1) Define fluid mechanics
Its
It may be defined as that branch of engineering science which
deals with the behavior of fluid under the conditions of rest and
motion.
2) Define fluid
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when
subjected to external shearing force.
3) Define fluid statics
The study of incompressible fluids under static conditions is
called hydrostatics and that dealing with the compressible static
gases is termed as aerostatics.
4) Define fluid kinematics
It deals with the velocities, accelerations and the patterns of flow
only. Forces or energy causing velocity and acceleration are not
dealt under this heading.
5) Define fluid dynamics
It deals with the relations between velocities, accelerations of
fluid with the forces or energy causing them.
6) What are the characteristics of a fluid?
a) It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the
shape of the containing vessel.
b) Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a
liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo a deformation, which
continues as long as the force continues to be applied.
7) Classify fluid
A. (i) Liquid (ii) Gas and (iii) Vapour
B. (i) Ideal fluids and (ii) Real fluids
8) Define an ideal fluid/perfect fluid
Ideal or perfect fluids are those fluids that do not possess the most
important fluid property called viscosity.
9) Define real fluid
Real fluids are viscous and offer resistance to motion which is
called fluid friction.
10) Define density
The density () of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume.
Its units are kg/m3. The density of water is generally taken as
1000 kg/m3.
11) Define Specific weight
The specific weight (w) of a fluid is its weight per unit volume.
units are N/m3.
Evidently, w = g. For water w = 9810 N/m3.
12) Define specific volume
The specific volume is the volume per unit mass. Its units are
m3/kg. It is reciprocal of density.
13) Define specific gravity/relative density
Specific gravity or relative density is the ratio of density of a fluid
to the density of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is
water at 4oC. For gases, the standard fluid is hydrogen at 0oC.
14) Define viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is considered to be a measure of its
resistance to shear or angular deformation. It is primarily due to
cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid
layers, and as flow occurs, these effects appear as shearing
stresses between the moving layers of fluid.
15) Write Newtons equation of viscosity
du
where = shear stress, = co-efficient of viscosity of
dy
du
fluid, dy = shear rate / velocity gradient
16) Write the units of dynamic viscosity
Ns/m2 or kg/ms or poise =0.1 Ns/m2
17) Define kinematic viscosity
The kinematic viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of
dynamic viscosity to density.
18) Write the units of kinematic viscosity
m2/s, 1 stoke = 1cm2/s
19) It is well known that a person can float more easily in sea
water than in fresh water. What is the reason? Is it possible to
swim more easily in sea water than in fresh water? Both
density and viscosity of sea water are slightly more than those
of fresh water.
Sea water being denser requires less volume of displaced water
(=submerged volume of body) to balance the body weight. Hence,
it is easier to float in sea water. In motion, sea water offers a little
more viscous resistance than does the fresh water. Consequently,
swimming in the former is marginally more difficult.
20) State Newtons law of viscosity
It states that the shear stress () on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of
proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.
21) How does viscosity vary with temperature? Give units for
dynamic viscosity.
The viscosity of liquids decreases with increase in temperature. In
liquids, the viscosity is mainly due to cohesion which decreases
with increase in temperature. On the contrary, the viscosity of
gases increases with increase in temperature. This behaviour of
gases is because of different intermolecular characteristics of the
gases.
22) Define Newtonian fluids
The fluids which follow the Newtons law of viscosity are known
as Newtonian fluid. Eg. Water, kerosene, air etc
23) Define Non-Newtonian fluids
Fluids which do not follow the linear relationship between shear
stress and rate of deformation are termed as Non-Newtonian
fluids. Eg. Solutions, slurries, mud flows, polymer solutions,
blood etc
24) Why viscosity of liquids decreases while increase in
temperature?
This is due to the reason that in liquids the shear stress is due to
the inter-molecular cohesion which decreases with increase of
temperature.
25) Why viscosity of gases increases while increase in
temperature?
In gases the inter-molecular cohesion is negligible and the shear
stress is due to exchange of momentum of the molecules, normal
to the direction of motion. The molecular activity increases with
rise in temperature and so does the viscosity of gas.
26) Define cohesion
Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of
the same liquid. It enables a liquid to resist small amount of
tensile stresses. Cohesion is a tendency of the liquid to remain as
one assemblage of particles.
27) Define adhesion
Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and
the molecules of a solid boundary surface in contact with the
liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another body.
28) Define surface tension
Surface tension is caused by the force of cohesion at the free
surface. There is always a surface of contact between a liquid and
a gas or between two immiscible liquids like the water surface
exposed to atmospheric air or the interface in a vertical tube
between water and kerosene. Such surfaces act like a film capable
of resisting a small tensile force. This phenomenon which is due
to the molecular attraction among the liquid molecules at the
contact boundary is called surface tension.
29) What is the value of surface tension between water and air?
0.073 N/m at 200 C
30) What is the value of surface tension between mercury and
air?
0.5 N/m
31) Give some important examples of phenomenon of surface
tension
a) Rain drops
b) Rise of sap in a tree
c) Capillary rise and capillary siphoning
d) Collection of dust particles on water surface
e) Break up of liquid jets
32) What are the factors which affect the surface tension of a
liquid?
a) Nature of the liquid
b) Nature of the surrounding matter (eg. Solid, liquid, or gas)
c) Kinetic energy (and hence the temperature of the liquid
molecules)
33) Why does surface tension of a liquid decrease when the
temperature of liquid increases?
The surface tension decreases as the temperature of the liquid
increases because the intermolecular cohesive forces decrease.
34) What is meant by contact angle?
The angle of contact is defined as the angle between the tangent to
a drop at the solid boundary with the surface of the solid boundary
on which it is placed.
35) Define capillarity
Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon
its specific gravity) rises into a thin glass tube above or below its
general level. This phenomenon is due to the combined effect of
cohesion and adhesion of liquid particles.
36) Explain how some insects which are denser than water are
able to move on the water surface
Because of the presence of the surface film
37) An oil spill over a small area in sea spreads over a large are
gradually. A small drop of ink on a chalk piece spreads over a
wider area. Is the reason in both cases the same? Explain.
In the first case, it is due to surface tension. In the second case, it
is due to the capillary spread through the small pores of the chalk.
38) What is meant by compressibility?
The property by virtue of which fluids undergo a change in
volume under the action of external pressure is known as
compressibility. Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk
modulus.
39) Define bulk modulus of elasticity (K)
Elasticity of fluids is measured in terms of bulk modulus of
elasticity (K) which is defined as the ratio of compressive stress to
volumetric strain. Its units are N/m2.
40) Define vapour pressure
The free surface of a liquid usually serves as the boundary
through which the process of evaporation occurs. Liquid
molecules are constantly ejected into the space above the free
surface and if this space is confined, the projected molecules exert
a partial pressure on the liquid which is known as the vapor
pressure.
41) Define pressure or intensity of pressure
The normal force acting in a fluid per unit area is called the
intensity of pressure or pressure
42) Write down the two fundamental characteristics of fluid
pressure
a) It acts normal to the plane of any area inside the fluid or
the boundary surface of the vessel containing it, and
b) The pressure increases linearly with depth of fluid.
43) State hydrostatic law
The hydrostatic law states that the pressure at any point in a static
mass of liquid is linearly proportional to the vertical depth of the
point below the free surface.
The rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward direction
must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.
44) State Pascals law
The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, is the
same in all directions.
45) Define atmospheric pressure
The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces
with which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure is also known as barometric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure at sea level (above absolute
zero) is called standard atmospheric pressure.
46) What is meant by pressure head?
The ratio of the intensity of pressure and the specific weight of
fluid is called pressure head.
47) Define gauge pressure
It is the pressure measured with the help of pressure measuring
instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum.
The atmospheric pressure on the scale is marked as zero.
48) Define vacuum pressure
Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric
pressure.
49) Define absolute pressure
Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of pressure is
termed as an absolute pressure.
50) Write a relation between absolute, atmospheric and gauge
pressure
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
51) Write a relation between absolute, atmospheric and vacuum
pressure
Vacuum pressure = atmospheric pressure-absolute pressure
52) What is the value of standard atmospheric pressure?
101.3 kN/m2 or 101.3 kPa; or 10.3 m of water, 760 mm of
mercury, 1013 mb
(1 bar =105 N/m2)
53) If the fluid is in motion, the pressure at a point may not be 61) Why the diameter of piezometer is preferred more than
equal in all directions. Comment. 12mm?
Yes. In a moving fluid, velocity may vary and pressures which are To avoid error due to capillary action, the diameter of the
closely related to velocities may also vary from point to point and piezometer should be 12mm or more.
from time to time. 62) Write the drawbacks of piezometer
54) Apart from the depth of point below the free surface of a a) Large pressures require long tubes which cannot be
liquid, what other parameter influences the magnitude of handled conveniently
pressure intensity at the point? b) If the fluid under pressure in the vessel is a gas, a
Specific weight of liquid piezometer cannot be used. The gas would escape from
55) List out pressure measuring devices the open end.
(A) Manometers c) Rapid changes in pressure cannot be recorded
(i) Simple manometers accurately, because the changes in piezometric levels
(1) Piezometer lag behind the changes in pressure.
(2) U-tube manometer 63) What are the principles used in mechanical pressure gauges?
(3) Single column manometer The pressure is measured by balancing the fluid column by spring
(ii) Differential manometer (elastic element) or dead weight. Generally these gauges are used
(B) Mechanical gauges for measuring high pressure and where high precision is not
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge required.
(ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge 64) What is a piezometer?
(iii) Bellow pressure gauge A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be
(iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids. It consists of a
56) Write down the two important characteristic of pressure glass tube inserted in the wall of a vessel or of a pipe, containing
(i) it acts normal to the plane of any area inside the fluid or the liquid whose pressure is to be measured. The tube extends
boundary surface of the vessel containing it. vertically upward to such a height that liquid can freely rise in it
(j) The pressure increases linearly with depth of fluid. without overflowing.
57) What is meant by static pressure and dynamic pressure? 65) What are the advantages of manometers?
Static pressure is defined as the negative of the normal stress a) Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive
acting on any surface in a fluid at rest. b) Good accuracy
58) Write the standard value of atmospheric pressure in terms of c) High sensitivity
mercury? d) Require little maintenance
0.76m of mercury e) Not affected by vibration
59) What is the value of std. atmospheric pressure? f) Specially suitable for low pressure and low differential
101325 Pa or 101.325 kN/m2 pressures
60) What is a manometer? g) It is easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a change in the
Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the quantity of manometric liquid in the manometer.
pressure at a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by 66) What are the limitations of manometer?
the same or another column of liquid. a) Usually bulky and large in size
b) Being fragile, get broken easily
 c) Readings of the manometers are affected by changes in pressure distribution on the plane surface is linear, the pressure
temperature, altitude and gravity prism has its vertex at the free surface. The width of the prism
d) A capillary effect is created due to surface tension of perpendicular to the plane of the paper is equal to the length of the
manometric fluid and plane surface. The volume of the pressure prism is equal to the
e) For better accuracy meniscus has to be measured by total pressure (P). The line of the action of the total pressure
accurate means. passes through the centre of gravity of the pressure prism.
67) Can piezometers be used for measuring negative pressure? 75) What is meant by average pressure intensity?
Negative pressures can also be measured with a piezometer. In
this case, the liquid in the open leg of the piezometer is depressed 76) Bourdon gauge is used for_____________
below the level of pipe. Measuring gauge pressure
68) What happens if a manometer connection to a pipe is not 77) Write an expression for hydrostatic force on a horizontal
made exactly normal to the pipe wall? plane
If the fluid in motion, the velocity of the fluid affects the pressure Hydrostatic force P = pA= wAh
which in turn distorts the true pressure reading. Where w = specific weight of liquid
69) Name some commonly used fluids in manometer A = Submerged area
Water, mercury, oil, salt solutions, carbon disulphide, bromo- h = height of liquid over the plane
form, alcohol and carbon tetrachloride. 78) Write the expression for hydrostatic force and centre of
70) What is the advantage of using micromanometer for pressure for vertical plate submerged in a liquid
measuring pressure? P=wA
Micromanometers are used where high precision is required. A IG
h y
large change in the height of the liquid column takes place even Ay
for a small change in pressure. Where - depth of centre of area
71) What is meant by centre of pressure? A total area of the surface
It is defined as the point of application of the resultant pressure on IG moment of inertia of the figure about horizontal axis through
the surface. its centre of gravity
72) Is the centre of pressure of a plane area always below = centre of pressure
centroid? Under what conditions will it coincide with 79) Write the expression for hydrostatic force and centre of
centroid? pressure for inclined plate submerged in a liquid
Yes, as long as the plane is not horizontal. The two points P=wA
coincide when the plane is horizontal. I G sin 2
73) The total static liquid pressure on a submerged plane h y
Ay
boundary is the same whether the plane is horizontal, vertical
or inclined. Is this true? Where - depth of centre of area
True, provided the depth of the centroid of the area below the free A total area of the surface
surface of liquid is the same in all cases. IG moment of inertia of the figure about horizontal axis through
74) Explain pressure prism concept its centre of gravity
The total pressure and its line of action for a plane surface can = centre of pressure
also be determined using the pressure prism concept. As the 80) What are the types of equilibrium of floating bodies?
 Stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium
81) State Archimedes principle
It states that if a body if fully or partly submerged in a fluid, it is
subjected to buoyancy equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.
82) What is meant by buoyancy?
Whenever a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid it is
subjected to an upward force which tends to lift it up. This
tendency for an immersed body to be lifted up in the fluid, due to
an upward force opposite to action of gravity is known as
buoyancy. The force tending to lift up the body under such
conditions is known as buoyant force or force of buoyancy or
upthrust.
83) What is meant by centre of buoyancy?
The point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body is
known as the centre of buoyancy. It is always the centre of gravity
of the volume of fluid displaced.
84) Define metacentre
If a floating body is given a small angle of tilt and if a vertical line
is drawn through the new centre of buoyancy, it will intersect the
old axis through the old centre of buoyancy at a point M which is
called the metacentre.
85) Define metacentric height
The distance between the centre of gravity of a floating body and
the metacentric is called metacentric height.
86) If the c.g. of a floating body is above its metacentre, what is
the type of equilibrium of the body?
Unstable equilibrium.
87) What are the two methods of analysis of fluid motion?
Lagrangian method
Eulerian method
88) Explain Lagrangian method for description of flow.
In this method the observer concentrates on the movement of a
single particle. The path taken by the particle and the changes in
its velocity and acceleration are studied.
89) Explain Eulerian method of description of flow.
In this method the observer concentrates on a point in the fluid
system. Velocity, acceleration and other characteristics of the fluid
at that particular point are studied.
90) What is the merit and demerit of Lagrangian method for
description of fluid motion?
The merit of Lagrangian method lies in the fact that the history of
all fluid particles can be traced. The demerit is that the resulting
equations of motion are non-linear in nature and tedious to solve.
91) What is the merit and demerit of Eulerian method for
description of fluid motion?
The evident drawback of Eulerian method is that the background
information of individual fluid particles is known. Its advantage is
that the equations of motion obtained by this method can be easily
linearized using acceptable approximations
92) Define stream line
A stream line is an instantaneous line drawn in a flow field in
such a way that all the fluid particles falling on the line will have
velocity vectors along the tangents drawn to the line at the particle
locations at that instant.
93) Write down the equation of stream line.
dx dy dz
u v w
Where u, v and z are the components of velocity at point P in x, y
and z direction respectively.
94) Define path line
Path line is the line drawn through the path traced by a single
fluid particle over a period of time.
95) Define streak line
The line, which at a given instant connects the temporary location
of all the fluid particles that have traversed a fixed point in the
flow field, is called a streak line. The line traced by a dye injected
in a liquid is an example of a streak line.
96) Define stream tube
A stream tube is a fluid mass bounded by a group of streamlines.
The contents of a stream tube are known as current filament. Eg.
Pipes and nozzles.
97) A velocity vector is resolved into two components, one
tangential to the stream line and another normal to it. What
are the names of the two components?
There is no normal component. The resultant velocity vector itself
is tangential to the stream line.
98) Can path line and a stream line cross each other at right
angles?
Yes; if the flow is unsteady.
99) The end point of all path lines is the streak line. Is this true?
Yes; if all the path lines have the same starting point.
100) What are the characteristics of stream tube?
Flow can enter or leave a stream tube only through its end cross-
sections and not its side surfaces. The stream tube can have a
regular or irregular shape. It is generally assumed to have a small
cross-sectional area so that the velocity across the section could
be considered uniform.
101) Define convective and local acceleration
Convective acceleration is the result of change of velocity from
point to point. It is acceleration due to translation of fluid
particles. If at a given location, the fluid velocity changes with
time, the resulting acceleration is called local acceleration.
102) Define tangential acceleration and normal
acceleration
Acceleration due to changes in the tangential component of
velocity is called as tangential acceleration. Normal acceleration
may be defined as the acceleration due to changes in the normal
component of velocity.
103) How are fluid flows classified?
a) laminar and turbulent flow
b) steady and unsteady flow
c) uniform and non uniform flow
d) compressible and incompressible flow
e) one, two, and three dimensional flow
f) rotational and irrotational flow
104) Define steady and unsteady flow
The type of flow in which the fluid characteristics like velocity,
pressure, density, etc at a point do not change with time is called
steady flow.
Eg. Flow through a prismatic or non-prismatic conduit at a
constant flow rate
Unsteady flow in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point
change with respect to time
Eg. The flow in a pipe whose valve being opened or closed
gradually
105) Define uniform and non-uniform flow
In uniform flow, the velocity at any given time does not change
with respect to time.
Eg. Flow through a straight pipe of constant diameter.
In non-uniform flow, the velocity at any given time changes w.r.t.
space.
Eg. Flow around pipe bend.
106) Define compressible and non-compressible
flow
A fluid flow may be considered to be compressible if normal
pressure variations produce significant changes in density. In a
majority of flow problems, such density variations occur in gas
flow systems, and are of negligible magnitude in liquid flow
systems.
Incompressible flow, the density is constant for the fluid flow.
107) Define one dimensional flow
One-dimensional flow is one in which each of the flow
parameters is a function of one space coordinate and time.
Mathematically, u =f1(x,t), v=0, w=0
It is unidirectional flow, generally pipe flow treated as one
dimensional flow.
108) Define two dimensional flow
In a two-dimensional flow, each of the flow parameters is a
function of two space coordinates and time.
Mathematically, u = f1(x,y,t), v = f2(x,y,t), w=0
Eg. Flow between parallel plates of infinite extent
109) Define three dimensional flow
Flow characteristics like velocity, pressure and density in general
vary in all the three coordinate directions in any fluid system. The
velocity vector V for instance, may possess all the three
components u,v and w along X,Y and Z directions respectively.
Each of these components is a function of each of the space
coordinates as well as time.
u =f1(x,y,z,t), v = f2(x,y,z,t), w = f3(x,y,z,t)
Eg. Flow approaching a circular orifice located in one of the side
walls of a tank.
110) Define laminar and turbulent flow 115) Translation of a fluid element occurs in all types of fluid
If in a flow, the particles of fluid move in regular and well defined motion. Is this true?
paths, the flow is said to be laminar. The flow appears as if layers True.
glide smoothly one over the other. Disturbed irregular and 116) What types of movement of a fluid element reveal the
disorderly motion of fluid particles is the characteristic of presence of shear stresses?
turbulent flow. Non-uniform rotation and angular deformation
Laminar flow - Eg. Seepage and ground water flows through 117) What are the four possible types of movement of a fluid
soils, sheet flow over spillways and flow of crude oil and similar element?
highly viscous fluids through narrow passages. (i) translation, (ii) linear deformation (iii) rotation and (iv)
Turbulent flow - Eg. Flow of air and water angular deformation.
111) Define rotational and irrotational flow 118) Does non-uniform velocity distribution indicate the presence
A flow is said to be rotational if the fluid particles while moving of vorticity?
in the direction of flow rotate about their mass centres. Yes.
Eg. Flow near the solid boundary 119) State continuity equation of flow
A flow is said to be irrotational if the fluid particles while moving If no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length then
in the direction of flow do not rotate about their mass centres. the mass passing across different sections shall be same.
Eg. Flow outside the boundary layer is generally considered 120) Write down the three dimensional form of continuity
irrotational. equation for compressible unsteady flow
112) Why is turbulent type of flow more frequently ( u ) ( v) ( w)
0
encountered in practice than laminar flow? t x y z
Air and water are the most common fluids that are encountered in Where = density of a fluid,
many fluid flow problems. The viscosity of these two fluids is u,v, and w are the velocities in x,y and z direction
relatively low. The type of flow that is generally possible with low respectively.
viscosity fluids is turbulent flow. 121) Write down the three dimensional form of continuity
113) All gas flows are compressible and all liquid flows are equation for
incompressible. Is this statement correct? incompressible steady flow
No. In low speed gas flows, density variations are not u v w
0
significant and compressibility need not be considered. x y z
Similarly, although liquids are generally incompressible, there Where u, v, and w are the velocities in x,y and z direction
are instances of generation of excessive pressures that respectively.
necessitate the consideration of liquids compressibility. 122) u = f1(x,y), v = f2(x,y) and w = 0, what type of flow the above
114) Irrotational motion occurs if the fluid is ideal. The theory of equation represents?
irrotational motion is therefore irrelevant to real fluid flows. Steady, two dimensional flow
Is this correct? 123) Mention two practical applications of the equation of
No. The principle of irrotational motion have a great relevance continuity.
even to real fluid flow problems because the fluid behaves (i) in one dimensional flow analysis, if the mean velocity at one
almost as an ideal fluid except in a region very close to the solid section is known, the mean velocity at any other section can
boundary where the influence of viscous shear is considerable. be determined.
 (j) In two dimensional analysis, if any one velocity component
is known, its perpendicular component at that point can be
computed.
124) Is it possible to infer of from the equation of continuity that
the average velocity is inversely proportional to the area of
cross-section? Under what conditions is it valid?
Yes; if the flow is one dimensional, steady and incompressible.
125) Define stream function
A two dimensional stream function for steady flow may be
defined as continuous function of x and y such that its numerical
value at any point is equal to the discharge per unit thickness
perpendicular to the X-Y plane across any line joining that point
to the origin.
Or
The stream function is defined as a scalar function of space and
time, such that its partial derivative wrt any direction gives the
velocity component at right angles to this direction. It is denoted
by (psi)
u ,v
y x
126) Write down the properties of stream function
i) On any streamline, is constant everywhere [ is
constant, represents the family of streamlines, and it is
a streamline equation]
ii) The discharge per unit thickness between any two
streamlines is equal to the difference between their
stream function values.
iii) The partial derivative of stream function wrt distance
in any direction gives the velocity component 90o
clockwise to that direction.
iv) Existence of stream function is a confirmation of
possible fluid flow.
v) If the flow is irrotational, the stream function satisfies
Laplaces equation.
127) Define velocity potential
The velocity potential function is a continuous function of x, y,
z and t. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (phi). In steady
flow VPF is defined as such a function of x, y, z that when
differentiated wrt distance in any direction, it gives velocity
component in that direction.
u ,v ,w
x y z
128) Write down the properties of velocity potential function
(i) Velocity potential function exists only in irrotational flow
(ii) Lines of constant velocity potential function (called
equipotential lines) and lines of constant stream function
(called stream lines) are mutually orthogonal.
129) The stream function is a mathematical concept. It has no
physical meaning. Comment.
The stream function has profound significance both
mathematically and physically. It not only presents a complete
picture of flow pattern but gives the discharge directly. In a two-
dimensional flow, it is the volumetric rate of flow per unit
thickness.
130) The stream function is known, is it possible to calculate the
rate of flow between any two stream lines?
Stream function exists in all fluid flows, irrespective of the
absence, presence or magnitude of rotation.
131) If the stream function is known, is it possible to calculate the
rate of flow between any two stream lines?
Yes. From , the values of 1 and 2 which are the SF values of
any two stream lines can be found. The rate of flow between the
stream lines is 1- 2 per unit thickness.
132) What are the units in which a stream function is expressed?
m3/s per metre thickness or m2/s
133) If is given, how do you test whether the flow it represents
is irrotational or not?
2 2
If satisfies Laplaces equation: 2 2 0 , then the flow
x y
is irrotational.
134) The stream function at point (1) is 1 and stream function at
point (2) is 2. What is the discharge passing between points
(1) and (2) if the two points are on (i) the same stream line
and (ii) different stream lines?
(i) If the points are on the same stream line, 1= 2
 (ii) If the points are on different stream lines, discharge per unit
thickness between them = 1- 2
135) Why is irrotational flow called potential flow?
Velocity potential exists only in irrotational flow. Hence,
irrotational flow is given the alternate name: potential flow.
136) In what respects does the velocity potential function differ
from the stream function?
(i) is present in both rotational and irrotational flows. exists
only in irrotational flows.
(ii) gives stream lines which indicate the direction of flow.
gives equipotential lines which indicate the direction normal to
the flow.
(iii) is a measurable quantity. It is the rate of flow per unit
thickness. is conceptual.
(iv) when differentiated with respect to distance in any
direction gives the component of velocity in a direction
turned 90o clockwise to the given direction. when
differentiated wrt distance in any direction, gives the
velocity component in the same direction.
137) What happens when the stream function or velocity
potential function in unsteady flow is equated to a sequence
of constants?
A set of stream lines or equipotential lines are obtained whose
pattern is a function of time. Their orientation may change from
one instant of time to the next.
138) The local acceleration at all points in a steady fluid flow is
zero. Is this true?
True.
139) Even though the velocity at a point in a flow is invariant
with time, there may be acceleration at the point. How can
this be explained?
If the velocity does not change wit time, there is no local
acceleration. But there may be convective acceleration which is
the result of velocity differences at neighbouring points.
140) What type of acceleration can exist in a straight, unsteady,
one dimensional flow?
The flow is in straight-line. Hence, only the tangential
acceleration is present. There is no normal acceleration. Since
the flow is unsteady, the tangential acceleration is of the local
type. It may also have a convective component depending on
whether or not velocity is the same in magnitude at successive
points along the straight line.
141) The cross sectional area of a pipe-bend is progressively
reducing. If the discharge of water flowing through it is
constant, describe the type of acceleration to which the flow
is subjected.
As the velocity is changing both in magnitude and direction
from point to point, tangential as well as normal components of
acceleration are present. Since the discharge is constant, there is
no velocity change wrt time so that there is no local
acceleration. Therefore, the tangential and normal acceleration
components each contain the respective convective type of
accelerations.
142) What is meant by flownet?
A grid obtained by drawing a series of streamlines and
equipotential lines is known as a flownet. The flownet provides
a simple graphical technique for studying two-dimensional
irrotational flows especially in the cases where mathematical
relations for stream function and velocity function are either not
available or are rather difficult and cumbersome to solve.
143) Write down the methods available for drawing flownet
a) analytical method
b) graphical method
c) electrical analogy method
d) hydraulic models
144) What are the uses of flownet?
a) to determine the streamlines and equipotential lines
b) to determine quantity of seepage and upward lift pressure
below hydraulic structure.
c) to determine the velocity and pressure distribution, for
given boundaries of flow (provided the velocity
distribution and pressure at any reference section are
known)
d) to determine the design of the outlets for their
streamlining.
145) What are the limitations of flownets?
 a) The flow net analysis cannot be applied in the region close provided the fluid is ideal and incompressible is:
to the boundary where the effects of viscosity are v z d V d
2
V g 0 or ( gz ) 0 which on integration
predominant. s s ds 2 ds
b) Flownets are not as reliable in diverging flows as in
V2
converging flows. In diverging flows, the boundary layer gives: ( gz ) cons tan t or V 2 2 gz cons tan t . Hence
2
invariably separates from the boundary causing eddies and
disturbed flow conditions. The flownet is of little value in 2 2 V22 V12
V1 2 gz1 V2 2 gz2 or z1 z2 .
such cases. 2g 2g
146) Explain the composition of one dimensional equation of This indicates as the level falls i.e., as the P/E decreases, KE
motion for an inviscid, incompressible fluid flow. increases. Steady flow through an open channel which slopes
v v 1 p downward in the direction of flow is an example for the
V S
t s s equation obtained. In a real fluid flow, frictional effects come
v v into operation and continuous loss of potential energy due to
Where = local acceleration, V = convective
t s downward slope of the channel is balanced by the frictional loss
acceleration, S = body force per unit mass in s-direction and of energy generated at whatever velocity the flow stabilizes
p corresponding to the channel slope.
= pressure gradient in s-direction. 150) Water flows through a horizontal pipe whose section
s
147) Write down Eulers equation for steady, incompressible, gradually increases in the direction of flow. Does the
irrotational flow along a horizontal streamline. pressure or decrease in the direction of flow?
v If the cross-section is enlarging, velocity at successive points
Since the flow is steady, 0 and there is no elevation must be decreasing because V1A1=V2A2= V3A3=,
t
z Since the pipe is horizontal, there is no change in potential
difference; hence g 0. Eulers equation reduces to: energy. So whatever KE is lost must appear as gain in pressure.
s
v 1 p Therefore pressure increases in the direction of flow.
V 0 151) Mention the assumptions involved in Eulers equation of
s s
148) What is the equation of motion for a steady, uniform, one- motion
dimensional, incompressible irrotational flow? 1. Fluid is assumed as ideal and incompressible fluid
v v 2. Only pressure and gravity forces are considered.
Since the flow is steady and uniform, both and V 0.
t s
z 1 p 152) Steady flow of fluid occurs through a vertical pipe of
Eulers equation reduces to: g s s 0 constant diameter in a downward direction. Does the
velocity increase in the direction of flow? What happens to
the pressure?
149) In a fluid flow problem, steady flow takes place under the
Velocity remains unchanged because V=Q/A and Q and A are
action of body forces. There are no other forces. Describe
constants. The loss of elevation increases the pressure in the
the flow.
direction of flow.
Since the flow is steady and there are no forces except the body
v 1 p
force, both and 0 . The equation of motion
t s
153) Is it possible to have a uniform pressure in a flow along an 160) Write the equation for measuring of velocity through a pitot
inclined pipe whose cross-section reduces in the downward tube
direction? What is the effect of direction of flow? v C 2 gh
Yes. It is possible to have uniform pressure because the loss of Where v = velocity of flow
elevation if the flow is downward and the gain in KE due to area C pitot tube co-efficient (0.98-0.995)
reduction may cancel each other. Direction of flow has role only 161) What is the use of pitot tube?
when the friction head loss is significantly large. If it is small, Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of flow in a pipe and a
the flow direction has no influence on the parameters. channel
154) What is meant by Reynolds stress? 162) On what principle venturimeter works?
In the turbulent flow the fluid particles move from one layer to Energy principle
other and therefore, there is a continuous momentum transfer 163) How does venturimeter differ from orificemeter and when
between adjacent layers which results in developing additional orificemeter is preferred?
stresses for the flowing fluid. This additional stress is called as Venturimeter
Reynolds stress. Merits
155) State Bernoullis theorem a) head loss is small, Cd is high
In an ideal, incompressible fluid when the flow is steady and b) it can be used for large size pipes and for large
continuous, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and discharges
potential energy is constant along a streamline. Demerits
p v2 a) it is very long and inconvenient to use
z cons tan t
g 2 g b) it is costly
156) List the assumptions which are made while deriving Orificemeter
Bernoullis equation Merits
a) the liquid is ideal and incompressible 1) it requires less space
b) the flow is steady and continuous 2) it is cheap
c) the flow is along the streamline Demerits
d) the velocity is uniform over the section and is equal to 1) head loss is large; cd is low
the mean velocity 2) not suitable for large discharges
e) the only forces acting on the fluid are the gravity
forces and the pressure forces. Orifice meter is preferred if space available in the pipe is less
157) What are the limitations of Bernoullis energy equation? and also for low discharge
It is applicable to ideal, incompressible, steady flow and
continuous flow 164) Why is divergence more than convergence in a
158) What is meant by flow work? venturimeter?
Flow work is net work done by the fluid element on its The energy loss in a diverging passage which is many times
surroundings while it is flowing. The term p/, is the flow work more than that in a converging passage is due to separation of
or flow energy per unit mass. boundary layer and formation of vortices or eddies which
159) What are different forms of energy in a fluid? absorb the kinetic energy of the fluid. The consequences of
Datum (potential), kinetic and pressure energy
 separation are minimized by adopting gradually diverging flow
sections.
165) Why is the Cd of an orifice meter considerably less than that
of a venturimeter?
Cd is a function of the loss of head that occurs between the
pressure tappings used for evaluating the differential head. The
loss of head that occurs in the abrupt contraction that takes place
in an orificemeter is more than that in a venture contraction.
Hence the Cd of the orificemeter is less than that of the
venturimeter.
166) Does the orificemeter give less discharge than a
venturimeter because of a lower Cd?
No. if the same quantity flows through the two meters, their
discharge formulae must ultimately yield the same result. The
differential head for a given Q is more in an orifice meter on
account of smaller Cd.
167) Is there a risk of cavitation in an orificemeter flow as in the
case of venturimeter?
Yes. Low pressure generally occurs a little downstream of the
orifice plate, like the throat section of a venturimeter is a
location of the low pressure. If this pressure is low enough to be
equal to or less than the vapour pressure of the flowing liquid,
cavitation sets in.
168) The coefficient of a pitot tube is usually slightly less than 1.0.
Is it due to friction loss? If not what is the reason?
When there is no flow anywhere inside a pitot tube, friction
losses do not occur. The reason is the velocity vectors of
varying inclinations strike the stagnation hole of the pitot tube.
If the flow were exactly parallel to the leg of the tube facing the
fluid flow, the coefficient would be unity.
169) Name any four flow measuring devices
Venturimeter, orificemeter, flow nozzle meter and bend meter.
170) What is meant by stagnation point?
The point at which velocity of flow is zero.
171) What is meant by dimensional homogeneity?
An equation is considered to be dimensionally homogeneous if
the fundamental dimensions L,M and T (length, mass and time)
have identical power on both sides of the equation.
172) What are the uses of the principle of homogeneity?
(i) to check whether an equation is dimensionally homogeneous
or not,
(ii) to find the dimensions of a physical quantity
(iii) to change a dimensional coefficient from one system of
units to another and
(iv) to carry out dimensional analysis of a phenomenon.
173) What are the various methods of dimensional analysis to
obtain a functional relationship between various parameters
influencing a physical phenomenon?
a) Rayleighs method
b) Buckinghams theorem
c) Bridgmens method
d) Matrix tensor method
174) What do you mean by fundamental units and derived units?
Give examples.
The fundamental quantities are mass, length, time and
temperature. The quantities which are expressed in terms of the
fundamental or primary quantities are called derived or
secondary quantities (eg. Units for velocity, area, acceleration
etc).
175) What are the advantages of dimensional analysis?
a) It expresses the functional relationship between the
variables in dimensionless terms.
b) In hydraulic model studies it reduces the number of
variables involved in a physical phenomenon,
generally three.
c) By proper selection of variables, the dimensionless
parameters can be used to make certain logical
deductions about the problem.
d) Design curves, by the use of dimensional analysis, can
be developed from experimental data or direct solution
of the problem.
e) It enables getting up a theoretical equation in a
simplified dimensional form.
f) Dimensional analysis provides partial solutions to the
problems that are too complex to be dealt with
mathematically.
 g) The conversion of units of quantities from one system
to another is facilitated.
176) State Buckinghams theorem
If there are n variables (dependent and independent variables) in
a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these variables
contain m fundamental dimensions (such as M, L, T, etc), then
the variables are arranged into (n-m) dimensionless terms.
These dimensionless terms are called terms.
177) What do you mean by dependable and independent
variables?
A dependable variable is the one about which information is
required while independent variables are those which govern the
variation of dependable variable.
178) What are repeating variables? How are these selected by
dimensional analysis?
Each dimensionless -term is formed by combining m variables
out of the total n variables with one of the remaining (n-m)
variables i.e. each -terms contains (m+1) variables. These m
variables which appear repeatedly in each of -terms are called
repeating variables
Selection of repeating variables
a) m repeating variables must contain jointly all the
fundamental dimensions involved in the phenomenon.
b) The repeating variables must not form the non-
dimensional parameters among themselves
c) As far as possible, the dependent variable should not
be selected as repeating variable
d) No two repeating variables should have the same
dimensions
e) The repeating variables should be chosen in such a
way that one variable contains geometric property(e.g.
length, l; diameter, d; height, H etc.), other variable
contains flow property (e.g.velocity, V; acceleration, a
etc) and third variable contains fluid property (e.g.
mass density, ; weight density, w, dynamic viscosity,
etc).
179) Explain the conditions that warrant model investigations
i) Analytical or theoretical treatment of the problem is
almost impossible, eg., river training works, harbour
design, three-dimensional boundary layers
ii) Mathematical analysis is possible but tedious and model
observations offer swift and economic solutions, eg.,
seepage flow phenomenon, ship design, energy
dissipaters
iii) From the viewpoints of either safety or cost, the
structure is so important that is desirable to physically
verify even well-established theoretical solutions, eg
spillway gates, aircraft design, turbo-machines.
180) List out the objectives of model studies
i) to provide visual demonstration of the flow
pattern
ii) to verify the accuracy of theoretical designs
and concepts
iii) to serve as the principal design tool in cases
where established procedures are not
available.
181) The pattern of stream lines in two flow systems are similar.
What is the nature of similarity between the two systems?
Kinematic similarity
182) Define geometric similarity
Geometric similarity is the similarity of form or shape. Two
systems the model and prototype-are said to be geometrically
similar if the ratios of all corresponding linear dimensions of the
systems are equal.
183) Define kinematic similarity
Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion. Geometric
similarity is the pre-condition of kinematic similarity. Two
systems are considered to be kinematically similar if they are
geometrically similar and the ratios of components of velocity at
all homologous (corresponding) points are equal.
184) Define dynamic similarity
Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces. Two systems are
said to be dynamically similar when they are geometrically and
kinematically similar and the ratios of all homologous forces in
the two systems are the same.
185) Define prototype
Actual structure is called as prototype
186) What is the nature of similarity that has to be obtained in
dynamic similarity between two systems?
Similarity between forces at homologous points
187) It is virtually impossible to achieve true dynamic similarity
in the designs of models. Comment
Yes. Dynamic similarity requires that the ratio of reactive forces
or inertia forces to the sum of all active forces, viz., gravity,
viscous, elastic, surface tension and pressure forces in one
system be equal at homologous points of the second system. It
is found that it is impossible to achieve this condition in
practice. An accepted compromise is to identify the most
important type of active force present in the two systems and to
treat it as the representative of all active forces. For example,
Where l refers to a characteristic length, say diameter of a pipe,
or chord of an aerofoil. Reynolds number will be considered the
only for dynamic similarity if the viscous forces predominate
over others such as gravity and elastic; for example in the
following situations:
(a) incompressible flow through pipes and
venturimeters
(b) low velocity flow around aeroplanes
and submarines
(c) flow around structures and bodies and
(d) flow through low speed rotodynamic
machines
189) Define and derive expression for Froude number. Mention a
few examples of flow models in which it is used.
inertia force 2
1

gravity force is the dominant active force in all free surface flow Fe
gravity force


problems. If a model is assumed as system (1) and the prototype Gravity force = mass x acceleration due to gravity = l 3 g
as system (2), dynamic similarity for all practical purposes is
And inertia force = l 2U 2
( Fi ) m ( Fi ) p
considered to have been achieved if . When l 2U 2 U
( Fg ) m ( Fg ) p Fr
l 3 g lg
appropriate variables are substituted for inertial and gravity
forces of the above equation, the ultimate result is the condition Froude number alone dictates the dynamic similarity of flow in
of equality of Froude numbers of model and proto-type. Besides case the forces other than gravitational are negligible such as in
the dominant force, other types of forces too exercise their (a) flow in open channels
varying degrees of influence in all problems. In hydraulic (b) flow of liquid jets from orifices
models, dynamic similarity may therefore be considered to have (c) surface wave motion created by ships
been achieved only partially. 190) Define and derive expression for Euler number. Mention a
188) Define and derive expression for Reynolds number. few examples of flow models in which it is used.
pressure force
Mention a few examples of flow models in which it is used. E
inertia force
inertia force
Re Pressure force = pressure x area = pl 2
viscous force
U l 2Ul And inertia force = l 2U 2
Inertia force = mass x acceleration = l 3 l 2U 2 pl 2 p
t t E
l 2 U l U
2 2
U 2
And viscous force = area x shear stress = lU p
l This is also expressed alternatively as E U 2
l 2U 2 Ul
Hence, Re
Where p = pressure variation in the flow
lU
 E.g. (a) flow through pipes 194) What are the advantages of distorted model?
(b) flow through penstocks leading water to hydraulic turbines (i) Water depths and wave heights can be measured
and conveniently
(c) flow over submerged bodies (ii) Bed slope is steeper than the prototype slope. This ensures
191) Define and derive expression for Mach number. Mention a higher velocities even in smaller models which is a desirable
few examples of flow models in which it is used. consequence.
1
inertia force 2 (iii) Adequate shear stress is generated to produce the required
E
elastic force
sediment transport in small models.

Elastic force = El 2 c 2l 2 195) What are the disadvantages of distorted model?
(i) Pressure and velocity distributions in the model and
Where c = speed of sound in the fluid
prototype are no longer similar.
l 2U 2 U speed of fluid
M
2 2
(ii) Larger than true water depths distort the wave shape from
c l c speed of sound what it should be.
Mach number effects are considered only when M exceeds 0.4 (iii) Side slopes of canals become too steep and cannot be made
and when it is only factors affecting the motion in with erodible materials if required.
a) transonic flow when M ranges between 0.9 to 1.1 196) What is scale effect in hydraulic model analysis?
b) supersonic flow when 1 < M < 7 Scale effect is the discrepancy caused by unaccounted
c) hypersonic flow when M >7 influences in extrapolating model results to interpret prototype
192) Define and derive expression for Weber number. Mention a performance. It is mainly due to the inability to achieve perfect
few examples of flow models in which it is used. dynamic similarity between the model and its prototype. In all
W
inertia force hydraulic model analyses, any one most dominant active force
surface tension force such as the force of elastic compression for example, is
The surface tension force is expressible as l considered while all other forces like gravity, viscous, surface
l 2U 2 lU 2 tension and pressure forces are ignored. This is done to get a
M
reasonably good solution which otherwise is intractable.
l
197) In laminar flow between parallel plates, why is the velocity
Some cases where the Weber number assumes importance are:
maximum at the point of zero shear stress?
a) capillary tube flows
du
b) human blood flow studies and u is maximum where du/dy is zero. In laminar flow, dy .
c) thin sheet flows
193) What is meant by distorted model? When du/dy is zero, shear stress is zero. Therefore, the point of
A model with different scale used for vertical and horizontal maximum velocity corresponds to the location of zero shear
measurement is called as distorted model. Harbours and rivers stress.
normally have larger horizontal and vertical scale. If 198) What is meant by couette flow?
geometrically similar models of river and harbour structures Laminar flow between parallel plates when one plate is
have to be accommodated in a reasonable space available in stationary and another plate is moving with a uniform velocity
laboratories, the water depth in such models becomes too small always keeping their separation distance constant, is known as
for precise measurement besides unduly blowing up the surface coutte flow.
tension effects which do not exist in the prototype. 199) What is meant by Poiseulle flow?
 Laminar flow between two stationary parallel boundaries under
a constant pressure gradient
200) What is meant by Hagen-Poiseulle flow?
Laminar flow through a straight tube of uniform circular section
under a constant pressure gradient.
201) What is the essential condition for flow being laminar?
The flow is laminar when one or more of the following
conditions occur:
a) viscosity is very high
b) velocity is very low
c) The passage is very narrow
202) Even if the boundary conditions in a pipe are very rough, it
is impossible to have turbulent flow if the Reynolds number
is less than 2000. Is this true?
True. If Re is below 2000, the viscous effects are strong enough
to dampen any turbulent eddies that the boundary roughness is
likely to generate. Consequently, the flow remains laminar in
character.
203) What is meant by the terms: piezometric head and
friction slope?
Piezometric head at any point of a flow system is the sum of (i)
the elevation head of the point above the given datum and (ii)
the pressure head of fluid at that point.
Friction slope between any two sections of a pipe is the ratio of
loss of head due to friction to the length of pipe between the two
sections.
204) Is it always necessary that H.G.L. be above the pipe axis?
Can it not intersect the pipe axis or lie below the pipe axis?
HGL need not always be above the pipe axis. If the pressure at
the point is equal to atmospheric pressure, the HGL at that point
lies on the pipe axis. If the pressure is below atmospheric
pressure, HGL goes below the pipe axis.
205) What is minor loss in pipe flows? Under what conditions
does a minor loss become a major loss?
Minor loss is the loss of head due to a local disturbance in pipe
flow. It is the result of eddy currents created in the flow
whenever the velocity changes in magnitude or direction. In
long pipes, minor losses are insignificant in magnitude
compared to the friction loss which is justifiably treated as the
major loss. If the pipe is short, minor losses may become the
major component of the head loss.
206) What precisely is the advantage gained by making
enlargements and contractions in pipes gradual instead of
their being abrupt?
By using gradual enlargements and contractions in pipe lines,
the loss of head can be reduced considerably compared to pipes
with abrupt changes of section. For instance, a gradual
enlargement with a cone angle of 60o gives 0.14 times the head
loss of sudden enlargement. This is an important advantage in
short pipes where minor losses play a significant role.
207) By having rounded pipe entrance and exit instead of sharp-
edged entrance and exit, is it possible to reduce the
respective losses of head?
Considerable advantage is gained by rounding the entrance
because the formation of vena-contracta can be avoided
altogether. Consequently, the head loss is reduced. No similar
gain is obtained by rounding pipe exist. The entire velocity head
in the pipe is lost whether its exit section is sharp or rounded.
208) What conclusion can be drawn from the curves in Moodys
chart with regard to the friction factor of rough pipes at
high Reynolds numbers?
The curves are found to be horizontal at high values of Re. Thus,
friction factor becomes independent of Re at high values of Re. It
depends only on the relative roughness k/D.
209) Two reservoirs are connected by a siphon. Vaporization of
water is found to take place at the summit of the siphon.
What measures have to be taken to remedy this undesirable
situation?
(i) Lowering the level of the summit
(ii) using a pipe of larger diameter to minimize hf
(iii) using a smoother pipe to reduce hf and
(v) installing a pump between the inlet and summit of the
siphon to boost the pressure at summit
210) In a system of parallel pipes, the same hydraulic gradient is
valid for all the pipes. Is this true?
True.
211) When minor losses in a pipeline can be neglected? 217) A pipe line is said to be equivalent to another if, in
If L/D 1000, minor losses may be neglected as they are both,________________
relatively small in magnitude. Discharge and frictional head loss are the same
212) List out some usual minor losses encountered in the pipeline 218) Write down the Darcy-Weisbach formula for determination
problems? of friction loss in pipeline
a) loss due to expansion (sudden and gradual) fl v 2
hf .
b) loss due to contraction (sudden and gradual) d 2g
c) loss at pipe entrance hf = head loss due to friction
d) loss at pipe exit f = friction factor
e) loss due to pipe fittings such as bends, elbows, tees d = diameter of the pipe
and valves v = velocity of flow
213) What is meant by equivalent pipe of compound pipe g = acceleration due to friction
system? 219) Write the equation for loss of head through a circular pipe
The equivalent pipe of a compound pipe system may be defined for laminar flow
as a pipe of certain uniform diameter and of such length that it 32 VL
hl
gives the same total loss of head as the compound pipe system gD 2
while discharging the same rate of flow of fluid. Where dynamic viscosity
214) What is meant by fully developed flow? V velocity of flow
Flow through a confined passage is said to be fully developed if L length of the pipe
the velocity profile does not alter along the flow. Fully D diameter of the pipe
developed flows can occur only in constant area symmetrical mass density of a fluid
passages such as pipes, annuli and between parallel plates. It 220) Give the two equations to be solved when pipes are
may also be understood that a fully developed flow can be connected in series
laminar or turbulent depending upon the nature of the velocity H = hL1+hL2+..+hLn+vn2/2g
profile in accordance with Reynolds number of operation. Q1 = Q2=Q3=.Qn
215) What is meant by energy line diagram? 221) What is meant by entrance length?
The energy-line diagram for a pipe system is a longitudinal The length of the pipe required to achieve fully developed flow
display of the total head at all salient sections of the pipe. The is called entrance length.
energy line, therefore, represents the degradation of the energy 222) What is meant by viscous flow?
along the flow due to friction, minor losses, etc. as well as any 223) What is compound pipe?
additional input or output by means of pumps or turbines. The A series pipe connection or a compound pipe is one in which a
total head at a cross section consists of the pressure head p/g, number of pipes of different diameters, different lengths and
the velocity head u2/2g and the datum head z. different friction factors are connected in series with gradual or
216) What is meant by hydraulic gradient line? sudden changes of section.
Hydraulic gradient line is a display of the pressure and datum 224) Give the Reynolds number for laminar and turbulent flow
heads, piezometric head at all salient sections of a pipe line. The Re< 2000 Laminar flow
hydraulic gradient line, therefore, lies below the energy line by Re > 4000 Turbulent flow
a magnitude equal to the local velocity head v2/2g.
225) How the given flow is identified whether laminar or
turbulent?
Re< 2000 Laminar flow
Re > 4000 Turbulent flow
226) What is meant by commercial pipes?
The pipes actually used in practice is called commercial pipes
227) Define pipe flow
The flow in a pipe is termed pipe flow only when the fluid
completely fills the cross section and there is no free surface of
fluid.
228) How to find out the slope of energy gradient line?
The slope of energy gradient line (S) is given by S = hf/L
Where hf is the loss of head due to friction in metres of the fluid
and L is the length of pipe in metres.
229) What is meant by flow through a by-pass?
A by-pass is a small diameter pipe connected in parallel to the
main pipe. The ratio of the discharge in by-pass to the total
discharge is known as the by-pass co-efficient. The by-pass may
be used to determine the total discharge in the main pipe if the
by-pass co-efficient is known. Since the discharge in a by-pass
is small, it may be easily determined by means of a venturimeter
or any other meter.
230) What is meant by syphons?
When a pipe is laid in such a manner that a part of it is above
the hydraulic gradient line, it is called a siphon pipe, or simply a
syphon
231) What is meant by equivalent pipe length?
Equivalent pipe length is defined as the length of a straight pipe
which gives the frictional loss equal to that due to any other
cause. It is common practice to express the minor losses in
terms of the length of pipe which would cause the loss of head
due to friction equal to the minor losses.
232) Write Dupuits equation for equivalent length of pipe
diameter De.
l l l result in harmful water hammer pressures in the penstock or the
Le De2 15 25 .... n5
d1 d 2 dn
233) When water flows over a series of curved vanes, the energy
transferred by the water to the vanes is maximum when the
velocity of whirl at exit of vanes is zero or negative. Is this
true?
True, because power developed P =Q(Vwu-Kw1u1). If Kw1 = 0 or
negative, P is maximum.
234) Give the name of one radial outward flow type reaction
turbine
Fournyron
235) What is the principal drawback of a hydraulic turbine?
It requires an assured water supply. It has to be shut down if the
head or discharge fall below the respective ranges.
236) Why cannot reaction turbines be operated by impact of jet
on vanes like impulse turbines?
Reaction turbines are medium and low head turbines. These
heads are not adequate to generate a reasonable jet velocity. It is
therefore more feasible to extract energy from whatever
pressure that is available in water.
237) What is the difference between the pressures of water at
inlet and outlet of a reaction turbine wheel called?
Reaction turbine
238) What is the primary objective of using more than one jet in
a Pelton wheel installation?
To develop greater power with the same wheel and under the
same head.
239) What component part of a Pelton wheel installation brings
the wheel quickly to rest when it is not required to work?
Brake nozzle
240) What is the chief function of a deflector in a Pelton wheel
installation?
To deflect a major part of the jet away from the wheel, the
moment the load on the wheel, i.e., power required to be
generated falls. The same purpose is also served by reducing the
nozzle flow striking the buckets of the wheel but this would
supply pipe.
241) Why do Pelton wheel buckets have a notch at the centre of
their outer periphery?
 To enable the bucket face attains as nearly a normal position as
possible wrt the jet when it receives the full impact of the jet.
242) The cross sectional area of a spiral casing of a reaction
turbine reduces in the direction of flow. What is the reason?
From the entry section to the end section of a spiral casing all
along its inner boundary, it continuously supplies water to the
turbine wheel. Hence, in the direction of flow through the
casing, the discharge progressively reduces. Consequently, its
cross-sectional area in that direction must decrease in order to
maintain uniform velocity around the wheel circumference.
243) Why is draft tube not used in impulse wheel installations?
(i) No advantage of installation in impulse turbine since the
impulse turbine jet and buckets operate under atmospheric
pressure
(ii) The impulse turbines generally operate under high heads (H)
and the level difference between the turbine and tailrace (hs)
need not be received using a draft tube. In case of reaction
turbines, the value of H is small and hs in comparison with
H cannot be ignored. Its recovery serves to augment the
effective head on the turbine.
244) Why do draft tubes have enlarging passage area in the
direction of flow?
In order to convert whatever kinetic energy that is available at
turbine exit into useful pressure. This can be readily tested by
installation suction pressure gauges at the turbine outlets: one
with a draft tube of uniform diameter and another with an
enlarging diameter. The negative pressure be indicated by the
gauge in the second case will be more than the reading in the
first case. The conclusion is that the effective head on the
second turbine is more than that on the first turbine.
245) The B/D ratio (inlet width to diameter ratio) of a Francis
turbine increases with Ns. Substantiate the reason.
N P
As Ns increases, H decreases because N s 5 . In order to
H4
develop a reasonable amount of power, the discharge must
therefore increase. The inlet width should be relatively large to
accommodate the larger discharge.
246) In all modern reaction turbines, the velocity of whirl at exit
is zero so that the velocity of flow is equal to the actual
velocity vector at turbine exit. Why is this so? Under what
conditions will the exit velocity have a whirl component?
All Francis turbines are invariably of the mixed flow type with
purely axial flow to exit. The same is the case with Kaplan
turbines which are essentially axial flow turbines. Hence, there
is no scope of whirl or radial (normal to axis of shaft)
components of velocity to be present at exit. The exceptions are
very low specific speed Francis turbine in which a small radial
or whirl component of velocity is likely to be present at the
turbine exit.
247) What is the purpose of constructing the main characteristic
curves of hydraulic turbine against variable speed?
Primarily for estimating the appropriate speed of the machine
for an optimum condition such as maximum efficiency is not
the same as the speed that gives maximum power.
248) Whatever be the discharge supplied to hydraulic turbine,
will it develop maximum power (corresponding to that
discharge) when is its operated to yield maximum
efficiency?
Only, in the case of a Pelton wheel. In the case of reaction
turbines, the speed that gives maximum efficiency is not the
same as the speed that gives maximum power.
249) For preparing the operating characteristic curves of
hydraulic turbines, the speed and head are maintained
constant. Why cannot the discharge also be kept constant?
The operating characteristic curves are curves of efficiency
against load or output power. The constituents of power are Q
and H. Because H has to be kept constant, Q must be varied in
order to obtain different powers.
250) Mention three to four most striking characteristics of Pelton
wheel
(a) High heads (100 to 2000 m) and low
discharge (0.1 to 2 m3/s)
(b) Small runner (D=0.5 to 2m) and high
speeds (N=200 to 800 rpm)
 (c) Requires a nozzle to convert available 255) With reference to hydraulic turbines, define overall
hydraulic energy into kinetic energy efficiency
(d) Only two or three buckets of runner overall
net shaft power output
mech x hyd x vol
receive the jet impact at any instant net available power
251) Mention three to four most striking characteristics of 256) With reference to hydraulic turbines, define hydraulic
Francis turbine efficiency
(a) Medium head (50 m to 350 m) and medium flows (0.5 to 5 hyd
water power developed by runner
m3/s) Net available power for turbine
(b) Medium sized runner (D = 1 to 5m) and medium speeds 257) With reference to hydraulic turbines, define mechanical
(N=100 to 400 rpm) efficiency
(c) Requires a spiral casing and guide vanes to supply water Net shaft power output
mech
to the runner and a draft tube to recover the energy at Water power development by runner
turbine exit 258) With reference to hydraulic turbines, define volumetric
(d) Entire runner wheel receives water simultaneously efficiency
252) Mention three to four most striking characteristics of Useful runner disch arg e
vol
Kaplan turbine Supply disch arg e
(a) low heads (5 to 50 m) and large flows (5 to 200 m3/s) 259) List out losses that take place in the penstock of hydraulic
(b) large runner diameters (D=5 to 50 m) and low speeds turbine
(N=20 to 200 rpm) Inlet loss, friction loss through penstock
(c) requires a spiral casing and guide vanes to supply water to 260) List out the hydraulic losses that take place in the hydraulic
the runner and a draft tube to recover the energy at turbine turbine
exit. Fluid friction, turbulence, shock-in-vanes, draft tube and
(d) entire runner wheel receives water simultaneously leakage
253) List out the advantages of a hydraulic turbine compared to 261) List out the mechanical losses that take place in the
other prime movers used in large scale development of hydraulic turbine
power Disk friction, bearing, Glands and Windage
a) it is simpler in design and fabrication 262) What is a draft tube? What hydraulic actions are performed
b) it is the most efficient in performance by it in a reaction turbine?
c) it is easily amenable for automation The draft tube is a closed conduit which takes the water coming
d) it is an ideal standby unit because it can develop full out from the runner exit and discharges it to the tail race. Its
load almost instantaneously cross-section increases in the direction of flow in order to
e) it has longer life span reduce the velocity at the exit of the tube. The draft tube is
f) it can be easily integrated with thermal and nuclear submerged below the lowest tail race level at its exit.
power generation units 263) Define the term gross head
254) What is a tailrace? The gross head of an impulse turbine is the elevation difference
It disposes all the water discharged from the turbines into the between head water level (reservoir water level or head race
parent river or into another canal or fore bay in case further water level) and the jet or nozzle centre.in case of a reaction
power development is possible.
 turbine, gross head is the difference between head race and P
Pu
tailrace water levels. 3

264) Define the term net head H2

The net or effective head is the head of water available at the
point of entry to the turbine. The difference between the gross
head and net head is evidently equal to the loss of head due to
friction and other causes in the conveyance system.
265) What are the functions of draft tube?
(i) it permits the turbine to be set at a convenient height above
the tail water level on the turbine. This is because a partial
vacuum is created at the top of the draft tube to compensate for
the height of turbine setting Hs.
(ii) its progressively diverging passage reconverts a large part of
the kinetic energy of water that leaves the runner exit into useful
pressure energy which can be clearly witnessed by a higher
negative pressure at the turbine exit that would otherwise have
not been possible. This increases the effective head on the
turbine.
266) How the flow is controlled in Pelton wheel, Francis and
Kaplan turbines?
Pelton wheel spear valve
Francis turbine wicket valve
Kaplan turbine wicket gates and runner blades
267) How the pressure is controlled in Pelton wheel, Francis and
Kaplan turbines?
Pelton wheel deflector
Francis turbine relief valve
Kaplan turbine relief valve
268) Define unit speed of a turbine
The unit speed of a turbine is defined as the speed that it would
attain under a head of one metre.
N Radial flow turbines: ex:
Nu
H Outward Fourneyron
269) Define unit power of a turbine
Unit power is the power developed by a turbine when the head
is 1 m
270) Define unit discharge of a turbine
Unit discharge of turbine is the rate of flow that a turbine would
consume under a head of 1 m.
Q
Qu
H
271) Define speed ratio
The speed ratio is the ratio of the velocity (u) of the wheel at
pitch circle to the theoretical velocity of the jet. Thus
u
in practice, the value of the speed ratio varies from
2 gH
0.43 to 0.47. Its average value is 0.45.
272) Define flow ratio
Flow ratio is the ratio of the velocity of flow at the inlet to the
theoretical jet velocity. Thus
Vf
.
2 gH
The value of ranges from 0.15 to 0.30
273) Classify the hydraulic turbine according to the name of
originator
Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, Fourneyron and Poncelot
274) Classify the hydraulic turbine according to the hydraulic
principle adopted in the energy conversion
Impulse turbines: ex. Pelton, Turgo, Girand and Banki turbines
Reaction turbines: ex.Francis, Fourneyron, Kaplan and propeller
275) Classify the hydraulic turbine according to the direction of
flow in runner
Tangential flow turbines: ex: Pelton
Inward Francis turbines of older design
Axial flow turbines: ex: Kaplan, propeller
Mixed flow turbines: Ex: Modern Francis turbine
276) Classify the hydraulic turbine according to the disposition of
turbine shaft
 Horizontal shaft turbines: ex: light weight turbines like Pelton (c) collapse of the vapour/gas cavities when subjected to high
wheel and Turgo pressure and
Vertical shaft turbines: ex: Heavy turbines like Kaplan and (d) release of energy and pressure wave of high intensity
Francis resulting in
277) Classify the hydraulic turbine according to the specific (i) pitting and erosion of metal surfaces
speed (ii) noise and vibration of the machine
Low specific speed turbines: Ex: Single-jet Pelton wheel (Ns = (iii) energy loss and drop in efficiency
10 to 35), 283) List out the different measures that are usually adopted to
Multi-jet Pelton turbine (Ns = 35-60) combat the effects of cavitation
Medium specific speed turbines: Ex: Slow Francis (Ns =60 to (i) The height of location of turbines above the tail water level
120), Medium Francis (Ns=120 to 180) and Fast Francis should be low enough to ensure that the Thoma cavitation
(Ns=180 to 200) number of the installation is well above the critical number
High specific speed turbines: Ex: Kaplan and propeller (N s = cr.
200 to 1000) (ii) the runner vanes of the turbo-machine should be carefully
278) What are the purposes of unit quantities of hydraulic streamlined so that the pressure at all points, especially at the
turbine? locations of high velocity is more than the vapour pressure.
(i) comparative evaluation of the operational characteristics of (iii) the vane surfaces should be given a high degree of polish. It
different machines working under different conditions of speed, is advisable to use materials like stainless steel which retain the
head, power and discharge polish well.
(ii) prediction of performance of given machine under any head (iv) Wherever possible, ductile materials should be used as they
from a knowledge of its action under on head. are more fatigue-resistant than brittle materials. Use of special
279) Write down the factors governing in the selection of a cavitation resistant coatings in areas prone to cavitation also
hydraulic turbines yield good results.
Specific speed, head, rotational speed, operational requirements (v) Injection of high pressure air into the flowing liquid at low
and efficiency, cavitation, disposition of turbine shaft, overall pressure zones using miniature nozzles can prevent the onset of
economy and number of units cavitation.
280) What are the different shapes of draft tube? 284) Define Thomas cavitation index
a) straight conical tube H atm H vap H s
b) Moodys hydracone , where Hatm = local atmospheric pressure
H
c) elbow type head; Hvap= absolute pressure head at which the liquid begins to
281) What is meant by cavitation? vaporize; Hs= height of turbine above the lower liquid surface
Cavitation is defined as the formulation of bubbles and vapour (tail water level), H=effective head on the turbine
filled cavities in a flowing fluid as a result of reduction in fluid
pressure. 285) Define specific speed
282) Explain the phenomenon of cavitation in hydraulic turbine The specific speed of turbine may be defined as the speed in
(a) vaporization of the liquid and/or release of dissolved air at revolutions per minute of a turbine geometrically similar to the
low pressure actual turbine but of such a size that under corresponding
(b) movement of the vapour/gas into a high pressure region conditions it will develop 1kW under a unit head
 - Reciprocating pump
N P *Piston pump
Ns 5 where N speed in rpm; P power in kW and H *Plunger pump
H4 Single acting pump: single, Double, Triple
head over the turbine cylinder pump
286) What are the uses of unit quantities in assessing the Double acting pump: Signle, double, triple
performance of the turbine? cylinder pump
(i) comparative evaluation of the operational characteristics of *Bucket pump
different machines working under different conditions of speed, - Rotary pump
head, power and discharge and * Gear pump
(ii) prediction of performance of given machine under any head * Vane pump
from a knowledge of its action under one head. * Screw pump
287) What is meant by performance characteristic curves? * Axial pump
A turbine is designed to work at one particular set of conditions * Radial pump
regarding head (H), discharge (Q), speed (N) and efficiency (). 290) How are centrifugal pumps classified?
However, sometimes the turbines may be required to run at a) according to casing design
conditions different from those for which these have been volute pump and diffuse or turbine pump
designed. The behaviour of turbines under varying conditions of b) according to number of impellers
H, Q, P N and may be studied by carrying out tests on the single (impeller) stage and multistage (impeller) pump
actual turbines or their models. c) according to number of entrances to impeller
The results of the tests are plotted in the form of curves. These single suction pump and double suction pump
curves are known as characteristic curves. The characteristic d) according to liquid handled
curves are usually plotted in terms of unit quantities. shrouded impeller, semi-open impeller pump, open
288) What are the commonly plotted curves for stuying the impeller pump both crown and base shrouds are absent
performance of turbine? e) according to disposition of shaft
(i) Variable speed curves or main characteristics vertical shaft pump and horizontal shaft pump
(ii) Constant speed curves or operating characteristics f) according to specific speed
(iii) Constant efficiency curves or Muschel characteristics low specific speed or radial flow impeller pump
289) Give a complete classification of pumps medium specific speed or mixed flow impeller pump
# Rotodynamic or turbo-pumps high specific speed or axial flow type or propeller
- radial flow or centrifugal pumps pump
* volute pump 291) List out all the losses that occur in a centrifugal pump
* turbine pump i) Mechanical losses
^ single stage (a) disc friction loss
^ multi stage (b) loss due to mechanical friction in glands and bearings
- axial flow or propeller pumps ii) Hydraulic losses
- semi-axial flow or mixed flow pumps (a) pipeline losses (friction loss + minor losses) and
# Postive displacement pumps (b) pump losses
 The following four are the pump losses 297) Distinguish between rotodynamic, turbo, and centrifugal
(a) shock loss due to turbulence at entry and exit of vanes at pumps
flows other than the discharge Turbo-pump is another name of rotodynamic pump. A turbo-
(b) surface friction loss in impeller passages pump in which the flow through the impeller is completely
(c) friction and eddy losses in diffusers and casing radial is called a centrifugal pump.
(d) pressure loss due to leakage from outer periphery to eye of 298) What is a positive displacement pump? How does it differ
impeller from a turbo-pump in its basic principle of operation?
In a positive displacement pump, the moving element of the
292) Define manometric efficiency pump pushes the fluid from one side to another by a rotary or
It is the ratio of the water power to the impeller power is known reciprocating action. In a turbo-pump, energy transfer from the
as the manometric efficiency machine to the fluid takes place by forcing the fluid through the
Hm curved passages of the rotor. There is no pushing action.
mano 299) What is the difference between a rotodynamic and a rotary
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A rotodynamic pump is a turbo-machine. It increases the energy
293) Define mechanical efficiency of the pump
of fluid as the latter flows through its rotating element. A rotary
The ratio of the impeller power to the shaft power is called the
pump is a positive displacement pump. There is a rotating
mechanical efficiency
element in this machine too, but it pushes the fluid instead of
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g 300) What are the functions of (i) strainer and (ii) foot valve in
m
P any pump installation?
294) Define volumetric efficiency of the pump (i) Strainer: to ward off suspended matter and floating debris
It is the ratio of the discharge from the pump (Q) to the from entering the pump system.
discharge flowing through the impeller (Q+Q). The difference (ii) Foot Valve: to allow entry of liquid into the suction pipe but
between the two discharges is because of leakage. Thus prevents its outflow back into the sump. This facilitates the
Q suction pipe and pump to be full of liquid even when the pump
v
Q Q is not in operation. Consequently, the pump can be restarted
295) Define overall efficiency of the pump whenever required without priming or filling up process, a
It is the ratio of the water power to shaft power necessary initial step in starting all turbo-pumps.
WH m 301) Identify the two important functions of the volute casing of a
o
P centrifugal pump
296) Write a short note on the priming of centrifugal pumps (i) to collect the fluid thrown out of the periphery of impeller
The centrifugal head generated in a centrifugal pump is and guide it to the delivery pipe and (ii) to convert a part of the
proportional to the specific weight of the fluid which fills the high kinetic energy of fluid at the impeller outlet into pressure
passage, obviously, an impeller running in air, would produce as the fluid flows through its progressively increasing cross-
only a small head. The first step in the operation of a centrifugal sectional area.
pump is to fill the pump with the liquid to be pumped. This 302) Why centrifugal pump impeller vanes are backward
process is called priming of the pump. curved?
 The impeller vanes are backward curved in order to reduce its
exit velocity of fluid so that its kinetic energy is small and
pressure is high. Kinetic energy is necessary to the fluid on the
delivery side only to facilitate its build-up to the maximum
possible extent while delivering the required capacity should be
the chief objective of any pump design.
303) What is a pump turbine? Is it same as a turbine pump?
A pump turbine is essentially a Francis turbine with a specially 306)
designed mixed flow type runner which normally runs as a
turbine. It is used in pumped storage type of hydro-power 307)
plants. During off-peak periods of power generation, the
machine when given a rotation in the opposite direction can
pump the water up from the low level storage pond to the high
level reservoir. The later, as a consequence, can supply more
high pressure water during the peak periods. A turbine pump is a
pump provided with diffusers resemble the guide vanes of a
reaction turbine. The machine can never act as a turbine.
304) Distinguish between pumps connected in (i) series and (ii) 308)
parallel
(i) Series pumps discharge is the same is that of a single pump.
The head is increased. 309)
(ii) Parallel pumps: head remains constant, but discharge
multiplication is obtained.
305) What is the difference between radial flow type, mixed flow
type and axial flow type turbo-pumps?
Radial flow type impellers are suitable for discharging low rates 310)
of flow against high heads. Axial flow type impellers which are
really propeller blades attached to a hub are suitable for
handling large discharges against relatively low heads. Mixed
flow type impellers are used for medium discharges and
medium heads. Fluid enters all the three impellers in an axial
direction (parallel to the axis of shaft). It undergoes directional
changes as it moves outwards through the impeller. At the
runner exit, there is considerable whirl in all the impellers. In
the case of a radial flow impeller, the exit velocity has a radial 311) What is meant by normal head and normal capacity of
component but no axial component whatsoever. The exit
velocity in an axial flow impeller has an axial component but
zero radial components. The exit velocity in case of a mixed
flow impeller has components in both radial and axial
directions. The geometry of the three impellers is also different
from one to another. A radial flow impeller has a narrow width
at outlet to pass low discharges. A mixed flow impeller has a
larger outlet width. In an axial flow impeller, the entire area
barring the hub area is available to pass the relatively large
flows.
What type of turbo-pump impeller is suitable if Ns = 4000?
Mixed flow type
Define specific speed of the pump
The specific speed is defined as the speed in rpm of a pump
geometrically similar to the actual pump, but of such a size that
under corresponding conditions, it delivers 1 m3 of liquid per
second against a head of 1 m.
N Q
Ns 3
H m4
What are the dimensions and units of the specific speed of a
pump?
Dimensions: L3/4T-3/2, units: m3/4s-3/2
The difference between the water levels in the sump and
overhead tank is H. What additional head should a pump
generate?
The additional head hf, the total head loss due to friction in the
suction and delivery pipes.
What is NPSH of a centrifugal pump? How is it related to
the cavitation index of the pump?
NPSH is the net head that is required to make the liquid flow
through the suction pipe from the sump to the impeller of the
centrifugal pump. It is calculated from the equation
Patm Pvap v2
NPSH hs h f s s . Cavitation index and
w w 2g
NPSH are related by NPSH = Hm.
a centrifugal pump?
When a centrifugal pump is operated at design speed, the
manometric head and discharge corresponding to maximum
 overall efficiency are respectively called the normal head and
normal capacity.
312) What are operating characteristics of a centrifugal pump?
Curves showing the variation of manometric head Vs discharge
and output power Vs discharge of a centrifugal pump when it is
being operated at the design speed are called operating
characteristics of the pump.
313) What is optimum specific speed? What are the values of
optimum specific speeds of radial, mixed and axial flow type
turbo-pumps?
The optimum Ns of a pump is the N s that corresponds to the
maximum overall efficiency. Optimum values of Ns are 2500 for
radial flow pumps, 4000 for mixed flow pumps and 8000 for
axial flow pumps.
314) The rate of flow fluid delivered by a centrifugal pump must
be reduced in order to obtain more head. Is this true?
True
315) If a centrifugal pump is delivering less quantity than the
design capacity, what are the possible reasons?
a) leakage of air into the suction system through a leaky
joint in the suction pipe or through a loose gland
packing on the suction side,
b) Damaged parts of the pump
c) Clogging of impeller passages
316) What is slip of a reciprocating pump? Why does it occur?
Under what circumstance is the slip negative?
Slip = Qth-Qa
Where Qth = theoretical discharge which is ALN/60 for a single
acting pump and 2ALN/60 for a double acting pump. Q a =
actual discharge. If the suction and delivery valves open and
close precisely at the beginning and end of the respective
strokes, slip is zero. In majority of installations, the suction pipe
is shorter than the delivery pipe. The relatively small inertia of
water on the suction side closes the suction valve before the
delivery valve opens. The latter opens a little sluggishly on
account of greater inertia. Consequently, the actual quantity
delivered Qa is less than Qth. In rare cases where the delivery
pipe is rather short, the smaller inertia of fluid pulls the delivery
valve open earlier than what it normally should. Qa in such cases
is more than Qth and the slip is negative.
317) Why acceleration head is zero at the middle of every stroke
of a reciprocating pump?
Near the middle of every stroke, the piston velocity is uniform
and its acceleration is zero.
318) Acceleration head of a reciprocating pump is considered
while computing the cylinder pressures but is ignored in
power computations. Why?
Acceleration of piston causes the fluid in the cylinder and the
pipes to accelerate and generates acceleration pressures and
heads in the fluid. In works and power computations,
acceleration heads are not considered because the positive half
of every stoke is cancelled by the negative acceleration head
generated during the second half or then retarding part of the
stroke.
319) What is meant by indicator diagram?
The indicator diagram is a diagram which shoes the pressure of
liquid in the cylinder of the pump corresponding to any position
of the piston during the suction and delivery stroke. The
ordinate of the diagram represents the pressure head and
abscissa represents the length of the stroke. The work done on
the piston may be obtained directly from the indicator diagram.
320) What is an air vessel? And explain its purpose
An air vessel is a closed chamber having an opening at the base.
One air vessel is connected to the suction pipe and another to
the delivery pipe. The vessels are connected to the pump as
close to it as possible. The lower part of each vessel contains the
liquid being pumped and the upper part contains the compressed
air.
The air vessels have the following purposes:
(i) in a single acting reciprocating pump, the liquid is delivered
only in the delivery stroke and during the suction stroke, no
liquid is delivered. The air vessels smooth out the flow in the
suction and delivery pipes and the flow is continuous beyond
the air vessels. Whatever fluctuations take place, they occur
between the air vessels and the pump.
 (ii) By fitting the air vessel as close to the pump as possible, the
length of pipe in which acceleration takes place is reduced. This
reduces the acceleration head and the pump can run at a much
higher speed without any danger of separation.
(iii) As the acceleration and frictional head are considerably
reduced, the work done is also reduced. Hence the power
required to drive the pump is saved by fitting the air vessel.
321) What is meant by Type Number?
The type number of a fluid machine is defined by a non-
dimensional combination of its speed or rotation, head across
the machine and the discharge or power for the machine under
the optimum operating conditions.
322) What is Euler head?
The head with the velocities across a rotodynamic machine of
any type
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