanotube, so that (r = a) and are effectively decayed at the axis of the
there is very little leakage of that potential outside nanotube (r = 0) and at the radial distances of about
the nanotube wall. Nevertheless, the magnitude of the r = 2a. In particular, one notices in Fig. 3(b) the devel-
leaking potential in Fig. 3(a) may be sufficient to pro- opment of a relatively deep and long-ranged potential
vide longitudinal localization for the toroidal image well, lying outside the nanotube in the proximity of
states around nanotubes, as suggested in Ref. [5]. On the charged particle, which results from the electron
the other hand, the case of a charge moving at v = 3 in fluid over-compensating in screening the Coulomb
98 D.J. Mowbray et al. / Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499

Fig. 3. Total potential versus r and z in the plane = 0 for a proton moving paraxially at r0 = a/2 in a SWNT with a = 14, at speed
(a) v = 0 and (b) v = 3. The level curves show the increments
= 0.02.

Fig. 4. Total potential versus r and z in the plane = 0 for a proton moving paraxially at r0 = 3a/2 outside a SWNT with a = 14, at speed
(a) v = 0 and (b) v = 3. The level curves show the increments
= 0.02.

potential of the particle inside the nanotube. Such a
well can capture another charged particle outside the
nanotube and drag it in a state which has been iden-
tified in the case of the bulk solid as a wake riding
state [12]. Of course, other potential minima seen in
the wake potential in Fig. 3(b) can give rise to a simi-
lar effect. Finally, the results for the total potential
in the case of charged particles outside the nanotube
with a = 14, which are placed at r0 = 21, are shown
in Fig. 4 for the speeds (a) v = 0 and (b) v = 3. The
results shown in this figure are surprisingly symmet-
ric with respect to those in Fig. 3 for particles inside
the nanotube of the same radius, so that similar con-
clusions may be drawn from Fig. 4.
The most important quantities, relevant to the ef-
fects of the nanotube polarization on the motion of the
external charge, are its self-energy and the energy loss
rates, which are calculated from the local properties
of the induced potential at the position of the charge.
We show in Fig. 5 the dependence of the self-energy,
evaluated as Eself = (Q/2)ind |x=x0 (t ) , on the radial
position r0 and the speed v for a charge Q = 1, moving
parallel to the axis of the nanotube with a = 14. For
low speeds, one can identify in Fig. 5 the potential well
outside the nanotube which gives rise to the toroidal
image states [5,10], whereas an approximately sym-
metrical well exists inside the nanotube, which would
provide a force pulling away a channeled charged par-
 D.J. Mowbray et al. / Physics Letters A 329 (2004) 9499
Fig. 5. Self-energy Eself versus position r0 and speed v for a proton
moving paraxially to a SWNT with a = 14. The level curves show
the increments
Eself = 0.02. [5] B.E. Granger, P. Krl, H.R. Sadeghpour, M. Shapiro, Phys.
ticle toward the walls of the nanotube [2]. Once the
speed exceeds the threshold value for the onset of the
wake effect, it appears from Fig. 5 that the potential
wells on both sides become substantially shallower but
nevertheless remain rather long-ranged.
In conclusion, we believe that the present simple
2D hydrodynamic model for the linear response of the
electron system on carbon nanotubes provides rich and
reliable information on interactions of external point
charges with nanotubes, especially in the regime of
high speeds dominated by the plasmon excitations,
which may prove useful in a variety of applications.
99
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Natural Sci-
ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.
Y.-N.W. acknowledges support by the National Nat-
ural Science Foundation of China.
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