Eng.

Haitham Shehata Hussein

Before we talk about

we should present some

info about:

(Definition, Types, Shapes,

Applications, Test and
inspection,...)
 In its broadest context, welding is a process
in which materials of the same fundamental
type or class are brought together and caused
to join (and become one) through the formation
of primary (and, occasionally, secondary)
chemical bonds under the combined action of
heat and pressure (Messler, 1993).
Manual Metal . Electron Beam.

Tungsten Inert Gas . Brazing .

Submerged Arc . Soldering .

Gas Metal Arc . Electric Resistance .

Metal Inert Gas Friction Stir .

Resistance Spot . Fusion Bonding .

Flux-Cored Arc . Ultrasonic .

Laser Beam .
Materials Iron and steel, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel,
copper alloys

Applications Steel structures, industrial fabrication

Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory

Field operations
Suitable for indoor or outdoor use

Advantages Low equipment costs and wide applicability

Dominant process in repair and maintenance
Basically no thickness limitations
Can be used in almost any position
Limitations Applications are limited by welder skill
Potential safety issues if not monitored
Applications may require preheat
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration,
Types and cracks
Non-destructive VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
Testing Methods
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
* For surface discontinuities
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Stainless steel, non-ferrous
materials, aluminum, magnesium

Applications Aerospace and space vehicles, nuclear

applications, thin wall materials manufacturing
applications
Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory

Advantages Stronger, higher quality welds

Used with thin materials
Greater operator control over the weld
Highly resistant to corrosion and cracking

Limitations Cannot be used on lead or zinc Visual Testing...............................VT *

Economically not feasible for steel Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Slower production and difficult to master Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, lack of fusion, tungsten inclusions. Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Types
* For surface discontinuities
Non-destructive VT, PT, MT, RT, UT ** For subsurface discontinuities
Testing Methods *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel-based
alloys, low alloy steel, surfacing applications
(i.e. weld buildup)
Applications Structural and vessel construction, pipes

Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory

Suitable for indoor or outdoor use
Advantages High deposition rates deep weld penetration
Little edge preparation is needed
Single pass welds can be made with thick plates
Arc is always covered under a blanket of flux
Produces sound, uniform, and ductile welds
Limitations Limited to ferrous and some nickel based alloys
Limited positions and requires flux handling
Limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, inclusions, incomplete penetration,
Types and lack of fusion.
Non-destructive VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
Testing Methods
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
* For surface discontinuities
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Sheet metal, aluminum alloys

Applications Automotive, weld studs and nuts to metal,

weld screw machine parts to metal,
join cross wires and bars
Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory

Advantages Limits the areas of excessive heating

Energy controlled - more reliable welds
Allows closer spacing of welds
A production process can be completely
automated
Limitations Tends to harden the material
Reduce fatigue strength
Stretch or anneal the material
Cause the material to warp
Typical Discontinuities Cracks, porosity and expulsion
Types
Non-destructive VT, UT
Testing Methods
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
* For surface discontinuities
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Structural steel - aluminum sections stainless
steel and nickel alloys - some offshore
applications
Applications automotive, structural, ornamental

Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory - field applications

Advantages Versatility and speed

Adaptive to robotic automation

Limitations Limited to indoor use Visual Testing...............................VT *

Unusable underwater Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Weld quality can fluctuate Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Typical Discontinuities Dross and porosity, lack of fusion, excessive Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Types penetration, silica inclusions, cracking, undercut
* For surface discontinuities
Non-destructive RT, UT ** For subsurface discontinuities
Testing Methods *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Mild- and low-alloy steels, stainless steels,
some high nickel alloys

Applications Automotive, structural steels

Typical Location Factory - field applications

Advantages No shielding gas is required making it suitable

for outdoor welding and/or windy conditions
High-deposition rate process
Less precleaning of metal required
The weld metal is protected initially from
external factors until the flux is removed
Limitations When the electrode contacts the base metal, the Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
contact tip can melt fusing it to the base metal Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Irregular wire feed usually the result of a Radiographic Testing................RT**
mechanical problem Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
More costly filler material/wire than GMAW Eddy Current Testing.................ET***

Typical Discontinuities Porosity, lack of fusion, inclusions, incomplete * For surface discontinuities
Types penetration, hollow bead and cracks. Also, ** For subsurface discontinuities
overlap, weld spatter, underfill, and undercut. *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
Non-destructive VT, PT, MT, RT, UT used to supplement PT, MT
Testing Methods
Materials Carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum,
titanium

Applications Automotive, aerospace

Typical Location Factory

Advantages Versatile process - high quality yield

Used in high volume applications
Easily automated with robotics

Limitations Cracking with hi-carbon steels

Speed depends on type and thickness of
materials
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, cracks, lack of fusion
Types Also, humping and undercut
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***

Non-destructive * For surface discontinuities

VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
** For subsurface discontinuities
Testing Methods *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Stainless steel, super alloys, refractory metals

Applications Automotive, aerospace, semiconductor

Typical Location Manufacturing facility

Advantages Has a very small heat affected zone

Is used for dissimilar metal welds

Limitations Lack of penetration, lack of fusion, cracking

Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Typical Discontinuities Incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, cracks Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Types and porosity Eddy Current Testing.................ET***

Non-destructive * For surface discontinuities

VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
** For subsurface discontinuities
Testing Methods *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Copper, brass, bronze, aluminum and others

Applications Electrical, electronics, transportation,

appliances, and construction

Typical Location Manufacturing / field - indoors or outdoors

Advantages Easy to learn, virtually any dissimilar metal can be

joined, the bond line can be very neat in
appearance, and the joint strength is strong
enough for most non-heavy-duty use
applications.
Limitations A badly brazed joint can look similar to a good joint, and
can have a very low strength. The metal used to bond the Visual Testing...............................VT *
two parts may be different in color than the parts being Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
bonded. Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact Radiographic Testing................RT**
may need to be examined for special applications. Since the Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively low Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
temperature,
brazed parts should not be put in an environment * For surface discontinuities
which exceeds the melting point of the filler metal ** For subsurface discontinuities
Typical Discontinuities Lack of fill (unbond), porosity, cracks, and cold *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
Types bond used to supplement PT, MT

Non-destructive VT, PT, UT

Testing Methods
Materials Copper, silver, gold, iron, nickel

Applications Electronic components, pipe soldering,

aluminum, stained glass

Typical Location Manufacturing / field - indoors or outdoors

Advantages Soldering can be manual or automated

Formulated for maximum electrical conductivity

Limitations Soldering difficulty can increase when other

materials are involved
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Typical Discontinuities Cold solder joint, oxidation, cracks and voids Radiographic Testing................RT**
Types Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Non-destructive VT
Testing Methods * For surface discontinuities
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Steel

Applications Round / square tubing

Typical Location Manufacturing

Advantages High production - easy automation

Energy efficient
Typically stronger than the material itself
Very durable weld

Limitations Power source and material thickness must match

Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Typical Discontinuities Pin holes, cracks Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Types Eddy Current Testing.................ET***

Non-destructive VT,PT, RT * For surface discontinuities

Testing Methods ** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Materials Aluminum - copper

Applications Ship building and offshore - aerospace and

automotive - railway rolling stock - specialized
fabrication
Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory

Advantages Can be used on large pieces not post weld heat

treated
Used where metal characteristics must remain
unchanged
Low concentration of discontinuities
Can operate in all positions
Visual Testing...............................VT *
Minimum safety issues / low environment Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
impact Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Limitations Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Heavy duty clamping necessary Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Less flexible and often slower
* For surface discontinuities
Typical Discontinuities Cracks and lack of penetration, kissing bonds ** For subsurface discontinuities
Types *** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
Non-destructive UT, PT used to supplement PT, MT
Testing Methods
Materials Composites, stainless steels, alloys, ceramics

Applications Aerospace

Typical Location Manufacturing

Advantages Creates a bond by atomic attraction

Used with MEMS fabrication / silicon

Limitations Must be highly polished, clean surfaces

Low strength improved by thermal treatment Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Typical Discontinuities Laminations, lack of bonding Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Types Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Non-destructive UT Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Testing Methods
* For surface discontinuities
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
 The main topic that will be discussing
it later

Materials Composites, plastics, dissimilar materials

Applications Aerospace, automotive, medical, computer,

packaging

Typical Location Manufacturing

Advantages No other materials required in the process

Alternative to glue, screws or snap fit
Easily automated
Clean, precise joints
Used for electrical wire harness connections
Limitations Only used for small welds
Major limitation is material thickness Visual Testing...............................VT *
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Limited by the amount of power available Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Typical Discontinuities Radiographic Testing................RT**
Determine the presence of unbonds
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT**
Types Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Non-destructive VT
* For surface discontinuities
Testing Methods ** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT
Weld shapes or ( weld joints ) meaning the position
of two parts that can be found when we weld it
together .
There is five main types for joints that allow us to get
the all requirement engineering shapes.
1- Butt. 2- Lap. 3- Corner.
4- Edge. 3- T-joint.
Application Solutions:
Oil & Gas.
Power Generation.
Aerospace.
Automotive.
Rail.
Ship Building
 Oil & Gas

Power Generation
Aerospace

Automotive
 Rail

Ship Building
 is any flaw that compromises the usefulness
of a weldment.
According to the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), welding defect
causes are broken down as follows: 45 percent
poor process conditions, 32 percent operator
error, 12 percent wrong technique, 10 percent
incorrect consumables, and 5 percent bad weld
grooves.
Hydrogen embrittlement
is the process by which various metals, most importantly high-strength steel,
become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen.

Residual stresses
Are stresses that remain after the original cause of the stresses (external forces,
heat gradient) has been removed.
Heat from welding may cause localized expansion, which is taken up during
welding by either the molten metal or the placement of parts being welded. When the
finished weldment cools, some areas cool and contract more than others, leaving
residual stresses.
 The following figures give a rough survey about the
classification of welding defects to DIN 8524. This
standard does not classify existing welding defects
according to their origin but only to their
appearance.
Inspecting welds can reduce costs by detecting

discontinuities in the early stages of manufacturing, reducing

the cost of rework and extending the life of components by

detecting and correcting flaws. NDT methods can identify

cracking, porosity, incomplete

penetration, misalignment, inclusions, lack of fusion and

similar conditions, which can compromise weld strength.

Asset Life-Cycle Weld Inspection with Multi-Inspection
Solutions:
 Ultrasonic plastic welding is the joining or reforming
of thermoplastics through the use of heat generated
from high-frequency mechanical motion. It is
accomplished by converting high-frequency electrical
energy into high-frequency mechanical motion. That
mechanical motion, along with applied force, creates
frictional heat at the plastic components' mating
surfaces (joint area) so the plastic material will melt and
form a molecular bond between the parts.
 In 1960 Sonobond Ultrasonics, originally known as
Aerospace projects, Incorporated, developed the first
metal ultrasonic welding machine to be awarded a
United States Patent.
Practical application of ultrasonic welding for rigid
plastics was completed in the 1960s. At this point
only hard plastics could be welded.
The first application of this new technology was in
the toy industry.
 The first car made entirely out of plastic was
assembled using ultrasonic welding in 1969. The
automotive industry has used it regularly since the
1980s.
Ultrasonic welding can be used now for both hard
and soft plastics, such as semicrystalline plastics,
and metals.
Ultrasonic welding machines also have much more
power now. The understanding of ultrasonic welding
has increased with research and testing.
 Ultrasonic welding equipment
consists of :
1. a machine press.
2. Generator.
3. converter or transducer.
4. Booster.
5. sonotrode or horn.
6. component support tooling.
A schematic of an ultrasonic
welding machine is shown in Fig.1.
Fig.1. Schematic of ultrasonic welding machine
1-Generator
The generator converts electrical
power from the single-phase mains to
the correct frequency and voltage for the
transducer to convert into mechanical
vibrations. The microprocessor unit
controls the welding cycle and feeds
back key welding information to the
user, via the user interface. The user
interface also allows the operator to
enter the required welding parameters.
2-Machine press
The machine stand is designed
to hold the welding system or
stack and apply the force
necessary for welding. It consists
of a base-plate, to hold the
tooling jig, and a pneumatic
cylinder to apply the force.
3-Welding stack
This is the part of the machine
that provides the ultrasonic
mechanical vibrations. It is
generally a three-part unit
consisting of transducer, booster
and welding horn, mounted on the
welding press at the centre-point
of the booster section. The stack
is a tuned resonator, rather like a
musical instrument tuning fork. In
order to function, the resonant
frequency of the tuned welding
stack must closely match the
frequency of the electrical signal
from the generator (to within
30Hz).
4-Transducer
The transducer, also known as the
converter, converts the electrical energy
from the generator to the mechanical
vibrations used for the welding process.
Between each of the discs there is a thin
metal plate, which forms the electrode. As
the sinusoidal electrical signal is fed to the
transducer via the electrodes, the discs
expand and contract, producing an axial,
peak-to-peak movement of 15 to
20m.Transducers are delicate devices and
should be handled with care. Once the
elements are broken, the transducer will
not function.
5-Booster
The booster section of the welding
stack serves two purposes,
primarily to amplify the mechanical
vibrations produced at the tip of the
transducer and transfer them to the
welding horn. Its
secondary purpose is to provide a
location for mounting the stack on the
welding press.
The booster expands and contracts as Fig.2. Ultrasonic welding boosters
the transducer applies the ultrasonic
energy.
6-Welding horn
The welding horn is the element
of the welding stack that supplies
energy to the component being
welded. A typical welding horn is
shown in Fig.3. Design of the
welding horn is critical to
successful welding. It is strongly
recommended that welding horn
manufacture should only be carried
Fig.3. Ultrasonic welding Horn
out by companies specializing in
ultrasonic welding.
7-Support tooling
Finally, the base of the machine press supports
the tooling that supports the components during
the welding operation. The support tooling is
designed to prevent movement of the lower
component while the ultrasound is applied. It is
often machined to match the contours of the
component surface intimately.
Step 1 - Parts in fixture

The two thermoplastic parts to be

assembled are placed together, one
on top of the other, in a supportive
nest called a fixture.

Step 2 - Horn contact

A titanium or aluminum component

called a horn is brought into contact
with the upper plastic part.
Step 3 - Pressure applied

A controlled pressure is applied to the

parts, clamping them together against
the fixture.

Step 4 - Weld time

The horn is vibrated vertically 20,000 (20 kHz) or

40,000 (40 kHz) times per second, at distances
measured in thousandths of an inch (microns),
for a predetermined amount of time called weld
time. Through careful part design, this vibratory
mechanical energy is directed to limited points of
contact between the two parts . >>
 The mechanical vibrations are transmitted
through the thermoplastic materials to the joint
interface to create frictional heat. When the
temperature at the joint interface reaches the
melting point, plastic melts and flows, and the
vibration is stopped. This allows the melted
plastic to begin cooling.

Step 5- Hold time

The clamping force is maintained for a

predetermined amount of time to allow the parts
to fuse as the melted plastic cools and solidifies.
This is known as hold time. (Note: Improved joint
strength and hermeticity may be achieved by
applying a higher force during the hold time. This
is accomplished using dual pressure.)
Step 6- Horn retracts

Once the melted plastic has

solidified, the clamping force is
removed and the horn is retracted.
The two plastic parts are now joined
as if molded together and are
removed from the fixture as one part.
 Much faster than conventional adhesives or solvents.
The drying time is very quick.
The pieces do not need to remain in a jig for long periods of
time waiting for the joint to dry or cure.
The welding can easily be automated, making clean and
precise joints.
The site of the weld is very clean and rarely requires any
touch-up work.
The low thermal impact on the materials involved enables a
greater number of materials to be welded together.
The applications of ultrasonic welding are
extensive and are found in many industries
including
1- electrical and computer,
2- automotive and aerospace,
3- medical, and packaging.
Whether two items can be ultrasonically welded is
determined by their thickness.
Ultrasonic welding machines, like most industrial equipment, pose the
risk of some hazards. These include :
1. exposure to high heat levels and voltages.
2. This equipment should always be operated using the safety
guidelines provided by the manufacturer in order to avoid injury.
3. For instance, operators must never place hands or arms near the
welding tip when the machine is activated.
4. operators should be provided with hearing protection and safety
glasses.
5. Operators should be informed of the OSHA regulations for the
ultrasonic welding equipment and these regulations should be
enforced.
 In ultrasonic testing (UT), very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz and occasionally up to 50 MHz
are launched into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize
materials. A common example is ultrasonic thickness measurement,
which tests the thickness of the test object, for example, to monitor
pipework corrosion.
Ultrasonic testing is often performed on steel and other metals and
alloys, though it can also be used on concrete, wood and composites,
albeit with less resolution. It is a form of non-destructive testing used in
many industries including aerospace, automotive and other
transportation sectors.
In ultrasonic testing, an ultrasound transducer
connected to a diagnostic machine is passed over
the object being inspected. The transducer is
typically separated from the test object by a
couplant (such as oil) or by water, as in immersion
testing. However, when ultrasonic testing is
conducted with an Electromagnetic Acoustic
Transducer (EMAT) the use of couplant is not
required.
A probe sends a sound wave into a test
material. There are two indications, one
from the initial pulse of the probe, and
the second due to the back wall echo.
RIGHT: A defect creates a third
indication and simultaneously reduces
the amplitude of the back wall
indication. The depth of the defect is
determined by the ratio D/Ep
At a construction site, a technician tests
a pipeline weld for defects using an
ultrasonic phased array instrument. The
scanner, which consists of a frame with
magnetic wheels, holds the probe in
contact with the pipe by a spring. The
wet area is the ultrasonic couplant that
allows the sound to pass into the pipe
wall.