The science of rock strata

Stratigraphy is the center of geology.

Stratigraphy emphasizes the analysis and the study
of sedimentary strata that cover about 3/4th of the
Earths surface.
It provides the time component in geology and the
principles of stratigraphic correlation.
Stratigraphic correlation is necessary for developing
ancient environmental models and is also central to
building the geologic time scale.
What do we really want to know
about any sedimentary rock?
What information can be inferred
from each of the physical
characteristics?
Sedimentary Rocks are the
Principal Repository for
Information About the
Earths Past Environment
 Provides an introduction to stratigraphy and
explain its applications.

Giving ideas about basic principles and concepts

of stratigraphy; types of stratigraphy; methods of
correlation; stratigraphy and geological history.

Providing a brief review of the full range of

sedimentary facies and environments.
You should understand and know:
- Principles, concepts and fundamental information of stratigraphy,
- Different types of stratigraphy and the application of each type.

You should be able to:

- Integrate theoretical principles and concepts of stratigraphy and
practical data.
- Apply all information and knowledge to the solution of problem related to
stratigraphy.

You will have the ability to:

- Represent stratigraphic data in the form of geological maps, cross
section, stratigraphic column, etc.
- Solve problems regarding stratigraphic sequence and correlation, age
dating, paleogeography...
 Time table

Sedimentation

Stratigraphy
1. Introduction
2. Lithostratigraphy
3. Bio- & Chrono-stratigr.
4. Quiz
5. Correlation
6. Sedimentary facies &
environments
7. Sequence stratigraphy
 Sources & References

Boggs, S., 2006:

Principles of Sedimentology
and Stratigraphy,
4th ed., Pearson-Prentice Hall.
 Sources & References
North American Stratigraphic Code

- written by a committee of geologists referenced as:

North American Commission on Stratigraphic

Nomenclature (NACOSN, 1983)

published in the American Association of Petroleum

Geologists (AAPG) Bulletin, v. 67, no. 5, p. 841-875
 Sources & References
International Stratigraphic Guide
- also written by a committee, but published twice with a different
lead author each time:
- Hollis D. Hedberg (1976)
- Amos Salvador (1994)

Salvador, A. (Editor), International

1994.
Stratigraphic Guide. A Guide to Stratigraphic
Classification, Terminology, and Procedure.
Geological Society of America, Boulder, 214 pp.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

The science of rock strata

Stratigraphy comes from two root words:

Latin stratum and the Greek word graphia.
Stratum: is a layer
characterized by certain
unifying characteristics,
properties or attributes
that distinguish it from
adjacent layers.
Stratum (pl. Strata) = Bed = Layer
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Stratigraphy is the branch of geology that deals with

the study of the layered (stratified) rocks, especially their
sequence, extent, relationship, correlation from place to
place, relative ages, and interpretation.

The study of the

3-D relationships
among rocks

spatial (space; X, Z)
temporal (time; Y)
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Sedimentary rocks
It is primarily used in
the study of sedimentary
and layered volcanic &
metamorphic rocks

Layers of lava and tuff Folded metasediments

Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Stratigraphy allows to reconstruct the

sequence of events in Earth history and the
evolution of life on Earth.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Stratigraphic studies are mainly based on

observations in the field
Principles (Laws) of Stratigraphy

Nicolaus Steno William Smith James Hutton

(Niels Stensen) (British, 17691839) (Scottish, 1726-1797)
(Danish, 16311686) The "Father of English The father of modern
(Stenos Laws) Geology" geology
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Stratigraphic studies are mainly based on

observations in the field
Principles (Laws) of Stratigraphy
1. Superposition (Steno's 1st law)
2. Original Horizontality (Steno's 2nd law)
3. Lateral Continuity (Steno's 3rd law)
4. Cross Cutting Relationships
5. Inclusions
6. Faunal Succession (William Smith)
7. Uniformitarianism (James Hutton)
8. Walthers Law
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

1. Principle of Superposition
Each layer of sedimentary rock (sediment) in a
tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the
one beneath it and older than the one above it.

Younger

Younger
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

2. Principle of Original Horizontality

Most sedimentary rocks formed originally in flat, close-
to-horizontal layers (although many have been moved
from their original position).

Undeformed strata
(Horizontal beds)

Deformed strata
(Inclined or tilted beds)
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

3. Principle of Lateral Continuity

The sediment will not only be deposited in a flat layer, it
will be a layer that extends for a considerable distance
in all directions (i.e. the layer is laterally continuous).
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

3. Principle of Lateral Continuity

The sediment will not only be deposited in a flat layer, it
will be a layer that extends for a considerable distance
in all directions (i.e. the layer is laterally continuous).

1. Pinches out.
2. Abuts against older rock.
3. Truncated by erosion.
4. Cut by fault.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

4. Principle of Cross Cutting Relationships

Any geologic feature (e.g. fault, dike,..) which cuts
across or penetrates another body of rock must be
younger than the rock mass penetrated.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

5. Principle of Inclusions
With sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (fragments, clasts) are found
in a bed, then the inclusions must be older than the bed that contains
them.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

6. Principle of Faunal Succession

Each strata contain particular types of fossils (fauna and/or flora),
and that these fossil forms succeed each other in a specific and
predictable order that can be identified over wide distances.
"Rock formed in any geologic time can be recognized, and correlated
by their fossil content from rock formed in the other time interval"
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

7. Principle of Uniformitarianism
"The present is the key to the past"
i.e. the geologic forces and processes that shaped our planet
in the geologic past were the same that are at work today at
Earth's surface, which can be observed directly.

Ancient sand dune

Modern sand dune

Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Relative Dating of Rocks Using Stratigraphic

Principles
Shale, Conglomerate, Sandstone, Faults
A & B, Batholith, Dikes A & B, Sill
1. Sandstone Older
2. Fault A
3. Conglomerate
4. Shale
5. Fault B
6. Batholith
7. Dike B & sill
8. Dike A Younger
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Relative Dating of Rocks Using Stratigraphic

Principles
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Importance of Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy provides the 3-dimensional view of Earth history by
relating the distribution of rock units in time and space. It provides a
rock record of past events
Stratigraphy can be used to infer past environments of the earth
based on the physical characteristics of the rocks and the changes in
environment that occurred over time.
Stratigraphy has great economic importance by providing time
markers in the geological record and is used in oil exploration, mining,
and hydrology.
Stratigraphy is often closely linked with Paleontology because of the
use of fossils, in many cases, to identify age of strata.
Stratigraphy deals with mapping and correlation of stratigraphic
rock units.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Classical branches (The broadest and most fundamental)

Lithostratigraphy: (the study of rock units): Rocks
layers are sequenced and classified by the physical
properties of the rocks.
Biostratigraphy: Rock layers are sequenced and
classified by the presence of particular index species
of fossils in them.
Chronostratigraphy: (the study of time-rock units):
Rocks layers are sequenced and classified by absolute
dating methods.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Some new branches

Sequence Stratigraphy: The analysis of stratigraphic
successions in terms of genetically related packages of
strata, bounded by discontinuities.
Seismic stratigraphy: Use of reflection seismic data to extract
stratigraphic information.
Magnetostratigraphy: is a chronostratigraphic technique
used patterns of normal and reversed remnant magnetic field
to date sedimentary and volcanic sequences.
Chemostratigraphy: Use of inorganic chemistry (major
element analyses, trace element analyses, and isotope ratios)
as a correlation tool between lithologic units.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

These procedures are used in the analysis of stratigraphic

data both from outcrops (surface sections) and subsurface

I. Measuring sections
II. Description of measured sections
III. Collection of fossils
IV. Laboratory study of outcrop rock samples
V. Presentation of outcrop data
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

I. Measuring sections
Selections of the study area,
Selections of the sections to be measured,
Number of sections - Location Accessibility Structural
simplicity

II. Description of measured sections

Stratigraphic relationships lithology (rock type, color,
texture, etc.) thickness primary and secondary
structures weathering behavior paleontology.
Recognition of stratigraphic units
(Group Formation Member Bed)

The stratigraphic relationships of all stratigraphic units

(conformity and unconformity relationships)
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

III. Collection of fossils

Age determination using micro- and macro-faunas.

Recognition of stratigraphic units based on

assemblages of fossils (biozone).

Certain fossil groups (corals, foraminifera, etc.) require

a special laboratory treatment for their identification.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

IV. Laboratory study of outcrop rock samples

Microfacies analysis: microscopic examinition of the thin sections
of the collected rock samples.
Heavy mineral analysis:
- This analysis for sandstone grains.
- Such data are useful in correlation and interpretation of the
depositional environments.
Textural analysis: Mechanical analysis for sandstones and shales
using sieving and settling velocity techniques.
Insoluble residue analysis: carbonate sequences are capable of
subdivision and correlation on the basis of their insoluble
residues after acid solution of calcite or dolomite.
Indirect analysis:
- Differential thermal analysis for shales (clay minerals)
- Spectroscopic chemical analysis for carbonate rocks and
shales
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

V. Presentation of outcrop data

Written descriptions:
All the data gathered in the field and lab are collected in
a detailed report.

Columnar sections:
Graphic representation
of the obtained data
from the field and lab.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

V. Presentation of outcrop data

Written descriptions:
Columnar sections:
Geologic cross sections:
illustrate the position and occurrence of different stratigraphic units.
illustrate the stratigraphic relations to structure and topography.
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Geologic cross sections

Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

V. Presentation of outcrop data

Written descriptions:
Columnar sections:
Geologic cross sections:
Stratigraphic cross section:
It is drawn by arranging series of columnar sections, side by side, in proper
geographic sequence
Lithologic and faunal correlations are indicated by lines connecting the
proper horizons from column to column (line of correlation)
The columnar sections may arranged relative to some stratigraphic horizone
(datum)
It does not attempt to illustrate the topographic profile
Structure is either restored or diagrammatically expressed
Vertical scale is greatly exaggerated to show stratigraphic detail
Stratigraphic cross section
Stratigraphic cross section
Principles of Stratigraphy, Lecture 1

Successive stratigraphic steps

1. Description of stratigraphic units (strata)

2. Determination of stratigraphic sequence (or succession)
3. Stratigraphic Columns
4. Cross Sections
5. Geologic Maps
6. Stratigraphic correlation
7. Stratigraphic interpretation
Most stratigraphic studies are taken with a view toward the solution of some
problems such as:
plaeogeography, historical geology or economic geology