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FNCLENTR()
,1 UPl Edito:
Taleisnik, Samuel
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales - 1a
ed. - Crdoba: Encuentro Grupo Editor, 2006.
272 p. ; 25x17 cm.
ISBN 987-23022-7-8
Primera edicin
Impreso en Argentina
SBN: ISBN-lO: 987-2..'\022-7-8
rSBN-13: 978-987-23022-7-6
Quedo hecho el depsito que ruaren la ley 11.723
ed itorial brujas@arnet,com.ar
www.cditorialbrujas.corn.ar
Tel./fax: (0351) 4606044/4609261 - Pasaje Espaa N 1485
Crdoba - Argentina
Contenidos
,
CAPITULO 1. De la seal a la expresin gnica 1
l_1aea1~ -
1.2 Ligandos 1
1.3 Receptores 2
1.3.1 Unin de ligandos 3
1.3.2 Medicin de la afinidad 4
1.3.3 Agonistas y antagonistas 5
1.3.4 el asi ficaci IL ..::J.
1.411ansduac1ulln~due~s~e~liaul~es~ ~6
CAPTULO
14.Apoptosts 253
14.1 Caspasas 254
14.1.1 Estructura 254
14.1.2 Caractersticas enzimticas 255
14.1.3 Mecanismos de activacin 255
14.1.3.1 Activacin de caspasas iniciadoras 255
14.1.3.2 Activacin de caspasas efectoras 255
14.2 Activacinde la apoptosis 256
14.2.1 Receptores y ligandos activadores de caspasas 256
14.2.2 El receptor Fas 257
14.2.3 Sealizacin por TNFRl 258
14.2.4 Activacin de caspasas por citocromo c 259
14.3 Inhibidores de caspasas 260
14.3.1 Regulacin por Bcl-2 260
14.3.2 Inhibidores naturales 262
14.3.3 Inhibicin por fosforilacin 263
14.4 Vas de regulacinde la apoptosis 263
14.4.1 Vas a travs de receptores 263
14.4.2 Vas a travs de mitocondrias 264
14.5 Sustratosde las caspasas 265
14.6 Funcionesfisiolgicas 267
14.7 Apoptosisy enfermedadeshumanas 267
14.8 Apoptosisen Cielegans 268
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,
CAPITULO 1
1.1 Seales
El desarrollo y vida de los organismos eucariotes multice-
lulares representa un complejo intercambio de numerosos
eventos proliferativos y de diferenciacin. Para la coordina-
cin de estos eventos las clulas deben responder a seales
extracelulares, tanto del medio ambiente como del propio
organismo, con un conjunto especfico de mecanismos que
regulan la expresin de genes. Entre estos estmulos figuran
estmulos lumnicos, radiaciones ultravioleta, variaciones
osmticas, modificaciones mecnicas, etc. Entre la seal y
los genes se asocia un sistema de componentes celulares
para garantizar un exitoso proceso de transduccin de sea-
les. Adems, los organismos multicelulares han desarrollado
mecanismos de sealizacin que permiten la comunicacin
entre clulas para coordinar su comportamiento en beneficio
del organismo como conjunto. Esta comunicacin se realiza
por medio de numerosas molculas que son segregadas por
las clulas sealadoras y que se conocen como ligandos.
1.2 Ligandos
Son molculas que se unen a sitios especficos de las c-
lulas destinatarias por medio de protenas, llamadas recep-
tores. Diferentes molculas seales que incluyen protenas,
pequeos pptidos, aminocidos, nucletidos, esteroides, re-
tinoides, derivados de cidos grasos y an gases disueltos
como xido ntrico y anhidrido carbnico median la activa-
cin de las respuestas.
Las molculas seales, con las que las clulas se comuni-
can entre s, pueden actuar en la proximidad de las clulas
que las liberan, afectando slo a las clulas vecinas o a s
mismas, procesos conocidos como seales paracrinas y se-
ales autocrinas, respectivamente, o actuar en destinos a
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Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
3
De la seal a la expresin gnica
--
_,a:
-
0.5
IRI
O, L....,;p-~-~_--':--
Ko1 23"
Il] [LR]
Figura 1.1 Curvas de saturacin. A. concentracin del complejo ligando-receptor relativa a la con-
centracin de ligando libre. B. representacin de Scatchard.
4
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
5
De la seal a la expresin gnica
LIGANDO
~
Protenas G TRANSDUCTOR
AC, PLC, etc EFECTOR
AMP" C.>,~e. SEGUNDO MENSAJER
- ~- - ,~rel~
IT'""'AA.
EXPRESI&I GENICA
" '
Figura 1.2 Vas de transduccin de seales generadas por la unin del ligando a sus receptores.
6
,
CAPITULO 2
2. 1 Receptores
2. l. 1 Estructura La familia de receptores acoplados a
protenas G, independientemente de la naturaleza de sus li-
gandos, presenta caractersticas estructurales similares.
Extracelular
Membrana
Intracelular
COOH
Figura 2.1 Estructura de GPCR. Polipptido constituido por siete o-hces que atraviesan la
membrana de la clula
7
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
NH
Figura 2.2 Disposicin de tos dominios de transmembrana. Las siete a hlices se dispo-
nen en sentido contrario a las agujas del reloj.
8
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
9
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
A
-----_"
rF~~qA-ArF1f=r'1Aminas
L/GANDOS
r
bigenas. rodopsina
wo Pequeos pplidos (oxitocina
~ angiotensina. GnRH)
Hormonas glicoproteicas (LH, FSH)
Figura 2.3 Aspectos estructurales de las tres clases de GPCRs Las clases A, B. Y C mues-
tran los principales aspectos que las caracterizan y los ligandos que unen. Adaptado de Rana et
JO
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
lI
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
S
I
S
\
Figura 2.4 Unin de adrenalina al receptor p-adrenrgico. El ligando interacciona con las seri-
nas 204 y 207 de la hlice 5 y con el grupo aspartato de la hlice 3. Adaptado de Ostrowskl el al.
12
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
13
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
14
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
-
" pP rrr
,$/ P
-- Oe::lensibilizaciri liJo
Fosforilacin por GRK y unin de f3arrestina
Secues racin
Deosrornactrf
Figura 2.5 Proceso de desensibilizacin del receptor Il-adrenrgico. Los mecanismos impli-
cados incluyen fosforilacin del receptor. su secuestracin de la membrana plasmtica. y defos-
forilacin y reciclado a la superficie de la clula.
15
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
16
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
17
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
Figura 2.6 Protena G heterotrimrca acoplada a un receptor 7TM. La protena est compuesta
por las subunldades Cl, tl. y 1 ancladas a la membrana plasmtica. Adaptado de Spiegel et al.
18
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
19
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
20
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
-Arg-
1
eH..ll
Nicotinamida NH NHJ
~'N"'"
l\.i.H ci-
!O O O-PoO.cH
p
O fN_,)..".
N..L J Adenina
'1 J. N
'b
O' O' O
/.~, R'b
Rlosa ~ losa
OhOH O~OH
Figura 2.9 Nicolnamida adenina dinucleldo (NAO) requerida para transferir AOP-rlbosa a la
subunidad a. La flecha indica el sitio de separacin de nicotinamida
21
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
Activado
~ I/J P11~
Mgrx @ oop
17
~'----
J
l
22
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
23
Receptores acoplados a protenas G
24
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Bibliografa
Birnbaumer L, Codina J, Mattera R, et al. Regulation of hormone recep-
tors and adenylyl cyclases by guanine nucleotide binding N proteins. Re-
cent Prog HormRes 41: 41-95, 1985.
De Vries L, Zheng B, Fischer T, et al. The regulation of G protein signal-
ing family. Ann Rev Phamacol Toxicol40: 235-271,2000.
Ferguson SSG. Evolving concepts in G protein-coupled receptor endocy-
tosis: the role in receptor desensitization and signaling. Pharma.col Reu
53: 1-24,2001.
Gershengorn MC, Osman R. Minireview:Insights into G protein-coupled
receptor function using molecular models. Erulocrinology 142: 2-10,
2001.
Gether U. Uncovering molecular mechanisms involved in activation of G
protein-coupled receptors. Endocr Rev 21: 90-113, 2000.
Gilman AG. G proteins: transducers of receptor-generated signals. Ann
Rev Biochem 56: 615-649, 1987.
Hollinger S, Hepler JR. Cellular regulation of RGS proteins: modulators
and integrators of G ptotein signaling. Pharmacol Reu 54: 527-559,
2002.
Johson GL, Dhanasekaran N. The G-protein family and their interaction
with receptors. Endocr Reu 10: 317-331, 1989.
Kobilka B. Adrenergic receptors as models for G protein-coupled recep-
torso AnnRevNeurosc 15: 87-114,1992.
Receptoresacopladosa protenasG
Krupnick JG, Benovic JL. The role of receptor kinases and arrestins in G
protein-coupled receptor regulation , Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 38: 289-
319,1998.
Morris AJ, Craig CM. Physiological regulation of G protein-linked signal-
ing. PhysiolRev79: 1373-1430, 1999.
Ostrowski J, Kjelsberg MA, Caron MG, Lefkowitz RJ. Mutagenesis of the
J32-adrenergic receptor: how structure elucidates function. Ann Rev
Phamacol Toxico/32: 167-183, 1992.
Rana BK, Shiina T, Insel PA. Genetic variations and polymorphisms of G
protein-coupled receptors: functional and therapeutic implications. Ann
Rev Pharmacoi Toxicol 41: 593-624, 200 l.
Spiegel AQM, Backlund PS, Butrynski JE et al. The G protein connec-
tion: molecular basis ofmembrane association. TIBS 16: 338-341,1991.
Stryer L, Boume HR. G proteins: a family of signal transducers. Ann Rev
Cell Bio12: 391-419, 1986.
Wettschureck N, Offermanns S. Mammalian G proteins and their cell
type specific functions. Physiol Rev 85: 1159-1204, 2005.
26
,
CAPITULO 3
27
Sistemas mediados por el efector adenilato ciclasa
C1b C2b
Figura 3.1 Estructura de adenilato ciclasa. Los cuadros sealan sitios de unin: a, a (1" b, a CaM
(AC-I), e, a Pr (AC-II), d, a CaMK (AC-III). Adaptado de $unahara et al.
Figura 3.2 Estructura dimrica de los dominios C1 y C2 conteniendo los sitios cataliticos
de AC. La hendidura entre ambos dominios provee los sitios de unin a ATP y forskolna.
28
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
29
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CAPITULO 4
43
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Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Dominio de
unin
Dominio de
acoplamiento
Figura 4.5 Subunidad de receptor IP" Sitio
de unin de IP, en el dominio de unin y sitios
de unin de A TP Y de fosforilacin en el
Dominio de dominio de acoplamiento. Los segmentos de
transmembran,.;.:a'-i.,l-l)WH;H,.t-_ transmembrana 7 y 8 de las cuatro subunida-
des forman el canal.
47
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Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
A B
Subunidad Subunidad Subunidad
catalltica reguladora de asociacin
Holoenzima
.
Figura 4.9 Estructura de la CaMKII. A: estructura de una subunidad de la enzima. B: varias
subunidades se ensamblan para formar la holoenzima
enzima inactiva.
4.6.3 Activacin Para que la PKC sea activada necesita la
fosforilacin del dominio cataltico y la separacin del seu-
dosustrato del sitio activo. La PKC es sintetizada como un
precursor inactivo probablemente asociado al citoesqueleto.
En este estado el sitio cataltico es accesible a ATP pero la
enzima es cataliticamente incompetente. En el procesamien-
to posterior el dominio cataltico de la PKC es fosforilado,
posiblemente por accin de la quinasa PDK1. Esto es segui-
do por dos autofosforilaciones en el segmento C-terminal del
dominio cataltico, que para la PI(C011se hace en los resi-
duos treonina 641 y serina 660. La primera autofosforila-
cin estabilizara la conformacin, la segunda autofosforila-
cin libera la PKC al citosol y es ahora cataliticamente com-
petente pero todava inactiva debido a la yuxtaposicin del
seudosustrato con el dominio cataltico.
La unin de DAG al dominio C1 y de Ca2+ a C2 transloca
la enzima del citoplasma a la membrana. DAG tambin re-
duce los requerimientos de Ca2+ para la unin de fosfolpi-
dos al dominio C2 y produce un cambio conformacional en
el dominio cataltico por el cual el seudosustrato se des-
prende del sitio cataltico y el sistema se vuelve competente
y accesible a sustratos. La PKC es ahora activa.
Los steres de forbol activan la PKC por un mecanismo
similar al de DAG. Los steres de forbol interaccionan con
las isoenzimas de PKC en el mismo sitio que DAGunindose
a las regiones ricas en cistena. Son activadores ms poten-
tes y metabolicamente ms estables que DAG por lo que su
accin es ms prolongada. El compuesto ms utilizado es
PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate) tambin conocido
como TPA(tetradecanoyl phorbol acetate).
Diversos lpidos potencian el efecto de DAG y de Ca2+ o
activan directamente las PKCs. En particular, los lpidos
PI(3,4)P2y PI(3,4,5)P3 activan las nPKC y aPKC. Los cidos
grasos no saturados, araquidnico, lisofosfatdico y lisofos-
fatidilcolina incrementan la actividad de la PKC.
4.6.4 Compartimientalizacin Los anlisis inmunohis-
toqumicos sealan que determinadas isoformas de PKCs
estn presentes en diferentes clulas y compartimientos
59
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CAPITULO 5
63
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Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Unin de
Auto protelna
fosforilacin adaptadora
--
Proteina adaptadora
67
Receptores asociados a enzimas
68
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
69
Receptores asociados a enzimas
--+
~ PTP
RPTK
L J
~~t!~~
.... ~~.(: .l (),. 416
70
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
c-src]
5.2 La va Ras
La activacin de la protena Ras, unida al receptor activa-
do por medio de la protena adaptadora, se conoce como la
va Ras. La va Ras se inicia por la activacin de una serie de
eventos que ocurren en la cara citoplsmica de la membrana
plasmtica.
5.2.1 Las protenas Ras forman parte de una superfami-
lia de pequeas protenas G que unen e hidrolizan GTP. Las
protenas Ras son protenas monomricas, que a semejanza
de la protena Gse poseen actividad GTPasa intrnseca. Inter-
!,
71
Receptores asociados a enzimas
72
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
P, G~P~20
PTK
Figura 5.7 Ciclo de activacin-inactivacin de la protena Ras. Sos, activado por RPTKs
activados, es el RasGEF. Por su parte GAP es fosforilada por proteina tirosina quinasas con
lo que se activa.
73
Receptores asociados a enzimas
.
de Ras mejor caracterizado es la serina-treonina qumasa
Raf1 (Figura 5.8).
5.2.2 La protena c-Raf Ras se une a las protenas Raf
activando la cascada de quinasas MAP.Las protenas Raf in-
tegran una familia que comprenden a Raf-1, A-Raf, y B-Raf.
En las clulas en reposo Raf1 se encuentra en el citosol
en una conformacin inactiva estabilizada por la protena
14-3-3. Las protenas 14-3-3 son una familia que se expresa
ubicuamente y que produce un cambio conformacional de
Raf1 ocultando su actividad enzimtica y secuestrndola en
determinados compartimientos celulares. Raf1 contiene dos
sitios fosfoserina de alta afinidad, Ser-259 y Ser-621, que
median la unin a un dmero 14-3-3. El complejo Ras:GTP,
anclado a la membrana, recluta a Raf1:14-3-3 a la membra-
na induciendo un cambio en su conformacin y la defosfori-
lacin de la Ser-259. La liberacin de uno de los dos sitios
de unin de 14-3-3 a Raf1, por Ras activado, incrementa la
asociacin de Raf1 con la membrana y estimula su activi-
dad. Una vez que c-Raf ha sido localizado en la membrana
plasmtica Ras no es ms requerida.
La activacin de Raf tambin requiere Ksr, que puede ac-
tuar como una protena adaptadora para la formacin de un
complejo ms grande que contina la operacin despus
que Raf se disocia de Ras:GDP.
RPTK DAG
Grb2~SOSRaSGR
~/
Ras
74
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
5.3 La va RasjMAPK
La va Ras/MAP de transferencia de seales implica cas-
cadas de fosforilaciones mltiples de serina/treonina que
son de vida ms larga que las fosforilaciones de tirosina.
Los miembros de la familia Raf (Raf-1, A-Raf, y B-Ra) ac-
tivados fosforilan la quinasa MEK (MAPkinase-ERK kinase)
en residuos serina y treonina. En clulas no estimuladas
MEK se une a ERK1 y ERK2 retenindolas en el citoplasma
y evitando su acumulacin en el ncleo. En respuesta a es-
tmulos mitognicos que fosforilan y activan MEK, el com-
plejo MEK-ERKse disocia y MEKl activado fosforila resi-
duos tirosina y treonina de la quinasa MAPK/ERK(extrace-
lular regulated kinase), transformndola en una forma acti-
va (Figura 5.9).
La quinasa MAPen su forma inactiva no fosforilada, tiene
su sitio cataltico bloqueado por un segmento de aminoci-
dos, el labio de fosforilacin. La unin de MEK a la quinasa
MAPdesestabiliza la estructura del labio y produce la expo-
sicin de una tirosina que se encuentra oculta en la confor-
macin inactiva. Despus de la fosforilacin de esa tirosina,
MEK fosforila una treonina vecina. Los restos fosforilados de
tirosina y treonina de la quinasa MAPpermite la fijacin de
ATP al sitio cataltico y la formacin del sitio de unin de
protenas especficas para sustratos. La fosforilacin no slo
estimula la actividad cataltica de la quinasa MAPsino tam-
bin su dimerizacin (Figura 5.10).
5.3.1 Activacin de ERK por GPCRs La cascada de qui-
nasas MAPpueden activarse tambin por receptores acopla-
dos a protenas G tanto sensibles como insensibles a toxina
Figura 5.9 Regulacin de la activacin de MAPK. MEK retiene a ERK en el citoplasma y des-
pus de su activacin fosforila y activa a ERK que forma dmeros y puede Iranslocar al ncleo
75
Receptores asociados a enzimas
Grb2-Sos
!
Ras
!
Raf
!
MEK1MEK2
!
MAPKIERK
Figura 5.10 Componentes de la via RasMAP
~
76
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Receptor Receptor
muscarnico J3-a2ren ~ico
t PKA,
PKC~ ~IARK
Gaq GaiGa.-Gpr Arrestina-Src
t t
PLC Ras _._..-
t t
DAG Raf-1
t t
PKC
Figura 5.11 Activacin de ERK mediada por GPCRs. El grado de fosforilacin del receptor p-
adrenrgico, dependiente de la intensidad del estmulo, activa dstintas vas.
77
Receptoresasociadosa enzimas
Tir
! ---!
Rtf MEfK1 ----..
SerlTre MEK1-MEK2 SEK/rKK4~MKK6
TirlTre
MAP'1";RK JNl5lf~-.!:Jltt~~
SerlTre ElklSAP c-Jun ATF-2 MEF2-c
Figura 5.12 Vas de transcripcin de las isoformas de quinasas MAP. A derecha amino-
cidos fosforiladosa los distintos niveles.
78
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
79
Receptores asociados a enzimas
transitorios.
Un aspecto importante es que las vas de transduccin de
seales convergen y divergen permitiendo que respuestas di-
ferentes pero superponibles sean activadas en diferentes
circunstancias. En la va Ras-MAPK MEK es un punto de
convergencia que puede activarse por dos tipos de estmulos
en la superficie celular, actuando sobre receptores tirosina
quinasa o protenas G, produciendo funciones anlogas en
vas paralelas.
Otro ejemplo es dado por la activacin del factor de trans-
cripcin Jun en respuesta a la quinasa JNI( activada por
seales de stress o por estmulos que activan Ras.
La presencia de mltiples vas MAPK con componentes
anlogos es comn. Cada va funciona de una manera lineal
pero adems puede haber entrecruzamientos (crosstalk) en-
tre vas, cuando un componente de una va puede activar el
componente subsiguiente de otra o de su propia va. Por lo
general estas seales laterales son ms dbiles.
80
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
81
Receptores asociados a enzimas
82
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
83
Receptores asociados a enzimas
84
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
85
Receptores asociados a enzimas
~ /-r:
~
........ (ERK)
- -1-
- - --~- - - - - - --- - Figura 5.14 Interacciones entre ERK y la fosfatasa
MKp1
==~====ADN
86
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
87
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Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
5.8 Paradigma
La regulacin de la glucogenognesis y de la glucogenolisis ofrece
un buen ejemplo de la participacin de numerosos mecanismos des-
criptos en este captulo.
5.8.1 Regulacin de la glucogenolisis La adrenalina impulsa la
glucogenolisis. Actuando sobre receptores r3-adrenrgicos estimula la
AC y la formacin de AMPc y de PKA. PKAfosforila y activa la fosfori-
89
Receptores asociados a enzimas
90
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Glltcgenogllesi$
P~Kf-I;SUlina PGCR-Adrenalina
...
..
IRS-l Q
...
AktlPKB
~ +
GJIll-G..m2 PKA
+ q ~ ...
GSK-3fl ....... IGSK-3f~ FosfOrila! quinasa
91
Receptores asociados a enzimas
A B
DOMInio GS
(TTSO;~SC!..P)
S.odtu~.
FK8P12
Dominio
eMsilic:o
Figura 5.16 Receptores TGFfl. A. Estructura de los receptores tipo I y 11.B. Activacin del receptor.
La unin deTGFpl a TGF(l1l da lugar al desprendimiento de la protena inhibidora FKBP12 seguida
de fosforilacin del receptor tipo I por el receptor tipo 11activndolo.
92
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
93
Receptores asociados a enzimas
94
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
NOCU:O
Figura 5.18 Activacin de la transcripcin por receptores TGFjl. Smad 2 y 3 se unen al receptor
tipo I asociados a SARA. Una vez fosforilados se desprenden del receptor asocindose a Smad 4.
Juntos migran al ncleo y se unen por el dominio MH1 a ADN en el sitio SBE activando la trans-
cripcin. Por el dominio SH2 tambin se unen a colaclores.
95
Receptores asociados a enzimas
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,
CAPITULO 6
Receptores citoquinas
97
Receptores citoquinas
98
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
SlbJnldad 2
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unin aJak
99
Receptores citoquinas
100
Receptores celulares y la transduccin de seales
Figura 6.2 Va Jak-STAT. Cascada de eventos evocada por la interaccin del receptor citoqui-
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101
Receptores citoquinas
102
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