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AvogadrosNumber 6.022x1023moleculesinamole
Moles=Grams/MolecularWeight
Group1A AlkaliMetals(+1)
ReactswithhydrogentoformhydridessuchasNaH
Reactsexothermicallywithwatertoproducemetalhydroxideandhydrogengas
Group2A AlkalineEarthMetals(+2)
Harder,denser,andhigherMPthanalkalimetals
Group4A Canform4covalentbondswithnonmetals
AllbutCARBONcanform2additionalbondswithLewisbases(6total)
OnlyCARBONcanformstrongpibondsfordouble/triplebonds
Group5A canform3covalentbonds(NITROGENcanform4thcovalentbondswithlonepair)
AllbutNITROGENcanform2additionalbondsbyusingdorbitals
1additionalbondcanbeformedwithLewisbases(6total)
NITROGENcanformstrongpibondsfordouble/triplebonds
PHOSPHOROUScanformweakpibondsforonlydoublebonds
Group6A Chalcogens(2)
OXYGEN 2ndmostelectronegative/Canformstrongpibondsfordoublebonds
SULFURexistsaspureS8/canformupto6bonds/candoublebond
Group7A Halogens(1)
FLUORINEalwayshasoxidationnumberof1(onlyonebondpossible)
Cl/Br/Icantakeonoxidationstatesashighas+7/formsmorethanonebond
Group8A NobleGases(0)
Inert/nonreactive
SmallAtomsmakeSTRONGPIbonds
LargeAtomsUNABLEtomakeSTRONGPIbonds/havedorbitalsallowingforMOREthan4bonds
PREDICTINGTHEIONCHARGE:
1) Atomsloseelectronsfromthehighestenergyshellfirst.Intransitionmetals,thismeansthatelectronsarelost
fromthessubshellfirst,andthenfromthedsubshell
2) Ionsarelookingforsymmetry.Representativeelementsformnoblegaselectronconfigurationswhenthey
makeions.Transitionmetalstrytoevenouttheirdorbitals,soeachorbitalhasthesamenumberof
electrons
PERIODICTRENDS
GREATER EnergyofIonization
ElectronAffinity
Electronegativity
GREATER AtomicRadius
MetallicCharacter
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s
ElectricCurrent Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
LuminousIntensity Candela cd
AmountofSubstance Mole mol
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Deci d 101
Centi c 102
Milli m 103
Micro 106
Nano n 109
Pico p 1012
Femto f 1015
ENERGYISREQUIREDTOBREAKABOND
ENERGYISRELEASEDWHENANEWBONDFORMS
NAMINGINORGANICCOMPOUNDS
CATIONS Transitionmetalcationuseromannumeralsinparenthesesafterelement
Nonmetalcationusesuffixium
ANIONS Monatomic/simplepolyatomicanionsusesuffixide
Complexpolyatomicanions moreoxygenatedspeciesusesatesuffix
Lessoxygenatedspeciesusesitesuffix
IfnecessaryLeastoxygenateduseshypoprefix
Ifnecessarymostoxygenatedusesperprefix
Binarymolecularcompoundscompoundswithonlytwoelements
PhysicalReactionundergoesreactionandmaintainsitsmolecularstructureandidentity
Melting,evaporating,dissolving,rotationofpolarizedlight
ChemicalReactionundergoesreactionandchangesitsmolecularstructuretoformanewcompound
Combustion,metathesis,andredox
ANSWERISALWAYSABALANCEDEQUATIONUNLESSOTHERWISESPECIFIED
PercentYield=ActualYield/Theoreticalyieldx100
FUNDAMENTALREACTIONTYPES
Combination A+B C
Decomposition C A+B
BONDINGINSOLIDS
Crystalline(individualmoleculescannotbedistinguished)
Ionicpositivelychargesionsheldtogetherbyelectrostaticforces(salts)
NetworkCovalentinfinitenetworkofatomsheldtogetherbypolarandnonpolarbonds(diamonds)
Metallicsinglemetalatomsbondedtogetherbydelocalizedelectrons
Molecularindividualmoleculesheldtogetherbyintermolecularbonds(ice)
Amorphousnocharacteristicshapeandmeltsoveratemperaturerange(glass)
Polymerssolidswithrepeatedstructuralunits
Rapidcoolingofliquidpolymersresultsinamorphoussolid
Slowcoolingofliquidpolymersresultsincrystallinesolids
QUANTUMNUMBERS
Principalquantumnumber(n)designatesshelllevel
Azimuthalquantumnumber(l)designatessubshell
l=n1
Magneticquantumnumber(m)designatesorbital
Rangeofmagneticquantumnumbersfrom(lto+l)
ElectronSpinquantumnumber(m)designatesspin
or
HEISENBERGUNCERTAINTYPRINCIPLE
Themoreknownaboutposition,thelesscanbeknownaboutmomentumandviceversa
AUFBAUPRINCIPLE
Witheachnewprotonaddedtocreateanewelement,anewelectronisaddedaswell
Electronslookforanavailableorbitalwiththelowestenergystatewhenevertheyaddtoanatom
HUNDSRULE
Electronswillnotfillanyorbitalinthesamesubshelluntilallorbitalsinthatsubshellcontainatleastoneelectron
Unpairedelectronswillhaveparallelspins
PLANCKSQUANTUMTHEORY
Electromagneticenergyisquantized
E=h (h=Plancksconstant=6.6x1034Js)
PHOTOELECTRICEFFECT
EnergyofphotoelectronsdependsonFREQUENCYoflight,NOTINTENSITY
Whenanelectronfallsfromahigherenergyrungtoalowerenergyrung,
Energyisreleasedfromtheatomintheformofaphoton
ThephotonMUSThaveafrequencywhichcorrespondstothechangeinenergyoftheelectron
Ifthephotondoesnthaveenoughenergytobumptheelectrontothenextrung,
Theelectronwillnotmovefromitspresentrunandthephotonisreflectedaway
KINETICENERGYOFELECTRONSINCREASESONLYWHEN
INTENSITYISINCREASEDBYINCREASINGTHEFREQUENCYOF
EACHPHOTON,THEQUANTITYOFPHOTONSISIRRELEVENT
Gases,Kinetics,andChemicalEquilibrium
StandardTemperatureandPressure(STP) 0degreesCelsius/1atmosphere
ALLGASESAREMISCIBLEWITHEACHOTHER
GIVENTIMEANDLOWTEMPS,HEAVIERGASESTENDTOSETTLEBELOWLIGHTERGASES
IDEALGASES
1) Gasmoleculeshavezerovolume
2) Gasmoleculesexertnoforcesotherthanrepulsiveforcesduetocollisions
3) Gasmoleculesmakecompletelyelasticcollisions
4) AveragekineticenergyofgasmoleculesisDIRECTLYPROPORTIONALtotheTEMPERATUREofthegas
IDEALGASLAW
PV=nRT (R=universalgasconstant=0.08206Latm/Kmol=8.314J/Kmol)
VisproportionaltoTatconstantP
VisinverselyproportionaltoPatconstantT
VisproportionaltonatconstantTandP
CaveatincreasingVcanlowerT,becauseincreasingVrequiresworkwhichneedskineticenergy,loweringT
STANDARDMOLARVOLUME
ANYGASBEHAVINGIDEALLY22.4litersatSTP
PARTIALPRESSURE
Pa=aPtotal
DALTONSLAW
PTOTAL=P1+P2+P3
(eachgasbehaveslikeitisinthecontaineralone,sototalpressureissumofthemall)
AVERAGEKINETICENERGYforanygas
K.E.AVG=3/2RT (R=universalgasconstant=0.08206Latm/Kmol=8.314J/Kmol)
GRAHAMSLAW(rmsvelocityvariesaccordingtomass)
AverageSPEEDofmoleculesisINVERSELYPROPORTIONALtosqrt.ofMASSofmolecules
EFFUSIONspreadingofgasfromhighpressuretolowpressurethroughpinhole
DIFFUSIONspreadingofonegasintoanothergasorintoemptyspace
EFFUSIONandDIFFUSIONfollowGRAHAMSLAW
REALGASES
VREALisGREATERthanVIDEAL
PREALisLESSthanPIDEAL
COLLISIONMODEL
ThereactingmoleculesMUSTCOLLIDE
1) Relativekineticenergies(duetorelativevelocityonly)ofcollidingmoleculesmustreachathresholdenergy
calledACTIVATIONENERGY
2) Collidingmoleculesmusthavetheproperspatialorientation
RATEOFAREACTIONINCREASESWITHTEMPERATURE
EQUATIONSFORREACTIONRATES
MOLECULARITYthenumberofmoleculescollidingatonetimetomakeareaction
UNIMOLECULAR/BIMOLECULAR/TERMOLECULAR
ELEMENTARYREACTIONS (thequestionhastoinformyouthatareactioniselementary)
Reactionthatoccursinasinglestep
aA+bB cC+dD
Molecularityisgivenby(a+b)
Coefficienttellsyouhowmanymoleculesparticipateinareactionproducingcollisions
INTERMEDIATESSpeciesthatareproductsofonereactionandreactantsofalaterreactioninareactionchain
RATELAWFORFORWARDREACTIONS
rateFORWARD=kf[A] [B]
andaretheorderofeachrespectivereactant
+istheoverallorderofthereaction
SLOWSTEP=ratedeterminingstep
Catalystcreatesanewreactionpathwaywhichtypicallyincludesanintermediate
Increasestherateofareactionwithoutbeingconsumedorpermanentlyaltered
Lowersenergyofactivation&DOESNOTchangeequilibrium
CHEMICALEQUILIBRIUM
TheRATEatEQUILIBRIUMiszero(anetreactionrate) Forwardrate=Reverserate
AtEquilibrium,thereisnochangeintheconcentrationoftheproductsorreactants
EQUILIBRIUMisthepointofGREATESTENTROPY
kf/kr=products/reactants
kf/kr=EQUILIBRIUMCONSTANTK
LAWOFMASSACTION
c d a
K=[C] [D] /[A] [B] =products
b coeff. /reactantscoeff.
EQUILIBRIUMCONSTANTDEPENDSUPONTEMPERATUREONLY
DONTUSESOLIDSORPURELIQUIDS(water)INTHELAWOFMASSACTION
NONEQUILIBRIUMREACTIONQUOTIENTS
Q=Productscoeff./Reactantscoeff.
QisNOTaconstant&ALWAYSchangesTOWARDK;canbeusedtopredictthedirectionofthereaction
Q/KCOMPARISONS
IFQ=K reactionisatequilibrium
IFQ>K TooManyPRODUCTSwillshifttotheLEFT
IFQ<K TooManyREACTANTSwillshifttotheRIGHT
LECHATELIERSPRINCIPLE
Whenasystematequilibriumisstressed,
Thereactionwillshiftinadirectionthatwillreducethatstress
1) Additionorremovalofproductorreactant
2) Changingthepressureofthesystem
3) Heatingorcoolingthesystem
Thermodynamics
ThreeTypesofSystemsandtheirinteractionswiththeirSurroundings
ExchangingEnergywithsurroundings ExchangingMasswithsurroundings
OpenSystem Yes Yes
ClosedSystem Yes No
IsolatedSystem No No
STATEFUNCTIONS
Statephysicalconditionofasystemdescribedbyaspecificsetofthermodynamicpropertyvalues
EXTENSIVEPROPERTIESproportionaltothesizeofthesystem(ex.Volume&Moles)
INTENSIVEPROPERTIESindependentofthesizeofthesystem(ex.Pressure&Temperature)
STATEFUNCTIONSVALUEFORWARDISSAMEASVALUEREVERSED(regardingreactiondirection)
Pathwayindependent
Changeinastatepropertyisthesameregardlessoftheprocessviawhichthesystemwaschanged
3StateProperties(1extensive)describeasystemunambiguously
HEAT
MovementofenergyviaCONDUCTION,CONVECTION,orRADIATION
RateofHeatFlowislikeVolumeFlowRateorElectricCurrent(Resistancealwaysexists)
Thickerconduitsallowforgreaterflow
Longerconduitsimpedeflow
Flowratedependsonthedifferenceinapropertyofthereservoirsateitherendoftheconduit
CONDUCTIONthermalenergytransferviamolecularcollisions
CONVECTIONthermalenergytransferviafluidmovements
RADIATIONthermalenergytransferviaelectromagneticwaves
PVworkconstantpressure/volumechanges
Work=PV(constantpressure)(IFvolumeisconstant,noPVWORKisdone)
0thLawofThermodynamics
Temperatureexistsasastatefunction
1stLawofThermodynamics
EnergyofthesystemandsurroundingsisALWAYSconserved
Anyenergychangetoasystemmustequaltheheatflowintothesystemplustheworkdoneonthesystem
E=q+w
2ndLawofThermodynamics
Totalentropyofanisolatedsystemtendstoincreaseovertime
Heatcannotbechangedcompletelyintoworkinacyclicalprocess(someheatenergyisalwayslost)
3rdLawofThermodynamics
AssignsZEROentropyvaluetoanypuresubstanceatabsolutezeroandininternalequilibrium
ABSOLUTEZEROISUNATTAINABLE
THERMODYNAMICFUNCTIONS
InternalEnergy U Temperature T
Pressure P Volume V
Enthalpy H Entropy S
Gibbsenergy G
INTERNALENERGYallthepossibleformsofenergyimaginableonamolecularscale
Inaclosedsystematrest,theonlyenergychangewillbeininternalenergyU=q+w
ForareactioninsuchasystemwithNOCHANGEINVOLUME,thereisnoworkU=q
Temperatureismeasurementofhowfastthemoleculesaremovingorvibrating,assubstancegetshotter,itisbecause
theirmoleculesmovefaster
TheaveragekineticenergyofasinglemoleculeinafluidisK.E.AVG=3/2kT
VIRTUALLYALLPHYSICALPROPERTIESCHANGEWITHTEMPERATURE
THEGREATERTHERANDOMTRANSLATIONALKINETICENERGYOFGAS
MOLECULESPERVOLUME,THEGREATERTHEPRESSURE
ENTHALPYpropertythataccountsfortheextracapacityofasubstancetodoPVwork
H=U+PV
H=U+PV
Measuredat25degreesCelsiusand1atmosphere
STANDARDENTHALPYOFFORMATIONH
Changeinenthalpyforareactionthatcreates1molofacompoundfromitsrawelementsintheirstandardstate
IFNOCHANGEINPRESSURE(essentiallynogasinreaction),thenH=q
HREACTION=HPRODUCTSHREACTANTS
WHENYOUADDREACTIONS,YOUCANADDTHEIRENTHALPIES
EXOTHERMIC(H)releaseheat,makingreactionsystemhot
ENDOTHERMIC(+H)absorbheatmakingreactionsystemcold
ActivationEnergy
TransitionStatepeakofthehillwhereoldbondsbreakandnewbondsform
Intermediatesproductsofthefirststepinatwostepreaction(introughbetweentwohills)
Catalyst
Lowersactivationenergyforbothforwardandreversereactions
EQUILIBRIUM/ENTHALPYCHANGEISUNAFFECTEDBYCATALYSTS
RATEISAFFECTEDBYCATALYSTS
ENTROPY(S)measureofasystemsdisorder,Naturelikestospreadenergyevenlybetweensystems
Naturestendencytocreatethemostprobablesituationthatcanoccurwithinasystem
ToDECREASEentropy,WORKisREQUIRED
SSYSTEM+SSURROUNDINGS=SUNIVERSE0
Entropy(notenergy)dictatesthedirectionofareaction/Entropyincreaseswithnumber,volume,andtemperature
REACTIONSATEQUILIBRIUMHAVEACHIEVEDMAXIMUMUNIVERSALENTROPY
GIBBSFREEENERGY(G)
G=HTS NEGATIVEGindicatesaSPONTANEOUSREACTION
G H S
+ +
+
+/
+/ + +
Solutions
Solutionhomogeneousmixtureof2+compoundsinasinglephase
Solventindicatespredominantcompoundinasolution
Solutethecompoundthatislessconcentrated
IDEALSOLUTIONS
Solutionsmadefromcompoundsthathavesimilarproperties
IDEALLYDILUTESOLUTIONS
Solutemoleculesarecompletelyseparatedbysolventmoleculessotheyhavenointeractionwitheachother
MOLEFRACTIONofSOLVENTisapproximatelyONE
NONIDEALSOLUTIONS
Violatethetwoconditionsabove
COLLOIDS
Likeasolution,onlythesoluteparticlesarelarger
Toosmalltofilter,butlargeenoughtobeseparatedbyasemipermeablemembrane
LIKEDISSOLVESLIKE
Nonpolardissolvesnonpolar
Polardissolvespolar
LONDONDISPERSIONFORCES
Weakintermolecularbondsresultingfrominstantaneousdipolemoments
SOLVATION
Whenioniccompoundsdissociateintotheircationsandanions
TheyareSURROUNDEDbytheoppositelychargedendsofthepolarsolvent
HYDRATION
Solvationinwater
Whenseveralwatermoleculesattachtoonesideofanioniccompound,theycanovercomethestrongionicbond
AQUEOUSPHASEsomethingthatishydratedisinthisphase
ELECTROLYTEcompoundwhichformsionsinaqueoussolutions
WATERISAPOORCONDUCTOROFELECTRICITYUNLESSITCONTAINS
ELECROLYTES
MOLARITY
M=molesofSOLUTE/volumeofTOTALSOLUTION
MOLALITY
m=molesofSOLUTE/kilogramsofSOLVENT
MOLEFRACTION
=molesofSOLUTE/totalmolesofALLSOLUTESandSOLVENT
MASSPERCENTAGE
mass%=massofSOLUTE/massofTOTALSOLUTIONx100
PARTSPERMILLION
ppm=massofSOLUTE/massofTOTALSOLUTIONx1000000
NORMALITYmeasureofthenumberofdissociatedprotonsinacid/basesolution
H2SO4isa2normalsolutionbecause2protonscanbedonatedforeachsinglemolecule
SOLUTIONFORMATION
1) Thebreakingoftheintermolecularbondsbetweensolutemolecules(ENDOTHERMIC)
2) Thebreakingoftheintermolecularbondsbetweensolventmolecules(ENDOTHERMIC)
3) Theformationofintermolecularbondsbetweenthesolventandthesolutemolecules
(EXOTHERMIC)
ENERGYISREQUIREDTOBREAKABOND
HEATOFSOLUTION
HSOL=H1+H2+H3
NEGATIVEHEATOFSOLUTIONresultsinSTRONGERintermolecularbonds/LOWERvaporpressure
POSITIVEHEATOFSOLUTIONresultsinWEAKERintermolecularbonds/HIGHERvaporpressure
WHENSOLUTIONSFORM,ENTROPYINCREASES
VAPORPRESSURE
Somesurfacemoleculescanbreaktheforcesholdingtheminliquidandlaunchoutintoopenspace
Whenrateofmoleculesleavingandenteringliquidsolutionisequal,equilibriumisestablished
Atthispoint,thepressurecreatedbythemoleculesintheopenspaceistheVAPORPRESSUREoftheLIQUID
VAPORPRESSUREINCREASESWITHTEMPERATURE
BOILINGOCCURSWHENVAPORPRESSUREOFALIQUIDEQUALSTHE
ATMOSPHERICPRESSURE
MELTINGOCCURSWHENVAPORPRESSUREOFASOLIDEQUALSVAPOR
PRESSUREOFTHELIQUID
NONVOLATILESOLUTES(havenovaporpressureoftheirown)
RAOULTSLAW PSOLUTION=aPLIQUID
VOLATILESOLUTES(havevaporpressureoftheirown)
RAOULTSLAW PSOLUTION=aPa+bPb
SOLUBILITYsolutestendencytodissolveinasolvent
EX. SaltsdissolveinwaterinFORWARDDIRECTION
DissolvedSaltsPRECIPITATEintheREVERSEDIRECTION(slowerthanforward)
WhenratesofDISSOLUTIONandPRECIPITATIONareequal,thesolutionisSATURATED
SOLUBILITYPRODUCTK
sp
Usejustlikeanyotherequilibriumconstant(excludingsolidsandpureliquids)
SETKspEQUALTOPRODUCTSoverREACTANTSraisedtothePOWEROFTHEIRCOEFFICIENTS
Ifratiois1:1:1(regardingcoefficientsofsolidANDdissolvedspecies)
Solubility=square_root(Ksp)
Ifratiois1:2:1(regardingcoefficientsofsolidANDdissolvedspecies)
Solubility=cube_root(Ksp/4)
Solubilityproductaconstantfoundinabook
Solubilitymaximumnumberofmolesofthesolutethatcandissolveinsolution
SOLUBILITYPRODUCTCHANGESONLYWITHTEMPERATURE
SOLUBILITYDEPENDSUPONTEMPERATUREandIONSINSOLUTION
COMMONIONSADDEDTOASATURATEDSOLUTIONWILLSHIFTthe
EQUILIBRIUM(DOESNOTAFFECTKsp)
COMMONIONSADDEDTONONSATURATEDSOLUTIONWILLNOTSHIFT
EQUILIBRIUMBECAUSENOEQUILIBRIUMEXISTS
ASTHETEMPERATUREINCREASES,THESOLUBILITYOFSALTSINCREASES
ASTHETEMPERATUREINCREASES,THESOLUBILITYOFGASESDECREASES
HeatCapacity,PhaseChange,andColligativeProperties
REMEMBERphasesarenotjustSOLID/LIQUID/GAS
Therecanbemultiplesolidphasesofthesameelement(rhombicsulfurvs.monoclinicsulfur)
HeatCapacity
Measureoftheenergychangeneededtochangethetemperatureofasubstance
Thinkofitastheinternalenergycapacity
IFNOPVWORKISDONEBYASYSTEMATREST,
ALLHEATENERGYGOESINTOINCREASINGTEMPERATURE
WHENSYSTEMISHEATEDATCONSTANTVOLUME,
NOPVWORKISDONE,
andTEMPINCREASESALOT
WHENSYSTEMEXPANDSATCONSTANTPRESSURE,
PVWORKISDONE,
andTEMPINCREASEALITTLEBIT
HEATCAPACITYistheamountofenergyasubstancecanabsorbperunitoftemperaturechange
FORHEATCAPACITIESOFENTIRESYSTEMS
q=CT
FORSPECIFICHEATCAPACITIES(dividedbymass)
q=mcT
TYPESOFPHASECHANGES:
Meltingfreezing
Vaporizationcondensation
Sublimationdeposition
EachPhaseofasubstancehasitsownspecificheat
CONSTANTPRESSUREMEANSNOPVWORKISDONE,andq=H
BOILING
Vaporpressureofaliquidequalstheatmosphericpressureabovetheliquid
EVAPORATION
Whenthepartialpressureabovealiquidislessthantheliquidsvaporpressure,buttheatmosphericpressureisgreater
thanthevaporpressure
PhaseDiagram
Indicatesthephasesofasubstanceatdifferentpressuresandtemperatures
TriplePoint
Whereasubstancecanexistinequilibriumasasolid,liquid,andgas
CriticalPoint
Thecriticaltemperatureandthecriticalpressure
ENERGYentersasubstanceasHEATorPVWORK
DuringaPHASECHANGE,
ENERGYbreaksBONDS
anddoesNOTCHANGETEMPERATURE
WhenthePHASEISNOTCHANGING,
energyINCREASESMOLECULARMOVEMENT,
increasingTEMPERATURE
COLLIGATIVEPROPERTIESDEPENDONNUMBER,notkind
1) Vaporpressure
a. Addingnonvolatilesoluteswilllowervaporpressureofthesolutioninproportiontothe#of
particles
2) Boilingpoint
a. BoilingpointRISESwithadditionofnonvolatilesolutes
3) Freezingpoint
a. FreezingpointDECREASESwithadditionofnonvolatilesolutes
4) Osmoticpressure
a. Measureofthetendencyofwatertomoveintoasolutionviaosmosis
b. INCREASEDOSMOTICPRESSUREontheSOLUTIONSIDEOFTHEwatersolution
divisionbyanonpermeablemembranepurewaterenterssolutionsidetotrytoequalize
concentrations
AcidsandBases
ArrheniusAcidanyspeciesthatproducesHYDROGENIONSinaqueoussolutions
ArrheniusBaseanyspeciesthatproducesHYDROXIDEIONSinaqueoussolutions
Bronsted&LowryAcidanyspeciesthatDONATESaPROTON
Bronsted&LowryBaseanyspeciesthatACCEPTSaPROTON
LewisAcidanyspeciesthatACCEPTSanELECTRONPAIR
LewisBaseanyspeciesthatDONATESanELECTRONPAIR
ACIDICSOLUTIONcontainsmoreH+thanOH
BASICSOLUTIONcontainsmoreOHthanH+
pH=log[H+]
THESTRONGERTHEACID,theWEAKERTHECONJUGATEBASE
THESTRONGERTHEBASE,theWEAKERTHECONJUGATEACID
AMPHOTERICasubstancethatcanactaseitheranACIDoraBASE
3
3=log[10 ] OR 3=log[.003] VERYACIDIC
10
10=log[10 ] OR 10=log[.0000000001] VERYBASIC
HYDRONIUMION(H3O+)
STRONGACIDS(strongerthanH3O+) STRONGBASES(strongerthanOH)
Hydroiodicacid HI SodiumHydroxide NaOH
Hydrobromicacid HBr PotassiumHydroxide KOH
Hydrochloricacid HCl AmideIon NH2
NitricAcid HNO3 HydrideIon H
PerchloricAcid HClO4 CalciumHydroxide Ca(OH)2
ChloricAcid HClO3 SodiumOxide Na2O
SulfuricAcid H2SO4 CalciumOxide CaO
ACIDDISSOCIATIONDECREASESasACIDCONCENTRATIONINCREASES
ACIDSTRENGTHINCREASESasACIDCONCENTRATIONINCREASES
INCREASINGPOLARITY/BONDSTRENGTH=DECREASINGACIDITY
HIisSTRONGERthanHF
InaseriesofOXYACIDS,MOREOXYGENSisaSTRONGERACID
HYPOCHLOROUSacid<CHLOROUSacid<CHLORICacid<PERCHLORICacid
EQUILIBRIUMFORAUTOIONIZATIONOFWATERACIDBASEREACTIONS
Kwistheequilibriumconstantforthisreaction
14
Kw=[H+][OH]=10
pH+pOH=pKw
ForAqueousSolutionat25degreesCelsius
pH+pOH=14
ACIDDISSOCIATIONCONSTANTKa
HA+H2O>H3O++A
Ka=[H+][A]/[HA]
EQUILIBRIUMFORCONJUGATEBASE
A+H2O>OH+HA
Kb=[OH][HA]/[A]
(Ka)(Kb)=Kw
pKa+pKb=pKw
pKa+pKb=14
pKa=pHlog([A]/[HA])
IfpH>pK thenmoleculewillLOSEPROTON(chargeoverall)
a,
IfpH=pK thenmoleculehas50%CHANCEofLOSINGPROTON
a,
IfpH<pK thenmoleculewillprobablyGAINAPROTON(+chargeoverall)
a,
STRONGACIDhasKa>1ORApKa<0
FORSTRONGACIDS/BASES
Theentireconcentrationdissociates,so[H+]or[OH]isthesameastheoriginalconcentrationoftheacid/base
So0.1MHCLhas0.1M[H+]
TITRATION
dropbydropmixingofanacidandabase
PerformedtofindtheconcentrationofsomeunknownbycomparingitwiththeconcentrationoftheTITRANT
EQUIVALENCEPOINT/STOICHIOMETRICPOINTthemidpointofthegraphlinethatisalmostvertical
IftheBASEandtheACIDareequivalentinstrength,theequivalencepointisprobablypH7,unlessonespeciesis
diprotic
IftheBASEisSTRONGERthantheACID,thepointwillbeabovepH7
IftheACIDisSTRONGERthantheBASE,thepointwillbebelowpH7
HALFEQUIVALENCEPOINTpointwhereoftheacidhasbeenneutralizedbythebase
Theconcentrationoftheacidisequaltotheconcentrationofitsconjugatebase
Thispointshowsthepointinthetitrationwherethesolutionisthemostwellbuffered
HENDERSONHASSELBALCHEQUATIONthepHofthesolutionisequaltothepKaoftheacid
THEENDPOINTiswheretheINDICATORCHANGESCOLOR(ENDICATOR)
Electrochemistry
OxidationReduction
TheTRANSFERofelectronsfromoneatomtoanother
OXIDATIONISLOSINGELECTRONS;REDUCTIONISGAININGELECTRONS
OXIDATIONSTATES
PossibleCHARGEVALUESthatanatommayholdwithinamolecule
OxidationState Atom
0 Atomsintheirelementalform
1 Fluorine
+1 Hydrogen(exceptwhenbondedtoametal:then1)
2 Oxygen(exceptwhenitisinaperoxidelikeH2O2)
OxidationState GrouponPeriodicTable
+1 Group1Elements(alkalimetals)
+2 Group2Elements(alkalineearthmetals)
3 Group15Elements(nitrogenfamily)
2 Group16Elements(oxygenfamily)
1 Group17Elements(halogens)
TheReducingAgentisOXIDIZED
TheOxidizingAgentisREDUCED
Potentials
ThereisanELECTRICPOTENTIALEassociatedwithanyredoxreaction
EachcomponentisaHALFREACTION
REDUCTIONPOTENTIALEmustbePOSITIVEforittooccur.
TakeEofsubstanceBEINGREDUCED,subtractEforthesubstanceBEINGOXIDIZED
ESUBSTANCEBEINGREDUCEDESUBSTANCEBEINGOXIDIZED>0
HalfreactionthatoccursatastandardHYDROGENELECTRODEisarbitrarilyassignedasZEROVOLTS
TheGALVANICCELL(a.k.a.VOLTAICCELL)
ChemicalEnergyINTOElectricalEnergy
MultiphaseSeriesofcomponentswithnocomponentoccurringinmorethanonephase
Allphasesmustconductelectricity
AtleastONEPHASEmustbeIMPERMEABLETOELECTRONS
IONICCONDUCTORisusedtocarrycurrentinformofIONS
ThisIONICCONDUCTORisusuallyaSALTBRIDGE
Terminal1Electrode1IonicconductorElectrode2Terminal2
TheemfistheELECTRICPOTENTIALDIFFERENCEbetweenTerminal &Terminal
1 2
AnodeNEGATIVE CathodePOSITIVE(thinkcation)
REDCAT;ANOX
Reductioncathode;anodeoxidation
IUPACConventionExample
2+ 2+
Pt(s)|Zn(s)|Zn (aq)||Cu (aq)|Cu(s)|Pt(s)
FREEENERGY&ChemicalEnergy
G=nFE
MAX
G=G+RTln(Q)
G=RTln(K)
GalvanicCell ElectrolyticCell
PositiveCATHODE NegativeCathode
NegativeAnode PositiveANODE
POSITIVEEMFPOTENTIAL NEGATIVEEMFPOTENTIAL
ElectronsflowtowardCATHODE ElectronsflowtowardANODE