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ECONOMIC POLICY
IDEAS TO BE COVERED
Aims of government policy
Definition of fiscal policy
Automatic and discretionary fiscal stabilisers
The disadvantages of discretionary policy
Expansionary and contractionary fiscal policy
Definition of monetary policy
The repo rate
The transmission of monetary policy
Expansionary and contractionary monetary policy
Bank of England independence
Possible disadvantages of monetary policy
Supplyside policies
Linking supplyside policies to an AD/AS analysis
Expenditure reducing and expenditure switching trade policies
Regional policy
Regional Development Agencies
The new Competition Act
The Competition Commission
The DGFT
WORK TO BE COMPLETED
ITEM OF WORK HOME\ DATE FOR
CLASS COMPLETION
WORK
[a] Outline the aims of government economic
policy {10}
[b] Explain how monetary policy might be used
in an attempt to achieve these objectives {60}
[c] Explain the difficulties that might arise in
the operation of monetary policy {30}
REFERENCES
References included in the handout notes on this topic
MANAGING THE ECONOMY
AIMS OF GOVERNMENT POLICY
There are four basic aims of government economic policy. These are:
· Low level of unemployment
· Low inflation
· Economic growth and rising standard of living
· Current account equilibrium on the balance of payments
Some postwar British governments have added the objective of:
A more even distribution of income between individuals and regions and,
more recently, concern for the environment.
In practice, governments have difficulty in achieving all of the aims of
policy at once and have therefore had to prioritise their objectives. For
example, achieving economic growth and falling unemployment at the
expense of rising inflation and current account deficit. Or controlling
inflation at the expense of increasing unemployment and falling economic
growth rates. Simply, one policy objective may have to be tradedoff against
another.
At this point you should read the Economics Today article on the difficulty
in achieving economic policy objectives.
Also, revise your understanding of the following terms and ideas:
v Phillips Curve
v The trade cycle and “stopgo”
v Economic growth and the balance of payments
v The natural rate of unemployment
v Potential output
v The multiplier
REALISING POLICY OBJECTIVES
The emphasis in the specification is on:
v Demand side policies with reference to fiscal policy, monetary policy
and exchange rates.
v Supply side policies with especial reference to education and training,
reduction in trade union power and reduction in unemployment benefits.
However, you should also be familiar with:
v Trade policies
v Direct policies such as:
Ø Regional policy
Ø Competition policy
Ø Incomes policy
FISCAL POLICY
Fiscal policy can be defined as government policy with regard to its own
spending, taxation and borrowing.
In a recession the government might initiate an expansionary fiscal policy
by lowering taxation, increasing its own expenditure and, possibly, financing
any budget deficit by borrowing {by issuing Treasury Bills and GiltEdged
Stock}. The extra demand generated in the economy would lead to an
increase in production by firms who would employ more labour and so
reduce unemployment. The aims of economic growth and low
unemployment may eventually be achieved. However, a continuation of
fiscal expansion may “overshoot” with the result that increased demand
leads to the “suckingin” of imports and a rise in prices [demandpull
inflation]. Hence the aims of low inflation and a sound balance of payments
on current account may be missed.
If the economy enters a boom with higher rates of inflation and a growing
current account deficit then a contractionary fiscal policy may be used.
Such a policy requires a rise in taxation, a reduction in government spending
and, possibly, a budget surplus. The reduction in spending within the
economy by households, firms and the government will lower demandpull
inflation and reduce the current account deficit. However, the opportunity
cost of such a policy will be reduced economic growth and growing
unemployment.
The scenarios above involved discretionary fiscal policy. However, you
should also be aware of the operation of automatic or builtin fiscal
stabilisers. Please read and note the following references:
· Economics Today article: Why Do Governments Experience Conflicts
Between Macroeconomic Objectives?
· Essay handout: [A] What are the main macroeconomic objectives of UK
governments? [B] Suggest reasons for the difficulty in achieving these
objectives [C] How successful has the government been in achieving
these objectives in recent years?
· Essay handout: [A] Explain the difference between automatic and
discretionary fiscal policies [B] What problems can arise in the operation
of discretionary fiscal policies?
· Economics Today article on Fiscal policy
It is important to note the possible failings of discretionary fiscal policy.
Note the term crowding out as well as the possible effect of a growing
PSNCR on the money supply.
MONETARY POLICY
Monetary policy can be defined as policy with regard to the money supply and interest rates.
The monetary authorities are only able to set interest rates or the money supply: not both!
In the GCE we are concerned with the use of interest rates only. In fact, the
interest rate has become the intermediate target of monetary policy. This is
largely because of difficulty in both defining and controlling the money
supply in practice.
The incoming Labour government gave operational independence to the
Bank of England. The government has set an inflation target of 1.52.5%
P/A [measured by RPIX] but the Bank sets the interest rate to achieve this
target. The interest rate set by the Bank is now known as the repo rate and
represents the rate at which it will provide liquidity to the money market.
This basic rate influences the structure of rates within the economy.
It is essential that you understand the transmission of monetary policy i.e.
the way that a change in interest rate can influence spending in the economy
and so affect the main aims of economic policy.
Read and note the following references:
Economic Review articles:
· The transmission of monetary policy
· Monetary policy and the Bank of England
What are the potential difficulties in using monetary policy?
An expansionary monetary policy would entail a reduction in interest rates
by The Bank of England resulting in, hopefully, a reduction in saving and an
increase in borrowing by households and firms. The effects of this will be
similar to the expansionary fiscal policy outlined earlier. Falling interest
rates might positively affect the price of property and lead to further
economic expansion through the wealth effect. A decrease in interest rates
might also lead to an outflow of hot money and a subsequent fall in the
value of sterling. Again this would have a potentially expansionary effect on
the economy.
A contractionary monetary policy would entail a rise in interest rates
resulting in an increase in saving and a reduction in borrowing. Again, the
effects of this will be similar to the contractionary fiscal policy outlined
earlier. What would be the effect of rising interest rates on the housing
market? On sterling? On the economy?
Consider the handout on the case for and against central band
independence.
SUPPLYSIDE POLICIES
Supplyside policies attempt to make the markets for goods/services and
labour etc. more competitive and productive and so increase output and
employment etc. in the economy.
Some examples of supplyside policies are:
· Promoting improved skills and education that will improve occupational
and geographical mobility. Production will increase as skill shortages are
reduced and some people find work in other areas. Consider the
introduction of the Training and Enterprise Councils [TECs] and the
system of NVQs and GNVQs.
· Reduction of benefits relative to paid employment. Recent governments
have indexlinked benefits rather than link them to rises in pay within the
economy. As wages have been rising faster than inflation so those on
benefits have become worseoff relative to those in paid employment. It
is hoped that those on benefits will be encouraged to seek training and
employment. Work, rather than Jobseeker’s Allowance and Income
Support, has also been encouraged by the recent introduction of The
Working Families’ Tax Credit that, through the tax system, subsidises
those in low paid jobs.
· The government’s New Deal was originally designed to [a] provide
subsidies to help secure work for the young and longterm unemployed
or [b] education or training or [c] work in the voluntary sector or
Environmental Task Force. The scheme has now been extended to other
groups. Sanctions are taken against those who do not participate.
· Legislation to reduce the power of Trade Unions and, therefore, their
ability to raise pay rates. It is argued that action to raise pay will result in
a loss of jobs in an industry.
· Reduction in income tax rates to encourage people to work and be more
enterprising.
· Privatisation of nationalised industries to promote competition and,
therefore, and increase productivity and production. Strengthening
competition policy is designed to have a similar effect on business.
Please remember that the Monopolies and Mergers Commission has been
replaced by the Competition Commission.
Look at your previous notes on supply side policies.
Be able to illustrate and explain policies using AD/AS diagrams.
It is hoped that supplyside policies, by making markets more efficient and
productive, will help the government achieve its economic policy goals.
How?
TRADE POLICIES
The authorities can use expenditure reducing and expenditure switching
policies in order to tackle a deficit on the current account of the balance of
payments. See your previous notes on these policies. Please note the
possible effects of the policies on the economic aims of the government.
Also, remember the possible links between interest rates, sterling and
inflation and economic growth.
REGIONAL POLICY
Areas of economic decline and high unemployment are classified as
development areas and intermediate areas. Firms creating jobs in
development areas are automatically entitled to a regional development
grant [RDG] of 15% of investment up to $3000 per job created. Regional
Selective Assistance is available to firms in both types of area in order to
create or preserve jobs. RSA is, however, discretionary.
Recently, the government has created a system of Regional Development
Agencies for Englandthey were already in existence in other parts of UK
that are expected to promote growth and jobs in their region. The Agencies
have limited funds from central government but may have access to EU
regional assistance funds.
INCOMES POLICY
In the 1960s and 1970s governments sometimes tried to control inflation by
limiting, often by legislation, the rise in wages within the country. Revise
your notes on inflation at this point!
COMPETITION POLICY
The new Competition Act took effect from March 2000. The MMC became
the Competition Commission and is now divided into two parts:
· One dealing with monopoly and merger inquiries
· The other made up of new Appeals Tribunals to hear appeals against
decisions and penalties levied by the DGFT.
The investigatory powers of the DGFT with regard antcompetitive practices
and powers to levy penalties have been greatly increased.
Similar powers to the DGFT have been given to the regulators of the
privatised utilities within their remit.
Increased competition may lead to lower prices and increased production.