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Atoms,Molecules,andQuantumMechanics

AvogadrosNumber 6.022x1023moleculesinamole

Moles=Grams/MolecularWeight
Group1A AlkaliMetals(+1)

ReactswithhydrogentoformhydridessuchasNaH

Reactsexothermicallywithwatertoproducemetalhydroxideandhydrogengas

Group2A AlkalineEarthMetals(+2)

Harder,denser,andhigherMPthanalkalimetals

Group4A Canform4covalentbondswithnonmetals

AllbutCARBONcanform2additionalbondswithLewisbases(6total)

OnlyCARBONcanformstrongpibondsfordouble/triplebonds

Group5A canform3covalentbonds(NITROGENcanform4thcovalentbondswithlonepair)

AllbutNITROGENcanform2additionalbondsbyusingdorbitals

1additionalbondcanbeformedwithLewisbases(6total)

NITROGENcanformstrongpibondsfordouble/triplebonds

PHOSPHOROUScanformweakpibondsforonlydoublebonds

Group6A Chalcogens(2)

OXYGEN 2ndmostelectronegative/Canformstrongpibondsfordoublebonds

SULFURexistsaspureS8/canformupto6bonds/candoublebond

Group7A Halogens(1)

FLUORINEalwayshasoxidationnumberof1(onlyonebondpossible)

Cl/Br/Icantakeonoxidationstatesashighas+7/formsmorethanonebond

Group8A NobleGases(0)

Inert/nonreactive

SmallAtomsmakeSTRONGPIbonds

LargeAtomsUNABLEtomakeSTRONGPIbonds/havedorbitalsallowingforMOREthan4bonds

PREDICTINGTHEIONCHARGE:

1) Atomsloseelectronsfromthehighestenergyshellfirst.Intransitionmetals,thismeansthatelectronsarelost

fromthessubshellfirst,andthenfromthedsubshell

2) Ionsarelookingforsymmetry.Representativeelementsformnoblegaselectronconfigurationswhenthey

makeions.Transitionmetalstrytoevenouttheirdorbitals,soeachorbitalhasthesamenumberof

electrons
PERIODICTRENDS

GREATER EnergyofIonization

ElectronAffinity

Electronegativity

GREATER AtomicRadius

MetallicCharacter

Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
ElectricCurrent Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
LuminousIntensity Candela cd
AmountofSubstance Mole mol

Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Deci d 101
Centi c 102
Milli m 103
Micro 106
Nano n 109
Pico p 1012
Femto f 1015
ENERGYISREQUIREDTOBREAKABOND

ENERGYISRELEASEDWHENANEWBONDFORMS
NAMINGINORGANICCOMPOUNDS

CATIONS Transitionmetalcationuseromannumeralsinparenthesesafterelement

Nonmetalcationusesuffixium

ANIONS Monatomic/simplepolyatomicanionsusesuffixide

Complexpolyatomicanions moreoxygenatedspeciesusesatesuffix

Lessoxygenatedspeciesusesitesuffix

IfnecessaryLeastoxygenateduseshypoprefix

Ifnecessarymostoxygenatedusesperprefix

Binarymolecularcompoundscompoundswithonlytwoelements

PhysicalReactionundergoesreactionandmaintainsitsmolecularstructureandidentity

Melting,evaporating,dissolving,rotationofpolarizedlight

ChemicalReactionundergoesreactionandchangesitsmolecularstructuretoformanewcompound

Combustion,metathesis,andredox

ANSWERISALWAYSABALANCEDEQUATIONUNLESSOTHERWISESPECIFIED

PercentYield=ActualYield/Theoreticalyieldx100

FUNDAMENTALREACTIONTYPES

Combination A+B C

Decomposition C A+B

SingleDisplacement A+BC B+AC

DoubleDisplacement AB+CD AD+CB

BONDINGINSOLIDS

Crystalline(individualmoleculescannotbedistinguished)

Ionicpositivelychargesionsheldtogetherbyelectrostaticforces(salts)

NetworkCovalentinfinitenetworkofatomsheldtogetherbypolarandnonpolarbonds(diamonds)

Metallicsinglemetalatomsbondedtogetherbydelocalizedelectrons

Molecularindividualmoleculesheldtogetherbyintermolecularbonds(ice)

Amorphousnocharacteristicshapeandmeltsoveratemperaturerange(glass)

Polymerssolidswithrepeatedstructuralunits

Rapidcoolingofliquidpolymersresultsinamorphoussolid

Slowcoolingofliquidpolymersresultsincrystallinesolids

QUANTUMNUMBERS
Principalquantumnumber(n)designatesshelllevel

Azimuthalquantumnumber(l)designatessubshell

l=n1

l=0=ssubshell l=1=psubshell l=2=dsubshell l=3=fsubshell

Magneticquantumnumber(m)designatesorbital

Rangeofmagneticquantumnumbersfrom(lto+l)

ElectronSpinquantumnumber(m)designatesspin

or

HEISENBERGUNCERTAINTYPRINCIPLE
Themoreknownaboutposition,thelesscanbeknownaboutmomentumandviceversa

AUFBAUPRINCIPLE
Witheachnewprotonaddedtocreateanewelement,anewelectronisaddedaswell

Electronslookforanavailableorbitalwiththelowestenergystatewhenevertheyaddtoanatom

HUNDSRULE
Electronswillnotfillanyorbitalinthesamesubshelluntilallorbitalsinthatsubshellcontainatleastoneelectron

Unpairedelectronswillhaveparallelspins

PLANCKSQUANTUMTHEORY
Electromagneticenergyisquantized

E=h (h=Plancksconstant=6.6x1034Js)
PHOTOELECTRICEFFECT
EnergyofphotoelectronsdependsonFREQUENCYoflight,NOTINTENSITY

Whenanelectronfallsfromahigherenergyrungtoalowerenergyrung,

Energyisreleasedfromtheatomintheformofaphoton

ThephotonMUSThaveafrequencywhichcorrespondstothechangeinenergyoftheelectron

Ifthephotondoesnthaveenoughenergytobumptheelectrontothenextrung,

Theelectronwillnotmovefromitspresentrunandthephotonisreflectedaway

KINETICENERGYOFELECTRONSINCREASESONLYWHEN

INTENSITYISINCREASEDBYINCREASINGTHEFREQUENCYOF

EACHPHOTON,THEQUANTITYOFPHOTONSISIRRELEVENT
Gases,Kinetics,andChemicalEquilibrium
StandardTemperatureandPressure(STP) 0degreesCelsius/1atmosphere
ALLGASESAREMISCIBLEWITHEACHOTHER

GIVENTIMEANDLOWTEMPS,HEAVIERGASESTENDTOSETTLEBELOWLIGHTERGASES

IDEALGASES
1) Gasmoleculeshavezerovolume

2) Gasmoleculesexertnoforcesotherthanrepulsiveforcesduetocollisions

3) Gasmoleculesmakecompletelyelasticcollisions

4) AveragekineticenergyofgasmoleculesisDIRECTLYPROPORTIONALtotheTEMPERATUREofthegas

IDEALGASLAW

PV=nRT (R=universalgasconstant=0.08206Latm/Kmol=8.314J/Kmol)

VisproportionaltoTatconstantP

VisinverselyproportionaltoPatconstantT

VisproportionaltonatconstantTandP

CaveatincreasingVcanlowerT,becauseincreasingVrequiresworkwhichneedskineticenergy,loweringT

STANDARDMOLARVOLUME

ANYGASBEHAVINGIDEALLY22.4litersatSTP

PARTIALPRESSURE

Pa=aPtotal

DALTONSLAW

PTOTAL=P1+P2+P3

(eachgasbehaveslikeitisinthecontaineralone,sototalpressureissumofthemall)

AVERAGEKINETICENERGYforanygas

K.E.AVG=3/2RT (R=universalgasconstant=0.08206Latm/Kmol=8.314J/Kmol)

GRAHAMSLAW(rmsvelocityvariesaccordingtomass)

AverageSPEEDofmoleculesisINVERSELYPROPORTIONALtosqrt.ofMASSofmolecules

EFFUSIONspreadingofgasfromhighpressuretolowpressurethroughpinhole
DIFFUSIONspreadingofonegasintoanothergasorintoemptyspace
EFFUSIONandDIFFUSIONfollowGRAHAMSLAW

REALGASES

VREALisGREATERthanVIDEAL

PREALisLESSthanPIDEAL

COLLISIONMODEL
ThereactingmoleculesMUSTCOLLIDE

1) Relativekineticenergies(duetorelativevelocityonly)ofcollidingmoleculesmustreachathresholdenergy

calledACTIVATIONENERGY

2) Collidingmoleculesmusthavetheproperspatialorientation

RATEOFAREACTIONINCREASESWITHTEMPERATURE
EQUATIONSFORREACTIONRATES

MOLECULARITYthenumberofmoleculescollidingatonetimetomakeareaction
UNIMOLECULAR/BIMOLECULAR/TERMOLECULAR

ELEMENTARYREACTIONS (thequestionhastoinformyouthatareactioniselementary)
Reactionthatoccursinasinglestep

aA+bB cC+dD
Molecularityisgivenby(a+b)

Coefficienttellsyouhowmanymoleculesparticipateinareactionproducingcollisions

INTERMEDIATESSpeciesthatareproductsofonereactionandreactantsofalaterreactioninareactionchain

RATELAWFORFORWARDREACTIONS

rateFORWARD=kf[A] [B]

andaretheorderofeachrespectivereactant

+istheoverallorderofthereaction

SLOWSTEP=ratedeterminingstep
Catalystcreatesanewreactionpathwaywhichtypicallyincludesanintermediate
Increasestherateofareactionwithoutbeingconsumedorpermanentlyaltered

Lowersenergyofactivation&DOESNOTchangeequilibrium

CHEMICALEQUILIBRIUM

TheRATEatEQUILIBRIUMiszero(anetreactionrate) Forwardrate=Reverserate
AtEquilibrium,thereisnochangeintheconcentrationoftheproductsorreactants

EQUILIBRIUMisthepointofGREATESTENTROPY

kf/kr=products/reactants

kf/kr=EQUILIBRIUMCONSTANTK

LAWOFMASSACTION

c d a
K=[C] [D] /[A] [B] =products
b coeff. /reactantscoeff.

EQUILIBRIUMCONSTANTDEPENDSUPONTEMPERATUREONLY

DONTUSESOLIDSORPURELIQUIDS(water)INTHELAWOFMASSACTION

NONEQUILIBRIUMREACTIONQUOTIENTS
Q=Productscoeff./Reactantscoeff.

QisNOTaconstant&ALWAYSchangesTOWARDK;canbeusedtopredictthedirectionofthereaction

Q/KCOMPARISONS

IFQ=K reactionisatequilibrium

IFQ>K TooManyPRODUCTSwillshifttotheLEFT

IFQ<K TooManyREACTANTSwillshifttotheRIGHT

LECHATELIERSPRINCIPLE
Whenasystematequilibriumisstressed,

Thereactionwillshiftinadirectionthatwillreducethatstress

1) Additionorremovalofproductorreactant

2) Changingthepressureofthesystem

3) Heatingorcoolingthesystem

Thermodynamics
ThreeTypesofSystemsandtheirinteractionswiththeirSurroundings

ExchangingEnergywithsurroundings ExchangingMasswithsurroundings
OpenSystem Yes Yes
ClosedSystem Yes No
IsolatedSystem No No

STATEFUNCTIONS
Statephysicalconditionofasystemdescribedbyaspecificsetofthermodynamicpropertyvalues

EXTENSIVEPROPERTIESproportionaltothesizeofthesystem(ex.Volume&Moles)

INTENSIVEPROPERTIESindependentofthesizeofthesystem(ex.Pressure&Temperature)

STATEFUNCTIONSVALUEFORWARDISSAMEASVALUEREVERSED(regardingreactiondirection)

Pathwayindependent

Changeinastatepropertyisthesameregardlessoftheprocessviawhichthesystemwaschanged

3StateProperties(1extensive)describeasystemunambiguously

HEAT
MovementofenergyviaCONDUCTION,CONVECTION,orRADIATION

RateofHeatFlowislikeVolumeFlowRateorElectricCurrent(Resistancealwaysexists)

Thickerconduitsallowforgreaterflow

Longerconduitsimpedeflow

Flowratedependsonthedifferenceinapropertyofthereservoirsateitherendoftheconduit

CONDUCTIONthermalenergytransferviamolecularcollisions

CONVECTIONthermalenergytransferviafluidmovements

RADIATIONthermalenergytransferviaelectromagneticwaves

PVworkconstantpressure/volumechanges

Work=PV(constantpressure)(IFvolumeisconstant,noPVWORKisdone)

0thLawofThermodynamics
Temperatureexistsasastatefunction

1stLawofThermodynamics
EnergyofthesystemandsurroundingsisALWAYSconserved

Anyenergychangetoasystemmustequaltheheatflowintothesystemplustheworkdoneonthesystem

E=q+w
2ndLawofThermodynamics
Totalentropyofanisolatedsystemtendstoincreaseovertime

Heatcannotbechangedcompletelyintoworkinacyclicalprocess(someheatenergyisalwayslost)

3rdLawofThermodynamics
AssignsZEROentropyvaluetoanypuresubstanceatabsolutezeroandininternalequilibrium
ABSOLUTEZEROISUNATTAINABLE

THERMODYNAMICFUNCTIONS
InternalEnergy U Temperature T

Pressure P Volume V

Enthalpy H Entropy S

Gibbsenergy G

INTERNALENERGYallthepossibleformsofenergyimaginableonamolecularscale

Inaclosedsystematrest,theonlyenergychangewillbeininternalenergyU=q+w

ForareactioninsuchasystemwithNOCHANGEINVOLUME,thereisnoworkU=q

Temperatureismeasurementofhowfastthemoleculesaremovingorvibrating,assubstancegetshotter,itisbecause

theirmoleculesmovefaster

TheaveragekineticenergyofasinglemoleculeinafluidisK.E.AVG=3/2kT

VIRTUALLYALLPHYSICALPROPERTIESCHANGEWITHTEMPERATURE

THEGREATERTHERANDOMTRANSLATIONALKINETICENERGYOFGAS

MOLECULESPERVOLUME,THEGREATERTHEPRESSURE

ENTHALPYpropertythataccountsfortheextracapacityofasubstancetodoPVwork

H=U+PV
H=U+PV
Measuredat25degreesCelsiusand1atmosphere

STANDARDENTHALPYOFFORMATIONH
Changeinenthalpyforareactionthatcreates1molofacompoundfromitsrawelementsintheirstandardstate
IFNOCHANGEINPRESSURE(essentiallynogasinreaction),thenH=q

HREACTION=HPRODUCTSHREACTANTS

WHENYOUADDREACTIONS,YOUCANADDTHEIRENTHALPIES

EXOTHERMIC(H)releaseheat,makingreactionsystemhot

ENDOTHERMIC(+H)absorbheatmakingreactionsystemcold

ActivationEnergy
TransitionStatepeakofthehillwhereoldbondsbreakandnewbondsform
Intermediatesproductsofthefirststepinatwostepreaction(introughbetweentwohills)

Catalyst
Lowersactivationenergyforbothforwardandreversereactions
EQUILIBRIUM/ENTHALPYCHANGEISUNAFFECTEDBYCATALYSTS
RATEISAFFECTEDBYCATALYSTS

ENTROPY(S)measureofasystemsdisorder,Naturelikestospreadenergyevenlybetweensystems
Naturestendencytocreatethemostprobablesituationthatcanoccurwithinasystem
ToDECREASEentropy,WORKisREQUIRED

SSYSTEM+SSURROUNDINGS=SUNIVERSE0

Entropy(notenergy)dictatesthedirectionofareaction/Entropyincreaseswithnumber,volume,andtemperature

REACTIONSATEQUILIBRIUMHAVEACHIEVEDMAXIMUMUNIVERSALENTROPY

GIBBSFREEENERGY(G)
G=HTS NEGATIVEGindicatesaSPONTANEOUSREACTION

G H S
+ +
+
+/
+/ + +

Solutions
Solutionhomogeneousmixtureof2+compoundsinasinglephase
Solventindicatespredominantcompoundinasolution
Solutethecompoundthatislessconcentrated

IDEALSOLUTIONS
Solutionsmadefromcompoundsthathavesimilarproperties
IDEALLYDILUTESOLUTIONS
Solutemoleculesarecompletelyseparatedbysolventmoleculessotheyhavenointeractionwitheachother
MOLEFRACTIONofSOLVENTisapproximatelyONE
NONIDEALSOLUTIONS
Violatethetwoconditionsabove

COLLOIDS
Likeasolution,onlythesoluteparticlesarelarger
Toosmalltofilter,butlargeenoughtobeseparatedbyasemipermeablemembrane

LIKEDISSOLVESLIKE
Nonpolardissolvesnonpolar
Polardissolvespolar

LONDONDISPERSIONFORCES
Weakintermolecularbondsresultingfrominstantaneousdipolemoments

SOLVATION
Whenioniccompoundsdissociateintotheircationsandanions
TheyareSURROUNDEDbytheoppositelychargedendsofthepolarsolvent

HYDRATION
Solvationinwater
Whenseveralwatermoleculesattachtoonesideofanioniccompound,theycanovercomethestrongionicbond

AQUEOUSPHASEsomethingthatishydratedisinthisphase

ELECTROLYTEcompoundwhichformsionsinaqueoussolutions

WATERISAPOORCONDUCTOROFELECTRICITYUNLESSITCONTAINS
ELECROLYTES

MOLARITY
M=molesofSOLUTE/volumeofTOTALSOLUTION

MOLALITY
m=molesofSOLUTE/kilogramsofSOLVENT

MOLEFRACTION
=molesofSOLUTE/totalmolesofALLSOLUTESandSOLVENT

MASSPERCENTAGE
mass%=massofSOLUTE/massofTOTALSOLUTIONx100

PARTSPERMILLION
ppm=massofSOLUTE/massofTOTALSOLUTIONx1000000

NORMALITYmeasureofthenumberofdissociatedprotonsinacid/basesolution
H2SO4isa2normalsolutionbecause2protonscanbedonatedforeachsinglemolecule

SOLUTIONFORMATION
1) Thebreakingoftheintermolecularbondsbetweensolutemolecules(ENDOTHERMIC)
2) Thebreakingoftheintermolecularbondsbetweensolventmolecules(ENDOTHERMIC)
3) Theformationofintermolecularbondsbetweenthesolventandthesolutemolecules
(EXOTHERMIC)

ENERGYISREQUIREDTOBREAKABOND

HEATOFSOLUTION
HSOL=H1+H2+H3
NEGATIVEHEATOFSOLUTIONresultsinSTRONGERintermolecularbonds/LOWERvaporpressure
POSITIVEHEATOFSOLUTIONresultsinWEAKERintermolecularbonds/HIGHERvaporpressure

WHENSOLUTIONSFORM,ENTROPYINCREASES

VAPORPRESSURE
Somesurfacemoleculescanbreaktheforcesholdingtheminliquidandlaunchoutintoopenspace
Whenrateofmoleculesleavingandenteringliquidsolutionisequal,equilibriumisestablished
Atthispoint,thepressurecreatedbythemoleculesintheopenspaceistheVAPORPRESSUREoftheLIQUID

VAPORPRESSUREINCREASESWITHTEMPERATURE

BOILINGOCCURSWHENVAPORPRESSUREOFALIQUIDEQUALSTHE
ATMOSPHERICPRESSURE

MELTINGOCCURSWHENVAPORPRESSUREOFASOLIDEQUALSVAPOR
PRESSUREOFTHELIQUID

NONVOLATILESOLUTES(havenovaporpressureoftheirown)
RAOULTSLAW PSOLUTION=aPLIQUID

VOLATILESOLUTES(havevaporpressureoftheirown)
RAOULTSLAW PSOLUTION=aPa+bPb

SOLUBILITYsolutestendencytodissolveinasolvent
EX. SaltsdissolveinwaterinFORWARDDIRECTION
DissolvedSaltsPRECIPITATEintheREVERSEDIRECTION(slowerthanforward)

WhenratesofDISSOLUTIONandPRECIPITATIONareequal,thesolutionisSATURATED

SOLUBILITYPRODUCTK
sp
Usejustlikeanyotherequilibriumconstant(excludingsolidsandpureliquids)
SETKspEQUALTOPRODUCTSoverREACTANTSraisedtothePOWEROFTHEIRCOEFFICIENTS

Ifratiois1:1:1(regardingcoefficientsofsolidANDdissolvedspecies)
Solubility=square_root(Ksp)

Ifratiois1:2:1(regardingcoefficientsofsolidANDdissolvedspecies)
Solubility=cube_root(Ksp/4)

Solubilityproductaconstantfoundinabook
Solubilitymaximumnumberofmolesofthesolutethatcandissolveinsolution

SOLUBILITYPRODUCTCHANGESONLYWITHTEMPERATURE
SOLUBILITYDEPENDSUPONTEMPERATUREandIONSINSOLUTION

COMMONIONSADDEDTOASATURATEDSOLUTIONWILLSHIFTthe
EQUILIBRIUM(DOESNOTAFFECTKsp)

COMMONIONSADDEDTONONSATURATEDSOLUTIONWILLNOTSHIFT
EQUILIBRIUMBECAUSENOEQUILIBRIUMEXISTS

ASTHETEMPERATUREINCREASES,THESOLUBILITYOFSALTSINCREASES
ASTHETEMPERATUREINCREASES,THESOLUBILITYOFGASESDECREASES

HeatCapacity,PhaseChange,andColligativeProperties
REMEMBERphasesarenotjustSOLID/LIQUID/GAS
Therecanbemultiplesolidphasesofthesameelement(rhombicsulfurvs.monoclinicsulfur)

HeatCapacity
Measureoftheenergychangeneededtochangethetemperatureofasubstance
Thinkofitastheinternalenergycapacity

IFNOPVWORKISDONEBYASYSTEMATREST,
ALLHEATENERGYGOESINTOINCREASINGTEMPERATURE

WHENSYSTEMISHEATEDATCONSTANTVOLUME,
NOPVWORKISDONE,
andTEMPINCREASESALOT

WHENSYSTEMEXPANDSATCONSTANTPRESSURE,
PVWORKISDONE,
andTEMPINCREASEALITTLEBIT

HEATCAPACITYistheamountofenergyasubstancecanabsorbperunitoftemperaturechange

FORHEATCAPACITIESOFENTIRESYSTEMS
q=CT
FORSPECIFICHEATCAPACITIES(dividedbymass)
q=mcT

TYPESOFPHASECHANGES:
Meltingfreezing
Vaporizationcondensation
Sublimationdeposition

EachPhaseofasubstancehasitsownspecificheat

CONSTANTPRESSUREMEANSNOPVWORKISDONE,andq=H

BOILING
Vaporpressureofaliquidequalstheatmosphericpressureabovetheliquid

EVAPORATION
Whenthepartialpressureabovealiquidislessthantheliquidsvaporpressure,buttheatmosphericpressureisgreater
thanthevaporpressure

PhaseDiagram
Indicatesthephasesofasubstanceatdifferentpressuresandtemperatures

TriplePoint
Whereasubstancecanexistinequilibriumasasolid,liquid,andgas

CriticalPoint
Thecriticaltemperatureandthecriticalpressure

ENERGYentersasubstanceasHEATorPVWORK

DuringaPHASECHANGE,
ENERGYbreaksBONDS
anddoesNOTCHANGETEMPERATURE

WhenthePHASEISNOTCHANGING,
energyINCREASESMOLECULARMOVEMENT,
increasingTEMPERATURE

COLLIGATIVEPROPERTIESDEPENDONNUMBER,notkind
1) Vaporpressure
a. Addingnonvolatilesoluteswilllowervaporpressureofthesolutioninproportiontothe#of
particles
2) Boilingpoint
a. BoilingpointRISESwithadditionofnonvolatilesolutes
3) Freezingpoint
a. FreezingpointDECREASESwithadditionofnonvolatilesolutes
4) Osmoticpressure
a. Measureofthetendencyofwatertomoveintoasolutionviaosmosis
b. INCREASEDOSMOTICPRESSUREontheSOLUTIONSIDEOFTHEwatersolution
divisionbyanonpermeablemembranepurewaterenterssolutionsidetotrytoequalize
concentrations

AcidsandBases
ArrheniusAcidanyspeciesthatproducesHYDROGENIONSinaqueoussolutions
ArrheniusBaseanyspeciesthatproducesHYDROXIDEIONSinaqueoussolutions

Bronsted&LowryAcidanyspeciesthatDONATESaPROTON
Bronsted&LowryBaseanyspeciesthatACCEPTSaPROTON

LewisAcidanyspeciesthatACCEPTSanELECTRONPAIR
LewisBaseanyspeciesthatDONATESanELECTRONPAIR

ACIDICSOLUTIONcontainsmoreH+thanOH
BASICSOLUTIONcontainsmoreOHthanH+

pH=log[H+]

THESTRONGERTHEACID,theWEAKERTHECONJUGATEBASE
THESTRONGERTHEBASE,theWEAKERTHECONJUGATEACID

AMPHOTERICasubstancethatcanactaseitheranACIDoraBASE

3
3=log[10 ] OR 3=log[.003] VERYACIDIC

10
10=log[10 ] OR 10=log[.0000000001] VERYBASIC

HYDRONIUMION(H3O+)

STRONGACIDS(strongerthanH3O+) STRONGBASES(strongerthanOH)
Hydroiodicacid HI SodiumHydroxide NaOH
Hydrobromicacid HBr PotassiumHydroxide KOH
Hydrochloricacid HCl AmideIon NH2
NitricAcid HNO3 HydrideIon H
PerchloricAcid HClO4 CalciumHydroxide Ca(OH)2
ChloricAcid HClO3 SodiumOxide Na2O
SulfuricAcid H2SO4 CalciumOxide CaO

ACIDDISSOCIATIONDECREASESasACIDCONCENTRATIONINCREASES

ACIDSTRENGTHINCREASESasACIDCONCENTRATIONINCREASES

INCREASINGPOLARITY/BONDSTRENGTH=DECREASINGACIDITY

HIisSTRONGERthanHF

InaseriesofOXYACIDS,MOREOXYGENSisaSTRONGERACID

HYPOCHLOROUSacid<CHLOROUSacid<CHLORICacid<PERCHLORICacid

EQUILIBRIUMFORAUTOIONIZATIONOFWATERACIDBASEREACTIONS
Kwistheequilibriumconstantforthisreaction
14
Kw=[H+][OH]=10

pH+pOH=pKw

ForAqueousSolutionat25degreesCelsius
pH+pOH=14

ACIDDISSOCIATIONCONSTANTKa
HA+H2O>H3O++A
Ka=[H+][A]/[HA]

EQUILIBRIUMFORCONJUGATEBASE
A+H2O>OH+HA

Kb=[OH][HA]/[A]
(Ka)(Kb)=Kw

pKa+pKb=pKw
pKa+pKb=14
pKa=pHlog([A]/[HA])

IfpH>pK thenmoleculewillLOSEPROTON(chargeoverall)
a,

IfpH=pK thenmoleculehas50%CHANCEofLOSINGPROTON
a,

IfpH<pK thenmoleculewillprobablyGAINAPROTON(+chargeoverall)
a,

STRONGACIDhasKa>1ORApKa<0

FORSTRONGACIDS/BASES
Theentireconcentrationdissociates,so[H+]or[OH]isthesameastheoriginalconcentrationoftheacid/base
So0.1MHCLhas0.1M[H+]

TITRATION
dropbydropmixingofanacidandabase
PerformedtofindtheconcentrationofsomeunknownbycomparingitwiththeconcentrationoftheTITRANT

EQUIVALENCEPOINT/STOICHIOMETRICPOINTthemidpointofthegraphlinethatisalmostvertical

IftheBASEandtheACIDareequivalentinstrength,theequivalencepointisprobablypH7,unlessonespeciesis
diprotic

IftheBASEisSTRONGERthantheACID,thepointwillbeabovepH7

IftheACIDisSTRONGERthantheBASE,thepointwillbebelowpH7

HALFEQUIVALENCEPOINTpointwhereoftheacidhasbeenneutralizedbythebase
Theconcentrationoftheacidisequaltotheconcentrationofitsconjugatebase
Thispointshowsthepointinthetitrationwherethesolutionisthemostwellbuffered

HENDERSONHASSELBALCHEQUATIONthepHofthesolutionisequaltothepKaoftheacid

THEENDPOINTiswheretheINDICATORCHANGESCOLOR(ENDICATOR)

Electrochemistry
OxidationReduction
TheTRANSFERofelectronsfromoneatomtoanother
OXIDATIONISLOSINGELECTRONS;REDUCTIONISGAININGELECTRONS

OXIDATIONSTATES
PossibleCHARGEVALUESthatanatommayholdwithinamolecule

OxidationState Atom
0 Atomsintheirelementalform
1 Fluorine
+1 Hydrogen(exceptwhenbondedtoametal:then1)
2 Oxygen(exceptwhenitisinaperoxidelikeH2O2)

OxidationState GrouponPeriodicTable
+1 Group1Elements(alkalimetals)
+2 Group2Elements(alkalineearthmetals)
3 Group15Elements(nitrogenfamily)
2 Group16Elements(oxygenfamily)
1 Group17Elements(halogens)

TheReducingAgentisOXIDIZED

TheOxidizingAgentisREDUCED
Potentials
ThereisanELECTRICPOTENTIALEassociatedwithanyredoxreaction
EachcomponentisaHALFREACTION

REDUCTIONPOTENTIALEmustbePOSITIVEforittooccur.
TakeEofsubstanceBEINGREDUCED,subtractEforthesubstanceBEINGOXIDIZED

ESUBSTANCEBEINGREDUCEDESUBSTANCEBEINGOXIDIZED>0

HalfreactionthatoccursatastandardHYDROGENELECTRODEisarbitrarilyassignedasZEROVOLTS

TheGALVANICCELL(a.k.a.VOLTAICCELL)
ChemicalEnergyINTOElectricalEnergy
MultiphaseSeriesofcomponentswithnocomponentoccurringinmorethanonephase
Allphasesmustconductelectricity
AtleastONEPHASEmustbeIMPERMEABLETOELECTRONS
IONICCONDUCTORisusedtocarrycurrentinformofIONS
ThisIONICCONDUCTORisusuallyaSALTBRIDGE

Terminal1Electrode1IonicconductorElectrode2Terminal2

TheemfistheELECTRICPOTENTIALDIFFERENCEbetweenTerminal &Terminal
1 2

AnodeNEGATIVE CathodePOSITIVE(thinkcation)

REDCAT;ANOX
Reductioncathode;anodeoxidation
IUPACConventionExample
2+ 2+
Pt(s)|Zn(s)|Zn (aq)||Cu (aq)|Cu(s)|Pt(s)

FREEENERGY&ChemicalEnergy
G=nFE
MAX

G=G+RTln(Q)

G=RTln(K)

IfK=1;thenG=0 IfK>1;thenG<0 IfK<1;thenG>0


TheCONCENTRATIONCELL
Limitedformofagalvaniccellwithareductionhalfreactiontakingplaceinonehalfcellandtheexactreverseof
thathalfreactiontakingplaceintheotherhalf
Ifconcentrationsonbothsidesareequal,thenE=0
Onesidemusthaveahigherconcentrationofthereactantsthantheothersideforthistowork
TheELECTROLYTICCELL
PutaPOWERSOURCEacrossagalvaniccellsresistanceandforceittorunBACKWARDS

GalvanicCell ElectrolyticCell
PositiveCATHODE NegativeCathode
NegativeAnode PositiveANODE
POSITIVEEMFPOTENTIAL NEGATIVEEMFPOTENTIAL
ElectronsflowtowardCATHODE ElectronsflowtowardANODE

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