Active suspension

Active suspension is a type of automotive suspension that controls the vertical movement of the wheels relative to the chassis or vehicle body with an onboard
system, rather than in passive suspension where the movement is being determined entirely by the road surface; see Skyhook theory. Active suspensions can be
generally divided into two classes: pure active suspensions, and adaptive/semi-active suspensions. While adaptive suspensions only vary shock absorber firmness to
match changing road or dynamic conditions, active suspensions use some type of actuator to raise and lower the chassis independently at each wheel.

These technologies allow car manufacturers to achieve a greater degree of ride quality and car handling by keeping the tires perpendicular to the road in corners,
allowing better traction (engineering) and control. An onboard computer detects body movement from sensors throughout the vehicle and, using data calculated by
opportune control techniques, controls the action of the active and semi-active suspensions. The system virtually eliminates body roll and pitch variation in many
driving situations including cornering, accelerating, and braking.

Contents
1 Principle
2 Active
2.1 Hydraulic actuation
2.2 Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension
2.3 Active anti-roll bar
2.4 Electromagnetic recuperative
2.5 Active Wheel
3 Adaptive
3.1 Solenoid/valve actuated
3.2 Magnetorheological damper
4 Some production vehicles with active and semiactive suspension
5 References

Principle
Skyhook theory is the theory that active suspension systems are targeting. More clearly, to have the vehicle maintain a stable posture as if
suspended by an imaginary hook in the sky, unaffected by road conditions.

Since an actual skyhook is impractical and impossible, real active suspension systems are based on actuator operations. The imaginary line (of
zero vertical acceleration) is calculated based on the value provided by an acceleration sensor installed on the top of the vehicle (Fig. 3). Since the
Fig. 1
dynamic elements are only made up of the linear spring and the linear damper, no complicated calculations are necessary.[1][2]

A vehicle contacts the ground through the spring and damper in a normal spring damper suspension, as in Fig. 1. To achieve the same level of
stability as the Skyhook theory, the vehicle must contact the ground through the spring, and the imaginary line with the damper, as in Fig. 1. Theoretically, in a case
where the coefficient of the damper reaches an infinite value, the vehicle will be in a state where it is completely fixed to the imaginary line, thus the vehicle will not
shake.

Active
Active suspensions, the first to be introduced, use separate actuators which can exert an independent force on the suspension to improve the riding characteristics. The
drawbacks of this design are high cost, added complication and mass of the apparatus, and the need for frequent maintenance on some implementations. Maintenance
can require specialised tools, and some problems can be difficult to diagnose.

Hydraulic actuation
Hydraulically actuated suspensions are controlled with the use of hydraulics. The first example appeared in 1954, with the Hydropneumatic suspension developed
by Paul Mags at Citron. The hydraulic pressure is supplied by a high pressure radial piston hydraulic pump. Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle
ride level, constantly supplying the hydraulic height correctors with new data. In a matter of a few seconds, the suspension generates counter forces to raise or lower the
body.[3] During driving maneuvers, the encased nitrogen compresses instantly, offering six times the compressibility of the steel springs used by vehicles up to this time.
[4]

In practice, the system has always incorporated the desirable self-levelling suspension and height adjustable suspension features, with the latter now tied to vehicle
speed for improved aerodynamic performance, as the vehicle lowers itself at high speed.

This system performed remarkably well in straight ahead driving, including over uneven surfaces, but had little control over roll stiffness.[5]

Millions of production vehicles have been built with variations on this system.

Electronic actuation of hydraulic suspension

Colin Chapman developed the original concept of computer management of hydraulic suspension in the 1980s to improve cornering in racing cars. Lotus fitted and
developed a prototype system to a 1985 Excel with electro-hydraulic active suspension, but never offered it for sale to the public, although many demonstration cars
were built for other manufacturers.

Sensors continually monitor body movement and vehicle ride level, constantly supplying the computer with new data. As the computer receives and processes data, it
operates the hydraulic servos, mounted beside each wheel. Almost instantly, the servo-regulated suspension generates counter forces to body lean, dive, and squat
during driving maneuvers.

Williams Grand Prix Engineering prepared an active suspension for F1 cars in 1992, creating such successful cars that the Fdration Internationale de l'Automobile
decided to ban the technology.[6]

Computer Active Technology Suspension (CATS) co-ordinates the best possible balance between ride quality and handling by analysing road conditions and making up
to 3,000 adjustments every second to the suspension settings via electronically controlled dampers.

The 1999 Mercedes-Benz CL-Class (C215) introduced Active Body Control, where high pressure hydraulic servos are controlled by electronic computing, and this
feature is still available.

Active anti-roll bar

Active anti-roll bar stiffens under command of the suspension Electronic control unit (ECU) during hard cornering. First production car was Citron Xantia Activa in
1994.

Electromagnetic recuperative
In fully active electronically controlled production cars, the application of electric servos and motors married to electronic computing allows for flat cornering and
instant reactions to road conditions.

The Bose Corporation has a proof of concept model. The founder of Bose, Amar Bose, had been working on exotic suspensions for many years while he was an MIT
professor.[7]

Electromagnetic active suspension uses linear electromagnetic motors attached to each wheel. It provides extremely fast response, and allows regeneration of power
consumed, by using the motors as generators. This nearly surmounts the issues of slow response times and high power consumption of hydraulic systems. Electronically
controlled active suspension system (ECASS) technology was patented by the University of Texas Center for Electromechanics in the 1990s[8] and has been developed by
L-3 Electronic Systems for use on military vehicles.[9] The ECASS-equipped HMMWV exceeded the performance specifications for all performance evaluations in terms
of absorbed power to the vehicle operator, stability and handling.

Active Wheel
Michelin's Active Wheel from 2004 incorporates an in-wheel electrical suspension motor that controls torque distribution, traction, turning maneuvers, pitch, roll and
suspension damping for that wheel, in addition to an in-wheel electric traction motor.[10][11]

Audi active electromechanical suspension system introduced in 2017. It drives each wheel individually and adapts to the prevailing road conditions. Each wheel
has an electric motor which is powered by the 48-volt main electrical system. Additional components include gears, a rotary tube together with internal titanium
torsion bar and a lever which exerts up to 1,100 Nm (811.3 lb-ft) on the suspension via a coupling rod. Thanks to the front camera, the sedan detects bumps in the
road early on and predictively adjusts the active suspension. Even before the car reaches a bump in the road, the preview function developed by Audi transmits the
right amount of travel to the actuators and actively controls the suspension. The computer controlled motors can sense imperfection on the road, and can raise the
suspension up from the wheel which would go over the undulation, thus aiding the ride quality. The system will direct the motors on the outside to push up or pull
down the suspension while cornering. This will result in a flatter drive and reduced body-roll around corners which in turn means more confident handling
dynamics.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18]

Adaptive
Adaptive or semi-active systems can only change the viscous damping coefficient of the shock absorber, and do not add energy to the suspension system. Though
limited in their intervention (for example, the control force can never have different direction than the current vector of velocity of the suspension), semi-active
suspensions are less expensive to design and consume far less energy. In recent times, research in semi-active suspensions has continued to advance with respect to
their capabilities, narrowing the gap between semi-active and fully active suspension systems.

Solenoid/valve actuated
This type is the most economic and basic type of semi-active suspensions. They consist of a solenoid valve which alters the flow of the hydraulic medium inside the
shock absorber, therefore changing the damping characteristics of the suspension setup. The solenoids are wired to the controlling computer, which sends them
commands depending on the control algorithm (usually the so-called "Sky-Hook" technique). This type of system is used in Cadillac's Computer Command Ride (CCR)
suspension system. The first production car was the Toyota Soarer with semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension, from 1983.

Magnetorheological damper
Another fairly recent method incorporates magnetorheological dampers with a brand name MagneRide. It was initially developed by Delphi Corporation for GM
and was standard, as many other new technologies, for Cadillac STS (from model 2002), and on some other GM models from 2003. This was an upgrade for semi-active
systems ("automatic road-sensing suspensions") used in upscale GM vehicles for decades. It allows, together with faster modern computers, changing the stiffness of all
wheel suspensions independently. These dampers are finding increased usage in the US and already leases to some foreign brands, mostly in more expensive vehicles.

This system was in development for 25 years. The damper fluid contains metallic particles. Through the onboard computer, the dampers' compliance characteristics are
controlled by an electromagnet. Essentially, increasing the current flow into the damper magnetic circuit increases the circuit magnetic flux. This in turn causes the
metal particles to change their alignment, which increases fluid viscosity thereby raising the compression/rebound rates, while a decrease softens the effect of the
dampers by aligning the particles in the opposite direction. If we imagine the metal particles as dinner plates then whilst aligned so they are on edge - viscosity is
minimised. At the other end of the spectrum they will be aligned at 90 degrees so flat. Thus making the fluid much more viscous. It is the electric field produced by the
electromagnet that changes the alignment of the metal particles. Information from wheel sensors (about suspension extension), steering, acceleration sensors - and
other data, is used to calculate the optimizal stiffness at that point in time. The fast reaction of the system (milliseconds) allows, for instance, making a softer passing by
a single wheel over a bump in the road at a particular instant in time.

Some production vehicles with active and semiactive suspension

1955: Citron DS: premiere of fully active self-leveling Citroen hydropneumatic suspension
1957: Cadillac Eldorado Brougham: premiere of active self-leveling GM air suspension
1983: Toyota Soarer: premiere of semi-active Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS)
1986: Toyota Soarer: world first Electronically controlled (TEMS) full air suspension (spring constant, variable attenuation force) installed
1989 Citron XM (Hydractive, semi-active)
1987 BMW M3 "BOGE adjustable damping" system
1990 *First semi-active suspension scanning the road ahead (sonar) - 1990 Nissan Leopard/Nissan Cedric/Nissan Maxima/Nissan J30 DUET-SS Super Sonic
Suspension
1990 Infiniti Q45 "Full-Active Suspension (FAS)", active suspension system, although it did still have conventional coil springs
1992 Toyota Celica (Toyota Electronically Modulated Suspension)
1992 Citron Xantia VSX (Hydractive 2, semi-active)
1993 Cadillac, several models with RSS road sensing suspension. RSS was available in both standard and CVRSS (continuously variable road sensing
suspension) systems. It monitored damping rates of the shock absorbers every 15 milliseconds, selecting between two settings.
1994 October: Toyota Celsior introduced first Skyhook air suspension
2002 Cadillac Seville STS, first MagneRide

References
10. Dogget, Scott (2008-12-01). "Michelin to Commercialize Active Wheel;
1. Song, Xubin (2009). "Cost-Effective Skyhook Control for Semiactive Vehicle
Technology to Appear in 2010 Cars" (https://web.archive.org/web/200902100
Suspension Applications" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304025457/htt
31544/http://blogs.edmunds.com/greencaradvisor/2008/12/michelin-to-comm
p://www.bentham-open.com/contents/pdf/TOMEJ/TOMEJ-3-17.pdf) (PDF).
ercialize-active-wheel-technology-to-appear-in-2010-cars.html). Green Car
The Open Mechanical Engineering Journal. US. Archived from the original (htt
Advisor. Edmunds.com. Archived from the original (http://blogs.edmunds.com/
p://www.bentham-open.com/contents/pdf/TOMEJ/TOMEJ-3-17.pdf) (PDF) on
greencaradvisor/2008/12/michelin-to-commercialize-active-wheel-technology-
2016-03-04.
to-appear-in-2010-cars.html) on 2009-02-10. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
2. Hasebe, Masanobu; Phuc, Pham Van; Ohyama, Takumi (2010).
11. "MICHELIN ACTIVE WHEEL Press Kit" (http://www.michelin.com/corporate/d
"Fundamental Performance of a Hydraulically Actuated Friction Damper for
ocument.DocumentRepositoryServlet?codeDocument=7735&codeRubrique=
Seismic Isolation System Based on the Skyhook Theory" (http://ci.nii.ac.jp/nai
salonauto2008&codeRepository=MICHCORP&lang=EN). Michelin. 2008-09-
d/130004507958/). J. Struct. Constr. Eng. Japan. 75 (658): 2133. ISSN 1340-
26. Retrieved 2009-09-15.
4202 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1340-4202). doi:10.3130/aijs.75.2133 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.3130%2Faijs.75.2133). 12. "Looking ahead to the new Audi A8: Fully active suspension offers tailor-made
flexibility" (https://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/press-releases/looking-ahea
3. "Fluid Suspension (Automobile)" (http://what-when-how.com/automobile/fluid-
d-to-the-new-audi-a8-fully-active-suspension-offers-tailor-made-flexibility-904
suspension-automobile/). What-When-How. Retrieved 2017-05-14.
6) (Press release). Audi. 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2017-06-24.
4. Moonjeli, Varun Joy (2011). "Analysis of Hydropneumatic Suspension" (http
13. Adcock, Ian (2017-06-17). "New Audi A8s robot suspension explained" (htt
s://www.scribd.com/document/273820060/Analysis-of-Hydropneumatic-Suspe
p://www.carmagazine.co.uk/car-news/tech/new-2017-audi-a8-active-suspensi
nsion). Amal Jyoti College of Engineering: 15. Retrieved 2017-05-07.
on-explained/). Car. UK. Retrieved 2017-06-24.
5. Edgar, Julian (2016-07-05). "The Amazing Citroen DS One of the most
14. Brady, Andrew (2017-06-23). "The New Audi A8 Will Spot Potholes And
significant cars ever" (http://www.autospeed.com/cms/article.html?&title=The-
Adjust The Suspension" (https://uk.motor1.com/news/149340/2018-audi-a8-s
Amazing-Citroen-DS&A=113290). Auto Speed (725). Retrieved 2017-05-12.
uspension/). Motor 1. UK. Retrieved 2017-06-25.
6. "Active suspension" (http://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/dece
15. Collie, Scott (2017-06-22). "Audis active suspension prepares for the road
mber-2001/69/active-suspension). Motor Sport Magazine. December 2001.
ahead" (http://newatlas.com/audi-a8-proactive-48v-suspension/50172/). New
Retrieved 2017-05-14.
Atlas. Retrieved 2017-06-25.
7. Hanlon, Mike (2004-09-30). "Bose Redefines Automobile Suspension
16. Vijayenthiran, Viknesh (2017-06-22). "Audi reveals new A8s chassis
Systems" (http://newatlas.com/go/3259/). New Atlas. Retrieved 2017-04-08.
technology" (http://www.motorauthority.com/news/1111162_audi-reveals-new-
8. US patent 5999868 (https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC a8s-chassis-technology). Motor Authority. US. Retrieved 2017-06-25.
&IDX=US5999868)
17. "The innovative shock absorber system from Audi: New technology saves fuel
9. Bryant, A.; Beno, J.; Weeks, D. (2011). "SAE Technical Paper Series". SAE and enhances comfort" (https://www.audi-mediacenter.com/en/press-release
Technical Paper Series. 1. doi:10.4271/2011-01-0269 (https://doi.org/10.427 s/the-innovative-shock-absorber-system-from-audi-new-technology-saves-fuel
1%2F2011-01-0269). |chapter= ignored (help) -and-enhances-comfort-6551) (Press release). Audi. 2016-08-10. Retrieved
2017-07-12.
18. Tingwall, Eric (July 2017). "2019 Audi A8: Flagship Floats on Active
Suspension - Official Photos and Info" (http://www.caranddriver.com/news/201
9-audi-a8-official-photos-and-info-news). Car and Driver. US. Retrieved
2017-07-12.

Nye, Doug (1992). History of the Grand Prix Car: 1966-91. Hazleton Publishing. ISBN 0-905138-94-5.
Cox, Ronald W. (1986). Electronics Developed for Lotus Active Suspension Technology (http://history.gmheritagecenter.com/wiki/index.php/1986,_Electronics_Dev
eloped_for_Lotus_Active_Suspension_Technology). US: General Motors.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Active_suspension&oldid=803605768"

This page was last edited on 3 October 2017, at 14:43.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy
Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.