MEC 681:

MATERIALS FOR ENGINEERING APPLICATION

ASSIGNMENT 1

PREPARED BY:

NO NAME STUDENT ID
1 MAIZURA BINTI MOKHLIS 2012578713
2 NURUL AZIAH BINTI MAZLAN 2012261078
3 NUR AIZA IRA BINTI IBRAHIM 2012221748
4 RASYIDAH BINTI KADIS 2012290638
5 SITI AISHAH BNTI ERWAN 2012673086
6 SYARLINAIDAYU BINI YAACOB 2012829074

GROUP NO:

EM220 8G2

PREPARED FOR:

DR. NIK ROZLIN

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

2016
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 3
1.0 DESIGN STRUCTURE.............................................................................................................. 4
2.0 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS ...................... 5
3.0 MATERIALS PROCESSING AND DESIGN LIMITATIONS ................................................ 9
DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................. 12
CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................................................... 15
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 16

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Microstructure of HSLA steel. ................................................................................................ 8

Figure 2: Thermomechanical process of HSLA steel. ............................................................................ 9
Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the stages of controlled rolling. ......................................................... 10

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INTRODUCTION

3
1.0 DESIGN STRUCTURE

4
2.0 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES AND MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

The most important material used to manufacture tower cranes is steel, which is an
alloy of iron mixed with small of carbon to increase its hardness. Carbon steel is used for
structures that do not require very high strength. High strength low alloy (HSLA) steels or
microalloyed steels are chosen in manufacturing of tower cranes that are designed to lift very
high objects from one place to another and mainly it is use in constructing high rise buildings,
housing projects, dock, dams and bridges.

HSLA steels are stronger, they can be used in thinner sections, making them
particularly attractive for tower crane components where weight reduction is important.
HSLA steels are available in all standard shaped forms such as sheet, strip, plate, structural
shapes, bar size shapes and special shapes. These steels have high yield strengths, in the
range of 300-700 MPa. Besides that, many varieties of other materials are also used in
manufacturing of cranes such as natural or synthetic rubbers used to make tires for cranes and
electrical components may include semiconductors such as germanium, silicon and copper
wires for electrical circuits.

A typical HSLA steel contain about 0.15% carbon, 1.65% manganese and low levels
(under 0.035%) of phosphorus and sulphur. It is also contain other elements such as:

Element Percentage added Effect on properties

Copper 0.2 1.5 Improves atmospheric corrosion resistance
Nickle At least half of the copper Benefits surface quality
content
Niobium 0.02 Increased tensile strength and yield point
Nitrogen 0.003 0.012 Contributes to strength and can improve
weldability
Vanadium Up to 0.12 Increase strength without reducing
weldability

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 High-strength low-alloy steels include many standard and proprietary grades designed
to provide specific desirable combinations of properties such as strength, toughness,
formability, weldability, and atmospheric corrosion resistance. These steels are not
considered alloy steels, even though their desired properties are achieved by the use of small
alloy additions. Instead, HSLA steels are classified as a separate steel category, which is
similar to as-rolled mild-carbon steel with enhanced mechanical properties obtained by the
addition of small amounts of alloys.

Classification of HSLA
HSLA steels can be divided into six categories:

1. Weathering steels which contain small amounts of alloying elements such as copper
and phosphorus for improved atmospheric corrosion resistance and solid-solution
strengthening
2. Microalloyed ferrite-pearlite steels which contain very small (generally, less than
0.10%) additions of strong carbide or carbonitride forming elements such as niobium,
vanadium, and titanium for precipitation strengthening, grain refinement, and possibly
transformation temperature control
3. As-rolled pearlitic steels which may include carbon-manganese steels but which may
also have small additions of other alloying elements to enhance strength, toughness,
formability, and weldability
4. Acicular ferrite (low-carbon bainite) steels which are low-carbon (less than 0.05%
C) steels with an excellent combination of high yield strengths, weldability,
formability, and good toughness
5. Dual-phase steels which have a microstructure of martensite dispersed in a ferritic
matrix and provide a good combination of ductility and high tensile strength
6. Inclusion-shape-controlled steels which provide improved ductility and through-
thickness toughness by the small additions of calcium, zirconium, or titanium, or
perhaps rare earth elements so that the shape of the sulfide inclusions is changed from
elongated stringers to small, dispersed, almost spherical globules

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 These categories are not necessarily distinct groupings, as HSLA steel may have
characteristics from more than one grouping. For example, all the above types of
steels can be inclusion shape controlled. Microalloyed ferrite-pearlite steel may also
have additional alloys for corrosion resistance and solid-solution strengthening.

Some characteristics for HSLA steels that can make the good material for tower crane is
listed below :

HSLA steels are much stronger and tougher than ordinary carbon steels.
High strength to weight ratio
Improved low temperature toughness
Fatigue resistance
High temperature creep resistance
Atmospheric corrosion resistant
Ductility
High formable
Weldablity

Furthermore, the strength of all steels including HSLA steels, come from their
microstructures. Strength is increased by:

Refining the ferrite grain size (grain size effect)

Solid solution strengthening
Precipitation strengthening
Dislocation strengthening/ work hardening
Transformation strengthening

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MICROSTRUCTURE OF HSLA STEELS.

The FCC to BCC transformation in HSLA steels:

Figure 1: Microstructure of HSLA steel.

HSLA steels have a low carbon (0.15%C) content with around 1.3% Mn added, along with
smaller additions (less than 0.1%) of carbide and nitride forming elements such as Nb, Ti and
Ta. The resulting precipitates (typically NbCN, TiC) restrict the growth of ferrite grains
during processing (slab reheating, hot rolling and annealing) to produce fine-grained and
therefore stronger steel. Figure 1 above shows the grain refinement of HSLA steels as they
are cooled down from the austenitic phase down to room temperature.

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3.0 MATERIALS PROCESSING AND DESIGN LIMITATIONS

MATERIALS PROCESSING

High-Strength Low-Alloy Steel (HSLA) also known as Micro-alloyed steel. These

materials are strengthened by adding the elements Niobium (Nb), Vanadium (V), Titanium
(Ti) either singly or in combination. The micro-alloying elements are used along with other
strengtheners such as boron, molybdenum, chromium, nickel and copper and their use is
accompanied by strict control of impurities such as sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen and
phosphorus. Strengthening by micro-alloying dramatically reduces the carbon content which
greatly improves weldability and notch toughness.

Before this, the traditional rolling routes and heat treatment methods for making HSLA
steel were not suitable to apply the required process attributes. Therefore the extensive
research has been conduct and led to the development of thermomechanical processing. The
following figure describes the thermomechanical process:

Figure 2: Thermomechanical process of HSLA steel.

For microalloyed steel grades, dissolution during soaking (reheating) and conditioning of
austenite (strain, strain rates, deformation temperatures) prior to transformation are extremely
important parameters to be taken care of.

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 In comparison to structural steel grades which are strengthened by solid solution
hardening elements, such as Manganese or Silicon and different amounts of pearlite
(dependent on carbon content) microalloyed steel grades derive a significant amount of their
strength from precipitation hardening by Titanium-Niobium carbonitrides, Vanadium
carbides and from the grain refinement caused by thermomechanical treatment. That means
during hot rolling, deformation induced precipitation of microalloying elements like Ti(C,N)
and Nb(C,N) occurs. These fine precipitates as well as the microalloying elements in solution
delay the recrystallization of the deformed austenite which then after the last stand of the
finishing mill transforms in a dislocation enriched fine grained ferrite.

The strength level of the HSLA steels can be enhanced both by increasing the amount of
precipitates (e.g. higher Ti, V and Nb contents) and by using solid solution hardening
elements such as Silicon.Actually, the austenite grains may recrystallize several times during
hot-controlled-rolling,but the total effect of this will be a marked refinement in austenite
grains by the time the steel reaches austenite to ferrite transformation temperature. In the later
stages of austenite deformation at lower temperatures, recrystallization may not occur. The
elongated, flattened (pan-caked) austenite grains may then transform directly to fine ferrite,
or may be cooled rapidly from the finish rolling temperature so that austenite to ferrite
transformation takes place sub-critically to produce still finer ferrite grains. A schematic
diagram of the stages of controlled rolling is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 3: Schematic diagram of the stages of controlled rolling.

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Ar3 =Temperature at which austenite to ferrite transformation begins

Ar1 = Temperature at which austenite to ferrite transformation is complete

TR = Recrystallization stop temperature

The production process of HSLA steel using thermomechanical treatment starts with soaking
in a reheating furnace at an appropriate reheating temperature. The reheating temperature
thus, is essentially the highest temperature to which the steel is heated during

thermomechanical processing, in order to ensure the maximum dissolution of the

microalloying elements present. The amount of microalloying content in solution at the end
of reheating influences the recrystallization kinetics, recrystallized grain size, grain growth
and further precipitation in both austenite and ferrite. The reheating temperature controls the:

initial austenite grain size

solution and precipitation of the micro-alloy carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides

DESIGN LIMITATION

Although the HSLA steel has many advantages but there are also have limitations. Their
use is limited due to design factors such as structural rigidity requirements and the fatigue
strength of we1ded joints. Besides that, the corrosion rate can be a limiting factor unless
precautions are taken to avoid it such as app1ying special protective coatings to the steel.
Furthermore, ductility and toughness of HSLA steel are not as good as quenched and
tempered (Q&T) steels. They must also be heated hot enough for all of the alloys. Therefore,
after forming, the material must be quickly cooled to 540 to 600 C (1,004 to 1,112 F).

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DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

DISCUSSION

As we can analyze from all tragedies of cranes, the collapses can be a very serious
matter where equipment failure or human error can lead to death. Based on analysis made
from several reports on the case, has been said that likely 75% listed that the cause of the
accidents are caused by equipment failures compared to human errors. From this case of the
crane collapse in San Francisco, one of the causes is the pre-existing crack in a connection
plate and a structural member and brittle behaviour of the materials associated with welding
details may have contributed to the failure. The laboratory tests of the climbing section and
the tower section indicate the materials had adequate strength, ductility and toughness for
structural purposes. Two pre-existing cracks were found, however. One pre-existing crack
was found in the north flange or the southwest leg of tower section 14 at the junction of the
weld of two diagonals. The other crack was found in the vertical plane where the guide pin
was welded to the connection plate. These cracks created weak points in the structure and
could have precipitated failure. Given the brittle nature of the observed fractures, they
probably occurred at the same time the failure stress state was reached. The Climbing
operation ceased, however, and the crane was in a state of equilibrium immediately prior to
the collapse.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Make use of HSLA material to build a crane

For structures that require great strength, particularly in cranes designed to lift very heavy
objects, it is recommended that a variety of substances known as high-strength low-alloy
(HSLA) steels are used. HSLA steels contain relatively low levels of carbon, typically about
0.05%. They also contain a small amount of one or more other elements that add strength.
These elements include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, titanium, and niobium.
Besides being strong, HSLA steels are resistant to atmospheric corrosion and are better suited
to welding than carbon steels.

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 2. The rigger must be trained in general crane operations and specifically in
proper load handling procedures.
It is recommended that the top management should send a letter recommending industry to
revise all necessary guidelines to include appropriate training guidelines for riggers. Although
they have been provided with a very good guidance for operating offshore cranes, it is
believed that it is still poor in its lack of discussion about crane riggers. It is extremely
important that riggers are properly trained because they are often the ones that get injured or
killed.

3. Require third party inspections/certifications.

The top management should seriously consider requiring inspection/certification of all
cranes installed on fixed platforms. This requirement could be similar to the USCG's
requirements for load testing and re-certifying cranes every four years. Although some may
consider this a prescriptive measure, we believe it is necessary to ensure that operators
properly maintain their cranes. This action may prevent some of the incidents that occur after
something fails or breaks.

4. Improve accident investigations and reports.

The top management also must significantly improve the way it conducts accident
investigations and reports the findings if they want to use the reports for understanding and
analyzing why accidents occur. Right now the reports do an adequate job of telling us what
happened, but they don't do a good enough job of explaining why it happened. One option
would be to establish an office that has accident investigation as its sole purpose and hire
qualified accident investigators to do the job (accident investigation and analysis should be
their only job). Although this recommendation does not give immediate answers to
improving crane safety, it would provide their company with a better understanding of all
accidents. Understanding why accidents happen should also give the company another tool
for measuring operator performance.

5. Industry workshop on crane safety.

It has been suggested that the top management of the company to host or participate in an
industry workshop on crane safety. It is one of the best method solutions to stimulate industry
recognition of crane safety. However, in this type of workshop, it should focus on some of
the more recent accidents and lessons learned. Participants should include USCG, API,

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Offshore Operators Committee, International Association of Drilling Contractors, and other
interested parties to discuss crane safety issues, policies and appropriate regulations.
Invitations should also be extended to crane manufacturers, crane suppliers, work boat
contractors, and others that move equipment and supplies to and from offshore platforms.
Such a diverse group of participants could provide valuable insight for learning more about
training needs for riggers and overall crane safety

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, choosing a material that suitable and fulfil the needs of required
application is important in order to avoid any failure and accidents occur. In this case, to
avoid the tower crane from collapse the right material must choose. Therefore, we suggest the
material that suitable to use is HSLA steel. This material have HSLA steels are high strength
to weight ratio, improved low temperature toughness ,fatigue resistance, high temperature
creep resistance, atmospheric corrosion resistant, ductility, high formable and weldablity. The
design limitations also need to consider in choosing of material. However to get the good
materials properties the materials processing must be conduct properly. Therefore, the
materials will have good mechanical properties. Hence, the failure of the materials can be
reduce in the meantime the accidents can be avoid.

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REFERENCES

1. Imao Tamura, H. S., Tomo Tanaka,Chiaki Ouchi (1988). "Thermomechanical

Processing of High-strength Low-alloy Steels."
2. Morrison, W. B. (2010). "Overview of Microalloying in Steel."
3. Mattes, V. R. (December, 1990). "MICROSTRUCTURE AND MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES OF HSLA-100 STEEL."
4. M. Mujahid, A. K. L., C. I. Garcia, A. J. DeArdo (April 1998). "HSLA-100 steels:
Influence of aging heat treatment on microstructure and properties." Volume 7(Issue
2 ): pp 247-257.

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