Petroleum Underbalanced Eng

UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
MANAGEMENT
Dr. Ali Ghalambor

Dr. Boyun Guo
December, 2004
Copyright 2004 by Ali Ghalambor & Boyun Guo

1.0 Fundamentals
Technical Terms
Concepts in UBD
Means of Achieving UBD
Problems in UBD
Rigging Up and Flaring
Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

Ghalambor & Boyun Guo
Technical Terms
Formation pressure
System pressures
- Hydrostatic pressure and EMW
- Pressure losses and ECD
- Pressure relations
IADC UBD matrix

Formation
Pressure
Natural pressure in rock
Also called
- Pore pressure
- Reservoir pressure
Increases with depth with a
constant gradient
Pf

Normal
Formation Pressure
Pressure of a column of
water extending from the
formation to the surface
0.433 psi/ft for fresh water
0.465 psi/ft for seawater

Subnormal
Formation Pressure
Gradient less than 0.433

psi/ft
Either natural or depleted

reservoirs

Abnormal
Formation Pressure
Gradient greater than
0.465 psi/ft
Trapped pressure under

eroded overburden
Mountainous areas with

water feeding from high-
level water tables
Reservoirs received
injected fluids
Wells Reaction to
Formation Pressure
Normal formation pressure

is balanced by water as the
drilling fluid.

Wells Reaction to
Formation Pressure
Subnormal formation
pressure can cause lost
circulation of water as
the drilling fluid.

Wells Reaction to
Formation Pressure
Abnormal formation
pressure can cause a
kick with water as the
drilling fluid.

System Pressures
Hydrostatic Pressure
- Hydrostatic pressure is due to
the weight of mud column
under static condition.
- Ph=0.052 (MW) (TVD).
- Hydrostatic pressure can be Ph
expressed in terms of
equivalent mud weigh (EMW).
- 0.052 (MW) is called mud
gradient.
- Mud weight is normally not
constant in UBD, so mud
gradient and EMW vary with
depth.
C&SPL
System Pressures
Pressure Losses (PL) DPPL
- Pressure losses are due to
friction under flowing
conditions.
- Some PL components are APL
- drill pipe pressure loss (DPPL)
- drill collar pressure loss (DCPL)
- drill bit pressure drop (BPD) DCPL
- annular pressure loss (APL)
- choke and separator pressure
loss (C&SPL)
- Pressure losses are BPD
undesirable except BPD

System Pressures
Pressure Relations
- Bottom hole pressure (BHP) is
sum of
- hydrostatic pressure
- annular pressure loss, and
- choke and separator pressure loss
- BHP can be expressed in

equivalent circulating density BHP
(ECD):
ECD = BHP/(0.052 TVD)
- ECD varies with depth in both

OBD and UBD
PP
System Pressures
Pressure Relations
- Pump pressure (PP) is sum of

all the pressure losses in
overbalanced drilling (OBD).
- This is NOT true in UBD due to

the changing fluid density
along the flow path.

Risk Levels
0 = No hydrocarbon containing zones.

1 = Well is incapable of natural flow to surface, inherently stable and is a
low-level risk from a well-control point of view.
2 = Well is capable of natural flow to surface but allows conventional
well-kill method and limited consequences in case of catastrophic
equipment failure.
3 = Geothermal and non-hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in
pressure is less than UBD equipment operating pressure rating.
Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
4 = Hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in pressure is less than
UBD equipment operating pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has
immediate serious consequences.
5 = Maximum projected surface pressures exceed UBD operating
pressure ratings but are below the BOP stack rating. Catastrophic
failure has immediate serious consequences.
IADC UBD Classification Matrix
Risk Level 0 1 2 3 4 5
Low Head (A), UBD (B) A B A B A B A B A B A B
Gas Drilling 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mist Drilling 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Foam Drilling 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Gasified Liquid Drilling 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Liquid Drilling 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Risk level code: 0 5 from low-risk to high-risk management.

Pressure code: A = near balance drilling; B = UBD.
Operation code: 1 5 from light to heavy fluids.

Examples
Operation 1: Air is used to drill zones containing no hydrocarbons
Underbalanced. This operation is classified with code 0-B-1.
Operation 2: Foam is used to drill a zone containing oil

Underbalanced. The maximum shut-in pressure is less than UBD
equipment operating pressure rating. This operation is classified
with code 3-B-3.
Operation 3: Aerated mul is used to drill a zone containing oil

Underbalanced. The maximum projected surface pressures exceed
UBD operating pressure ratings but are below the BOP stack rating.
This operation is classified with code 5-B-4.

Concepts in UBD
Air/Gas, Mist, and Unstable Foam (Foamed

Mist) Drilling
Foam Drilling
Aerated/Gasified/Gaseated Drilling
Flow Drilling
Mud-Cap Drilling

Air/Gas, Mist, and Unstable Foam (Foamed
Mist) Drilling
Gas phase is a continuous phase

Liquid volume is less than 2.5% in volume
Drilling relatively dry and hard formations
where wellbore problem is not a problem

High-dip
formation
Advantages to Air/Gas drilling
Faster ROP
Longer bit life
Straight holes with high-speed
drilling in crooked-hole country
using a hammer drill
Minimal skin damage
No concealed productive zones
On-line test of production as it is
encountered
Better production from open-
hole completion
Air Hammer
Limits to Air/Gas drilling
Wet hole
Caving hole or washouts
Downhole fire
Fishing problems (difficult to
dry the hole after mudded up
for fishing)
Washout

Dust
Cutting Size ^
*
* ^
.^
. *
..
^ *^
Chips are often long and ^ ^

*
.^ ^* . .
*
less in deep hole ^
^
Larger chips can blow out of a ^

^
^
*
shallow hole ^^
^ ^
^
^
^ ^
The deeper the hole is, the finer ^ ^ ^
^
the chips are
This maybe be due to pipe and
collar rotation that breaks
cuttings, and bit regrinding
Less aggressive bits reduce the
circulating time to clean the
hole

Mist Reduces
Mud Ring
^
Mist * ^
*
.^
. *
..
^ *^
^ ^
When the cuttings become *
.^ ^* . .
*
^
damp, they ball up the bit and ^
^
form mud rings in the hole. ^
^
*
Water and detergent injected Mud ^

^ ^
^
^
Ring
^ ^
down the drill pipe to form a ^ ^ ^
^
mist wash the ball off the bit
and break up the mud rings. ^
Normally 4.5 gpm or 6
bbl/hour (16 L/min or 0.95
m3/hour) is sufficient. When a
lot of injection water is
required, it may be better to
use a foam.

Mist
Addition of water and detergent
helps remove cutting dunes
and lubricate tools and reduce
vibration in high-angle holes
Cutting
Dunes

Volume Requirement
There is a minimum amount of volumetric gas injection rate
that is required to clean the hole.
Determination of the volume requirement is the basis of gas
drilling. This issue will be addressed in detail in this course.
13000
Minimum Flow Rate (scf/min)
ROP 0 ft/hr
12000
ROP 30 ft/hr
17-1/2 x 6-5/8
11000 ROP 60 ft/hr
10000 ROP 90 ft/hr
9000 ROP 120 ft/hr
ROP 150 ft/hr
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Depth (ft)
Gases for Air/Gas Drilling
Air
- No fire problem in dry hole
- Should methane or light natural gas with no condensate
enter the hole, it presents no downhole fire danger
- Misting does not stop downhole fires
- CO2 and H2S in a dry hole do not cause corrosion, but the
latter need to be monitored because it is poisonous

Gases for Air/Gas Drilling
Natural Gas
- No corrosion, downhole fire problem
- It is best if the gas is already compressed to operating
pressure (about 300 psi)
- Gas detectors need to be installed
Nitrogen
- Safe gas
- Expensive
- cryogenic nitrogen from a tanker, or
- membrane nitrogen from unit at the rig site

Air Compressors
Modern air compressors usually use a rotary compressor for

the first stage, called the primary compressor and a piston
compressor as the booster stages.
Make sure they do not overheat or become overloaded.
Compressor hazards include:

- Noise
- Heat
- High pressure.

Air/Gas Drilling Tools
Air hammers
Floats (Bit, Fire-stop, String floats)
Lower kelly cocks
Rotating heads
Blooey lines, separators
Standpipe manifolds
Sample catchers
End of Air/Gas Drilling Section

Foam Drilling
Foam is an emulsion with gas as dispersed

bubbles surrounded by liquid film.
Foam is stable and very viscous.

Terms Describing Foam Systems
- Ratio is the amount of liquid to gas under standard
conditions. It is used to plan or measure fluid input. It does
not change with depth.
- Quality of foam is the percentage of gas in the foam at a
particular condition (pressure and temperature). It changes
with depth.
- Texture of foam affects foam properties like viscosity and
gel strength that are measurable with V-G meters.
- Half-life (time during which half of foam volume
disappears) of foam compares foams and the effect of
foaming agents under surface conditions. The method to
measure half-life has not been standardized.

Foam Has High Lift Capacity to Clean the Hole
..
*
*
.^ .
^
^ .^ ^* .
^ *
^
^
^ ^ ^
^
^
*
Foam ^ ^
^ ^ ^
^
* ^
.. ^
. .^
^ *^
^ ^
*
.^ ^* . .
^
*
* ^
* ^ ^
.. ^ ^
^
*
. .^
^ *^ ^
^ ^ Mud ^ ^
^
Water *
* ..
^
^ ^
^
^ .
^ * ^ ^ ^
^ ^
^ *
^
^
^ ^
^
^
^ ^

Foam Makeup
Foam is usually made up locally based on half-life

test.
A general makeup for foam is:
- 1 lb/bbl soda ash to soften the makeup water and
raise the pH;
- 0.25 lb/bbl caustic soda
- 0.5% foaming agent (0.8 qt/bbl)
- add foam extender as required
- about 0.5 qt/bbl corrosion inhibitor

Uses and Advantages of Foam Drilling
Avoid lost circulation (UB pres. & bubble plugging)
Limit damage to the reservoir (UB pres. )
Avoid differential sticking, especially in horizontal
wells (UB pres. & clean hole)
Increase drilling rate (UB pres.)
Clean hole with low annular velocities (high
viscosity & gel strength)
Clean scale and corrosion products from a well
and carry fracturing sand out of the well (high
viscosity & gel strength)

Problems and
Mist
Limits with Foam
Foams are not stable under

all conditions Foam
Foams become mist when the
in-situ gas phase fraction is
more than about 97.5%.
Foams become gasified liquid Gasified
when the in-situ gas phase liquid
fraction is less than 55%

Choke
Problems and
Limits with Foam
Stable foam can be obtained

throughout the annulus by
adjusting gas-liquid ratio and
choke pressure.
Still there is a depth limit to
drill with given foam and
equipment

Problems and
Limits with Foam
Salt/hard water requires more foaming agent or

treating chemicals
Oil destabilizes foam
Temperature above 180oF (80oC) break down
foaming agents
If air is used as the gas phase, corrosion may be a
problem

Equipment for Foam Drilling
Rotating head or rotating BOP
High-pressure choke line, choke manifold, and remote
operating choke
Separator
Pressured flow line
Standpipe manifold and gas bypass
Bit and string floats
Lower kelly cock (to stop flow due to foam expansion)
Gas flow lines with a back-pressure valve
Compressor or gas pipeline

Surface Problems with Foam
Dry foams (foams with high concentration of

polymers) result in a high annular pressure drop; it
takes a lot of pump pressure to move it.
Dry foam is more expensive to make up than wet
foam.
Strong dry foam is very difficult to break at the
surface and can stay in the pits for weeks or
months.

Foam Disposal
In some areas, foam can be discharged to the reserve pits
and discarded.
As the foam breaks down, the liquid can be recovered or
pumped away.
It is about 50% more expensive to make new foam than try
to recover and reuse the old foam on a job lasting a week or
two.
Defoaming systems are available such as Weatherford
Transfoam.
Alcohol breaks foams.
Mechanical systems with high-pressure water spray inside
the separator are used for breaking bubbles.
End of Foam Drilling Section

Aerated/Gasified/Gaseated Drilling
Gas-cut mud and well

kicks are examples of
gasified liquids .
Any drilling fluid can be
gasified to reduce its
density.
They are unstable
systems because
nothing ties the gas and
liquid together.
Low GLR High GLR
Aerated/Gasified/
Gaseated Drilling
The
overall
fluid
density
depends
on
injection
gas to
liquid ratio
(GLR).
Uses and Advantages of
Aerated Liquids
Avoiding lost circulation

Limiting damage to the
reservoir
Avoiding differential sticking
Increasing the drilling rate

Problems and Limits of
Aerated Liquid Drilling
Pressure surge (heading)

Caving-in Caving
Difficult to control inflow of
reservoir fluids
Inflow

Equipment for Aerated Liquid Drilling

High-pressure choke line, choke manifold, and
remote operating choke
Separator
Pressured flow line
Standpipe manifold and gas bypass
Bit and string floats
Lower kelly cock
Gas flow lines with a back-pressure valve
Compressor or gas pipeline
Special Equipment to Reduce Heading
Jet subs
Parasite strings
Dual casing strings
Constant circulating subs
Dual drill pipe

Jet Sub
A jet sub is a
common drill pipe
sub into which a Bit Jet
housing for a bit jet
has been placed.
One or more jet
subs can be
installed in the drill
string

Gas Injection Liquid Injection
Parasite String
1-1/2 inch to 2-3/8 inch tubing

is run parallel to the surface
casing (banded to the outside
of the surface casing).
It provides a path for gas
injection.

Gas Injection Liquid Injection
Dual Casing
A system consists of
streamlined casing
temporarily run inside the
intermediate casing string
after the intermediate casing
is cemented.
Gas is injected down the
annulus between the two
casing strings and out of
ports in the streamlined
casing.
End of Aerated Liquid Drilling Section

Choke
Pst
Flow Drilling
Flow drilling is drilling

underbalanced with a
liquid into which no gas is
injected on the surface
(Liquid UBD).
The drillers well-control
technique is used to
control bottomhole
pressure by using the
choke and standpipe
pressure (Pst).
Drilling
Fluid
Down Mud
Blind Drilling Annulus Pump
Blind drilling is a special

case of flow drilling with
total lost returns.
Possible
Cuttings
Accumulation
Lost
Circulation
Zone

Equipment for Flow Drilling

High-pressure choke line, choke manifold, and
remote operating choke, and secondary manual
choke
Separator
Bit float
Lower kelly cock
End of Flow Drilling Section

Mud
Mud-Cap Drilling Pump
A mud cap is a column of

heavy and often viscosified
mud in the annulus, which is
shorter than TVD of the Mud
annulus. Cap
Mud-cap drilling is a
controlled non-circulation
drilling with no return.
Gas and cuttings

forced into loss zone
End of Mud-Cap Drilling Section

Means of Achieving UBD
Introduction to Surface Control Equipment

Introduction to Downhole Tools
Circulation and the Fluid Column

Introduction to Surface Control Equipment
BOP stack in UBD

Rotating equipment
Annular preventers
Ram preventers
Chokes
Choke manifolds
Separators
Standpipe manifolds
Snubbing units

BOP Stack in UBD
G
Rotating head
A
Annular
preventer R
R
Rams
S
Blind rams
R
Casing spool
CS
Rotating Equipment
Rotating Control Head

- Forced-fit stripper rubber forms a passive seal
(does not provide tight seal by rubber itself)
- Annular pressure further seals the rubber
Rotating Annular Preventer

- Hydraulically closed
Rotating Blowout Preventer (RBOP)

- Hydraulically operated
Annular Preventers
- They can close around casing, drill pipe, drill

pipe tool joints, drill collars, and the kelly.
- Some annular preventers can close on wireline
and open hole.
- They use neoprene packing elements.

Ram Preventers
- Pipe Rams close around

pipe of one particular size
and seal the annulus
- Variable Pipe Rams close
around pipe of several
sizes and seal the annulus
- Blind Rams close on an
open hole
- Blind-Shear Rams cut, or
shear, pipe and then close
the hole
Chokes
- Choke is used to hold backpressure on the

annulus to control bottom hole pressure and gas
expansion in the annulus.
- The flow area of choke is adjusted either
manually or hydraulically.
- Four types of chokes are used today:
- Rotating plate choke
- Plug choke
- ABC choke (no longer used in US)
- Swaco underbalanced choke
Downstream manifold is optional
Choke Manifold Manual

Choke
- It allows alternate routes
for the fluid to flow from
the well.
- A good manifold has at
least three bypass lines:
- one for the high-
pressure choke
- one for an alternate
high-pressure choke
- one for straight
through, non-choke Hydraulic
flow Choke
Separator
- It allows separation of gas, water, oil, and solids directly
from the flow line.
- Mechanisms include:
- Gravity separation
- Parallel plate separation (film flow on plates allows
gas to escape easily)
- Centrifugal separation
- Vacuum separation
- Impact, or Baffle, separation is similar to parallel plate
separation in mechanism.
- Atmospheric separators (open tanks)
Standpipe
Block Valve
Standpipe Manifold
Two-Way Valve
- In UBD, the
standpipe has
extra valves to Relief Line
To
route the injected Blooey
Line
gas.
Air or
Foam Line
Block Valve
Check Valve
Block Valve
Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali Mud Line

Snubbing Units
- When shut-in wellbore pressure (times cross-
sectional area of string) is greater than the weight
of the drilling string, a pipe light situation occurs,
which requires snubbing.
- There are different types of snubbing mechanisms:
- Mechanical snubbing units
- Hydraulic snubbing units
- Rig-mounted snubbing units
More descriptions of surface equipment are shown in section 4.1

Introduction to Downhole Tools for UBD
Drill pipe valves

Downhole motors
Air hammers (for air drilling only)
Bits
Tools for measurements

Drill Pipe Valves
- Bit floats provide barrier to flow up the drill pipe and protect
bits and motors from being plugged by the cuttings.
- String floats are key to crew safety.
- Retrievable Floats save multiple string floats.
- Inside BOP is of limited use in UBD because string floats
block its passage.
- Lower kelly valves (mud saver) is a barrier when float valves
fail or when the drill string is twisted off.
- Deployment valve closes the wellbore at a point in the
casing and leaves the bottom of the hole opposite to the
reservoir balanced. Above the valve, no excess pressure
occurs; thus the drill string can be run without stripping or
snubbing.
Downhole Motors
Specially useful for direction drilling.
It requires 300 to 500 psi to drive the motor.
There are high-speed low-torque motors and low-
speed high-torque motors.
Motor drilling with a gasified system requires a lot of
attention on the part of driller because pressure
surges occur.
Motor drilling with gas, mist, or transition foam
systems is limited because gas does not lubricate the
motor. Motor runs away when torque reduced or
picked up off bottom.
Air Hammers for Gas Drilling
Air hammer can increase ROP up to10 times.
It drills straight holes in crooked-hole country with
pendulum BHA.
Bit hammers on rock about 1,800 strokes per minute.
The hammer should be rotated about 20 rpm while
drilling to keep the bit from wedging into the hole and
sticking.
Only 6,000 lb WOB is required for a 4-3/4 inch hammer.

Bits
Dont use aggressive bits to increase ROP further in
UBD because they cut large cuttings which make hole
cleaning difficult.
Flat-face bits are designed for gas and mist drilling.

Tools for Measurements
- MWD and LWD systems transmit information to the
surface by means of a mud pulse in the drill pipe.
Bubbles in the gas smooth out the pressure wave
and it cannot be read at the surface.
- EMWD systems transmit information to the surface
by means of low-frequency electromagnetic signal
through the earth. It is not affected by gas in the
drill pipe.
- Steering Tools use the same information gathering
system as MWD tools, but use wireline to transmit
the information.
More descriptions of downhole tools are shown in section 4.2

Circulation and the Fluid Column
Bottom hole pressure reduction

Multiphase flow
Lag time

Bottom Hole Pressure Reduction
In OBD, bottom hole pressure reduction by lowered

mud weight is expressed as:
pbh = 0.052 [(MW)old - (MW)new ] (TVD) psi
The new bottom hole pressure is expressed as:
pbh = 0.052 (MW)new (TVD) psi

In UBD, bottom hole pressure reduction by using

lightened fluids is calculated with equivalent mud
weight (EMW):
pbh = 0.052 [(MW)old - EMW] (TVD) psi
The new bottom hole pressure is expressed as:
pbh = Pchoke+ 0.052 EMW (TVD) psi

The EMW is defined as:
EMW = (pbh Pchoke) / [0.052 (TVD) ]
where pbh has to be calculated with multiphase

flow models.

Flowing bottom hole pressure is calculated with

equivalent circulating density (ECD):
pbhf = Pchoke+ 0.052 (ECD) (TVD) psi

The ECD is defined as:
ECD = (pbhf Pchoke) / [0.052 (TVD) ]
where pbhf has to be calculated with multiphase

flow models.

Multiphase Flow
UBD presents a problem of gas-liquid-solid 3-phase

flow.
If the formation fluid influx is immiscible to the
injected fluid, this becomes a 4-phase flow problem.
Normally a numerical (computer) model is required
for bottom hole pressure calculations in an UBD
design.
For some special situations, we have developed
closed form (analytical) equations for predicting
bottom hole pressures.

Lag Time
In UBD operations, the continual addition of gas or

oil to the system changes all mud flow rules in
OBD. What occurs in the flow line in UBD may or
may not be related to what is actually going on
downhole.
In a pressure control operation using the choke and
standpipe pressure, the calculation of lag time is a
basic concern. A rule of thumb of 1 second per
1,000 ft of hole is a reasonable guess for well-killing
operations. But the rule leaves a lot to be desired
for UBD.
Lag Time
Lag time varies in accordance with

- The time it takes a pressure wave to travel
through the liquid and gas in the hole.
- How long it takes to compress the gas in the
hole to the new pressure.
- How long it takes to depressure the gas in the
annulus.

Lag Time
In a 10,000 ft hole, the lag time can vary as follows

- Liquid systems with high pumping rates and
small volumes of gas: 30 seconds.
- Gaseated systems with high pumping rates and
large volumes of gas: 10 minutes.
- Foam systems with low pumping rates and
extremely high volumes of gas: 60 minutes or
more.

Lag Time
The best solution is to manually check the time

required for an increase or decrease of about 100
psi made at the choke to show up at the standpipe
gauge.

Problems in UBD
- Identification of Drilling Complications

- Corrosion
- Scale

Choke Washes Out OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Choke Plugs OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Gas Reaches Surface OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Loss of Circulation OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Hole in Drill Stem OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Pipe Parts OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Bit Nozzle Plugs OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Bit Nozzle Washes Out OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Pump Damage or Gas-Cut Mud OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Gas Feeding In OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight
Pit Level
Pump Rate
Hole Caves In OBD UBD
Drill Pipe Pressure
Casing Pressure
Drill Stem Weight ! !

Pit Level
Pump Rate
Corrosion
- It causes pipe failure due to degraded strength.
- It occurs as a reaction between the drill water
and gases present in the borehole.
- Commonly encountered gases causing
corrosion are O2, CO2, and H2S.
- Corrosion can also occur from microbial action
in contaminated water.

Types of Corrosion
- Oxygen corrosion results in rust and pits on the
pipe surface.
- Carbon dioxide corrosion results in dark gray,
soft scale with deep pits in the pipe.
- Hydrogen sulfide corrosion is signaled by a
rotten egg smell in the air and water. It results
in deep pits and stress cracking.

Three Defenses against Corrosion
- Keep liquid pH at 9 or higher.
- Use the best possible water with low oxygen
content (drinking-quality water, or clean,
saturated salt water).
- Avoid using low-salt system such as 5% KCl
water.

Scale
- Scale comes out of formation waters that are
saturated with certain materials.
- Scale-causing materials include calcium sulfate
(gypsum), barium sulfate, calcium carbonate
(limestone), iron carbonate and others.
- Scale deposition is due to pressure and temperature
change upon water entering the well.
- Usually scale does not interfere with drilling but it
can affect production rate.
- In cleanout and workover operations, scale is
sometimes drillable.

Rigging Up and Flaring
Rig Checklist
Common Flare Practice

Rig Checklist
1. Allow room for trucks to rig extra equipment.
2. Ensure supply trucks can clear lines.
3. Provide parking remote from wellhead.
4. Provide ample room for compressors.
5. Provide extra housing for extra personnel.
6. Establish an emergency assembly point.
7. Put warning signs in areas where gas may accumulate
or eliminate such areas if possible.
8. Put mats or boards over buried lines to protect them
from truck traffic.
9. Orient compressor crews.
Rig Checklist
10. Orient rig crew to gas source.
11. Orient rig drew or gas (or air) standpipe and flow line shutoff;
conduct exercises to ensure crew awareness.
12. Mark high-pressure lines.
13. Check and operate BOP stack and accumulator.
14 Orient rig crew to operation of rotating head.
15. Tie down blooey line and connections.
16. Install primary and secondary flare ignition systems.
17. Install separator and connections and be sure separator is
grounded.
18. Orient rig crew in separator operation and show how to remove
cuttings and how to bypass.

Flare line should be oriented to down stream of wind.
Most operators specify that the flare line should be 150 to
300 feet long.
A typical flare line is made of lightweight 5-inch, 7-inch, or
8-5/8-inch coupled pipe.
The ignition source is often a pail that contains a tag
saturated with diesel oil near the end of the line.
Many operators install an igniter for the pilot light.
Flare line should be staked or weighted down.
During drilling, if the wind blows out the pilot light and the
flare, the pilot must be relit promptly.

Proper Flare Operation
Not enough gas; flare Normal Too much gas

burns inside line

A vertical stack also requires a separator or free-water
knockout (FWKO).
The simplest FWKO is a simple tank where the water
settles out of gas before the gas is sent to the flare.
To Flare
From Well
Water
Level
Water Drain
1.1 UBD Overview
History
Advantages
Techniques
Current Status

History
Modern UBD technology has been widely

and successfully applied in the United
States and Canada since the early 1990s in
a variety of reservoirs. It was adapted for
North Sea applications in 1997.

Advantages
Improved drilling performance
No differential sticking
Increased penetration rate
Extended bit life, particularly in hard rock provinces
Minimised lost circulation
Reduced ECD, particularly in extended reach wells
Enhanced reservoir management and production
Reduced formation damage
Early production
Reduced stimulation and clean up
Enhanced recovery
Reserves addition
Techniques
Various techniques can be used to drill underbalanced -
essentially combinations of injection methodology as well as
fluid and gas selections - depending on the well objectives.
The importance of defining the precise reasons why a well
should be drilled underbalanced needs to be stressed before
the start of the project. This will help ensure the appropriate
technique is selected. The areas which need to be addressed
include: required bottom hole pressure; fluid selection; lift
system selection; reservoir inflow; evaluation of best method;
well design; surface package design; and operational issues.
One needs to question whether UBD provides the advantages
he is looking for.

Techniques (contd)
There are four main categories of fluid and gas options -
gaseous drilling fluids, two-phase drilling fluids, artificial lift
systems, or light fluids. Gaseous drilling fluids include air and
nitrogen, although air drilling is unsafe in gas reservoirs.
Nitrogen generation offshore is typically only 50 per cent
efficient and involves installing compressor units.

Techniques (contd)
Mist, foam or gasified liquids are classified as two-phase
drilling fluids. Foam is a good option due to being easily
generated and controlled but used offshore presents a
disposal problem. Possible artificial lift systems include
annular or concentric gas lift using a parasite string or jet
pumps. Light fluids range from glass beads and water to
crude or base oil.

Techniques (contd)
Drill string injection offers the advantages of no additional
downhole equipment, lower bottom hole pressures and better
hydraulics due to a lower gas rate. Disadvantages include
higher downhole vibration, more motor failures and no
possibility of using MWD pulse tools. MWD tools do work with
annulus injection using a parasite string - a technique which
also allows injection to continue during connections and trips.
However, this system cannot be retrofitted in existing wells, is
only suitable for vertical wells, and requires wellhead
modifications. Similar advantages are provided by annulus
injection with a concentric string or via conventional gas lift.
Drawbacks of these techniques include the injection point
being fixed by the casing depth or the lift valves respectively.

Techniques (contd)
A number of issues need to be resolved relating to surface
equipment requirements, including well control, surface
separation, solids removal, downhole and surface data
acquisition. Stack up requirements for well control equipment
include primary and secondary flowlines and a working blind
ram. The pipe light situation needs to be reviewed to ascertain
whether a rig-assist snubbing system is necessary. Well
control in UBD relates to flow rather than pressure, and the
well needs to be designed for minimum reservoir inflow. Four-
phase flow modelling is necessary to take account of oil, gas,
water and cuttings. The blow out risk in UBD is reduced
because reservoir pressures are known, the reservoir inflow is
monitored constantly, flow is controlled at the surface, and
the surface system is capable of processing the full well flow.
Techniques (contd)
The surface separation process while drilling underbalanced
must be a closed system. A first stage of separation involves
removing the solids and gas, followed by fluid separation.
Increasingly, solids removal is taking place in a hydrocyclone
prior to reaching the separator.

Techniques (contd)
On the data acquisition front, there must be a pressure while
drilling sensor downhole. Further information may be
provided by LWD (gamma ray) and MWD (directional).
Conventional logging in UBD needs special development. At
the surface, you need to monitor pressure, temperature and
flow rates. Analysis of fluids, cuttings and gases offers
additional data.

Rigs for UBD
Regular Rig Rig for UBD

Lower clearance below Higher clearance below
rotary table due to less rotary table due to more
BOP requirement BOP requirement
Lower pulling capacity Higher pulling capacity
rating based on drag required to handle
analysis possible pipe sticking
Less surface equipment More surface equipment
requirements requirements for gas
injection, foaming, fluid
separation and handling,
flair, etc.
Current Status
After a decade of new technology
development and practice, the UBD
technology has been proven to be mature. It
has been widely and successfully applied in
many areas throughout the world.

Current Status (contd)
A simple
UBD
operation
involving
minimum
required
surface
equipment

Plan view of a
UBD operation
involving
sophisticated
equipment at
surface

A close up
surface
facility is
used in an
environment-
sensitive
area.

Current Status (contd) 3-phase
separator
UBD
Surface
Handling
Equipment

BOP with RBOP
RBOP
BOP

340K Rig Assist Unit
Pull 340.000 lbs
Capacity:
Push 170.000 lbs
Capacity:
Rotary N/A
Torque:
Stroke: 10 feet
Through 11" bore
Bore
Annular 7 1/16" bore
BOP:
Stripping 7 1/16" bore
BOP
Equalizing 2 1/16" bore
Loop:
Slip 400.000 lbs
Bowls:
Power N/A
Tongs:
Ginpole: N/A
BOP 10K

284K Rig Assist Unit
Pull 284.000 lbs
Capacity:
Push 142.000 lbs
Capacity:
Rotary Dummy
Torque:
Stroke: Rotary
10 feet
Through 8" bore
Bore
Annular 7 1/16" bore
BOP:
Stripping 7 1/16" bore
BOP
Equalizing 2 1/16" bore
Loop:
Slip Bowls: 400.000 lbs
Power N/A
Tongs:
Ginpole: N/A
BOP 10K
Underbalanced Drilling Services
Airborne Energy Solutions Ltd.
BJ Services Company Canada
Caliber Industries Ltd.
Canadian Special Service Ltd.
Halliburton Group Canada
High Arctic Well Control Inc.
Josh Energy Services
Northland Energy, a Division of Precision Drilling Technology Services Group Inc
Omni Drilling Technologies Inc.
Pajak Engineering Ltd.
Precision Drilling Corporation
Precision Drilling Technology Services Group Inc.
Ryan Energy Technologies
Sanjel Corporation
Snubco Pressure Control Ltd.
SSI Special Services (Op. Division) Inc.
Technicoil Corporation
Toran Power & Equipment Ltd.
Trican Well Service Ltd.
Weatherford Drilling & Intervention Services
Oilweek
Three years from now, 50% to 60% of all horizontal wells drilled in
Canada will be underbalanced.
That prediction comes from the folks who've probably done the most
to pioneer the drilling of underbalanced horizontals, Veteran
Resources Ltd. "If operators today could drill horizontal
underbalanced wells for exactly the same price as they could drill
with mud, 50 or 60% of the people would be drilling underbalanced,"
says president Don Jewitt.

1.2 BASICS CONCEPTS
Definition
Benefits and Limitations
UBD Techniques

Definition
Underbalanced drilling (UBD) is defined
as drilling operations where the drilling
fluid pressure in the borehole is less than
the pore pressure in the formation rock in
the open-hole section.

Definition (contd)
By using light drilling fluids, the driller
intentionally keeps the borehole pressure
not balancing the formation pore fluid
pressure.

Definition (contd)
The light fluids used in UBD are usually
air, gas, foam, and aerated water.
However, unaerated oil, water, and even
weighted mud can be used for UBD in
areas where formation pore pressure
gradients are higher than the hydrostatic
pressure gradient of water.

Benefits of UBD
Reduced Formation Damage
UBD technology is demanded by oil and gas producers
because it minimizes formation damage during drilling.
Although this technology can be more expensive than
overbalanced drilling in certain areas, it reduces
stimulation requirements and saves the cost of well
stimulation treatments.
UBD can eliminate drilling fluid and solid invasions that change rock
wettability and relative permeabilities and plug rock pores. These
changes reduce the effective permeability of the desired fluid (oil or
gas) in the reservoir.

Benefits of UBD (contd)
Increased Penetration Rate
UBD avoids overbalanced pressure to the rock below the
drill bit. Removing this confining pressure makes the rock
easier for the bit teeth to cut and frees the generated
cuttings from the bottom of the hole. This helps bottom-
hole cleaning and increases the rate of penetration (ROP).
ROP can be increased as much as 10 times over that for mud drilling in
equivalent formations. An ROP as high as 120 ft/hr can easily be achieved
in air and gas drilling.

Minimized Lost Circulation
UBD is an effective means of minimizing lost circulation
problems in drilling naturally fractured petroleum
reservoirs and pressure-depleted reservoirs.
Related benefits of using the UBD technology in deep well drilling

include the abilities to drill within the narrow margin between the
formation pore pressure gradient and the fracturing gradient and to
adjust the equivalent circulating density of the drilling fluid during
drilling.

Prolonged Bit Life
Rock compressive strength increases due to
overbalanced pressure from the drilling fluid. This
pressure confinement does not exist during UBD.
Therefore, the rock can be fragmented by bit teeth
easier in UBD than in overbalanced drilling.
Another explanation is that removing the pressure confinement lets

generated cuttings become entrained more easily in the drilling fluid,
which minimizes regrinding actions to the cuttings by the bit teeth.

Minimized Differential Sticking
Pressure differential pipe sticking is believed to be
associated with mud cake formed against permeable
zones during overbalanced drilling. Stuck pipe occurs
when the tool or equipment in the hole cannot be pulled
out without exceeding the working load of the
equipment. There is no filter cake during UBD. Thus, the
pressure differential pipe-sticking problem does not
exist.

Improved Formation Evaluation
UBD provides a means to immediately detect
hydrocarbon zones by directly observing the returned
drilling fluid. These productive zones may otherwise be
bypassed if the well is drilled overbalanced. Because of
fast return of drilling fluid carrying cuttings and reservoir
fluids, hydrocarbon pay zones can be identified more
accurately in depth during UBD.
In addition, the reduction or elimination of drilling fluid invasion into the
formation that results from UBD also improves the interpretation of open-
hole logs and pressure transient tests.

Earlier Oil Production
With suitable surface equipment available, oil can be
collected as soon as a productive zone is opened during
UBD. While drilling ahead to penetrate more zones, the
produced oil is accumulated.
It is possible for underbalanced drilled wells to be paid for by the oil

produced during the drilling stage.

Environmental Benefits
Air and gas drilling eliminates potential pollution of
drilling mud to environments during and after drilling.
Chemicals used in mist and foam drilling are normally
benign, biodegradable surfactants that do not pose
significant environmental concerns.
Of course, formation fluids produced during underbalanced drilling

need to be handled with closed surface systems to minimize the
potential for environmental contamination.

Limitations of UBD
The technology to deal with reservoir protection is still
evolving, but it is clear from the literature and field
experience that UBD and completions using current
technology will not solve all problems of low well
productivity. UB drilling is not a production enhancement
technique or a panacea for all problems.
If a reservoir will not produce without fracturing, it

probably is not a good candidate for UB drilling. UB
drilling can only solve skin damage and fracture plugging.

Limitations of UBD
Wellbore Stability Problems
Wellbore pressures are lower in UBD operations than in
conventional overbalanced drilling operations. This may
cause wellbore instability due to mechanical borehole
collapse. The lower wellbore pressure also increases
the tendency of tight holes due to yielding of some
formations.
Large shale fragments are often observed in underbalanced drilling.
It is believed that these large shale fragments are not from the
cutting action of drill bit at the bottom of the hole but from caving in,
or sloughing, of the wellbore wall. This type of wellbore instability
problem may occur when drilling formations have significant amounts
of water-sensitive clays.

Wellbore Stability Problems
Overbalanced Underbanlanced
- support pressure - no support pressure
1 1
Shear Yield
3
Pw Pw
3

Limitations of UBD (contd)
Liquid Influx Problem
Liquid influx includes water inflow and oil production.
Although oil production during drilling is somewhat
favorable, it requires that the surface equipment be
able to handle the maximum rate of oil production
safely at certain pressure.
Under most circumstances, suitable surface equipment can be used

to handle the produced oil during drilling. But if the oil production
rate is too high to handle, the underbalanced drilling should be
converted to overbalanced drilling.

Directional Drilling Difficulties
- Mud pulse telemetry measurement while drilling (MWD) tools
cannot operate with compressible fluids used in UBD. This is
because the pressure pulses generated by the MWD tools do not
propagate through compressible fluids to the surface with
detectable amplitude. Electromagnetic MWD tools are required for
drilling directional wells with compressible fluids.
- Conventional downhole motors used in directional drilling
operate on incompressible fluids. Their performance deteriorates
when they are run with compressible fluids.
- BHA configurations with MWD and motor in UBD are similar to
that in OBD.
- Very little drill collars are required in gas drilling with hammer.

Safety Issues
Downhole fires/explosions occur under certain
conditions during air drilling. Although they are rare,
the consequences are severe. The bottom-hole
assembly can melt or burn away. However, the
probability of downhole fire occurrence can be
minimized by using mist or foam drilling with sacrificed
penetration rate.
Vibration and noise are also issues of safety in air/gas drilling. While
vibration can cause drillstring failure and personnel injury, the high
noise level is detrimental to human health.

Economic Considerations
In many locations, environmental restrictions make
disposal of produced water expensive. The saving from
the increased penetration rate due to UBD may not
compensate the cost for liquid handling. The gain in
well productivity due to underbalanced drilling may not
always justify the drilling cost. This is especially true if
a hydraulic fracturing treatment is still required after
drilling the well underbalanced.
In addition, local equipment availability and local logistics are important

factors that should be considered when planning of an UBD project.

New UB projects are often undertaken in wells where there is very little
chance for success and therefore little risk of damaging the reservoir or
incurring extraordinary costs. A poor well will never become a winner
and, in the end, poor results or poor production will detract from the
potential of a promising technology.
The following is only a summary partial screening process for drilling a

candidate well. If any of these conditions appear, they must not be in
open-hole section for UBD, but behind casing. Thus, by definition, these
require that UBD be halted in that open-hole interval. However, very little
is absolute and local conditions and practices may modify this screening
process.

DONT DRILL UNDERBALANCED IF
1. Weak formations (wellbore wash-out is a problem)

2. Dipping fractured formations (wellbore collapse is a problem)
3. Thick coal beds (caving-in is a problem)
4. Young geopressured shales (tight-hole is a problem)
ITS POSSIBLE, BUT DRILL IT AND CASE IT QUICKLY IF
5. Thick shale section or older geopressured shales (wellbore collapse is

a problem)
6. Hard, thin salt beds (tight-hole is a problem)
UBD IS EXPENSIVE IF
7. High pressure water flows (fluid handling is a problem)

8. Hydrogen sulfide (personnel safety is a BIG issue)
Summary

1. DRY GAS: NATURAL GAS OR NITROGEN
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
A. Maximum drill rate A. Wet formations
B. No downhole fires B. Some hazard from natural

gas on the surface
C. N2 is the most expensive but safest
C. Cost, especially with
D. No corrosion nitrogen
E. Might be possible to drill deeper with D. Cost in large diameter holes

N2 or natural gas because they are
inherently drier than air E. No wellbore support

2. DRY AIR
A. Maximum drill rate A. Wet formations
B. Least expensive B. Possible downhole fires
C. No corrosion inside the DP. C. Cost with large diameter holes

Corrosion of the outside of the drill
pipe possible with dampness (see Mist) D. No wellbore support

3. MIST: AIR, NITROGEN, OR NATRUAL
GAS WITH WATER, MUD & OIL
A. Makes it possible to continue A. Lower drilling rate than with dry
drilling in damp formation conditions
B. Generally represses downhole B. Requires more air or gas

fires
C. Dampness causes corrosion
D. Dampness may cause shale

instability
E. No wellbore support

4. FOAM: NITROGEN OR AIR
A. Exceptional lifting capacity A. Complex mixing system
B. Variable wellbore pressure B. Wets the formation
C. Wellbore pressure can be closely C. Corrosion in the drill pipe

controlled possible with air
D. Needs less gas than any other D. There may be foam disposal
procedure problems
E. Reusable foams require more

equipment at the surface
F. No oil foam available
5. NITRATED WATER OR OIL
A. Little or no danger of downhole A. Pressure surges are major
fire problems
B. Little or no corrosion in fresh B. Potential for corrosion with

water formation or salt water
C. Nitrated oil (crude or diesel)-no C. Further potential for corrosion

corrosion with H2S with water

6. AERATED MUD
A. Can take advantage of mud A. Wets the formation
properties (density, filter cake,
inhibition) B. Strong potential for drill pipe
B. Easy to increase mud density or corrosion
mud up if there is a problem
C. Only limited special surface C. Pressure surges
equipment

7. OIL OR INVERT EMULSION
A. Simple but limited to about 7.5 A. Expensive
ppg (0.9 SpG) with diesel oil or
8.0 (0.96 SpG) invert emulsion B. Environmental laws
B. No water wetting of the C. Disposal problems

formation
D. Oil or water will calcify in the
C. No pressure surges mud

8. WATER OR LIGHTWEIGHT MUD
A. Nondamaging filter cake possible A. Oil emulsifies in the mud
B. No pressure surges B. Disposal problems
C. Can use ultraclean drill-in fluid

9. GLASS BEADS IN DRILLING FLUID
(Medley et al., 1997)
A. Simple, but limited to about 7 A. Special equipment needed for
ppg (0.84 SpG) in mud solids control
B. No pressure surges
C. No corrosion

UBD History ?
No
IADC UBD Decision
Tree Sheet 1 Oil or Gas? Yes Sheet 2
No
Drilling
No NO UBD
Problems?
Yes
Lost
circulation?
Yes
No Cost/safety No
NO UBD
Yes benefits?
Stuck
pipe?
No Yes
CANDIDATE
Hard Yes
drilling ?
Detailed
engineering No
NO UBD
Depleted Yes Sheet 3
reservoir?
IADC UBD Decision No
Tree Sheet 2 Drilling No

Reservoir
No
Problems?
damage?
This decision tree

applies to formations Yes Yes NO UBD
where hydrocarbons
are anticipated, and CANIDIDATE
Lost Yes Reservoir
considers reservoir Circulation? damage?
No
damage, formation
damage, cost and No
NO UBD
safety benefits. Yes
Stuck
Pipe?
No Yes Cost/ No NO UBD

safety?
Hard
Drilling?
Yes Yes
CANIDIDATE
No
NO UBD
Drilling Yes
Problems?
IADC UBD Decision Lost Yes

Tree Sheet 3 Circulation?
This decision tree Reservoir

Reservoir damage?
applies to depleted NO UBD No
damage?
No
reservoirs, and
considers reservoir
Yes
damage, formation No NO UBD
damage, cost and
safety benefits. Yes
CANDIDATE Stuck
Pipe?
Yes
No
Hard Cost/safety Yes

Drilling? Yes Benefits? CANDIDATE
No
No
NO UBD NO UBD
1.3 FLUIDS FOR UBD
Air, Gas, Mist, Unstable Foam
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid

Air, Gas, Mist, Unstable Foam
Air
Low density (0.0765 lb/cf @ 1-Atm & 60oF)
Low viscosity
Low cuttings-carrying capacity
Corrosive (21% O2)
Low resistance to string vibration
Causing downhole fire/explosion if mixed with
hydrocarbon under certain conditions
Mud-ring problem (solid particles form mud with
formation water at the top of the drill collars)

Air, Gas, Mist, Unstable Foam (contd)
Gas
Natural gas (flammable)
Nitrogen (gas and liquid)
Low density
Low viscosity
Low cuttings-carrying capacity
Mud-ring problem
Low resistance to string vibration

Floating Bed
Floating bed Low flow velocity

forms in this in the pipe-hole
region annulus
High flow velocity

in the collar-hole
annulus

Mud Rings

Mud Rings
When the formation is damp from water or oil, the

cuttings form a mud that is deposited against the side of
the hole. This tends to form rings of mud that, as they
grow larger, restrict air flow and cause the pressure to
increase. Mud rings cause high friction which can result
in downhole burn-offs (fires) and stuck pipe. Mud rings
can be cut with detergent additions to the drilling fluid. A
light mist often will not cut mud rings.

Mud Rings
a) POOR CLEANING b) MUD RING c) EXPLOSION/FIRE d) STUCK PIPE

Tight Hole
Tight hole problems appear to be related to

mud-ring problems or floating beds. The
important considerations are to not turn off the
gas and to keep working the pipe. If the pipe is
pulled up too hard it may stick tight. Keep the
gas circulating!

Bit Balling
Gas drilling has problems with bit balling for

the same reasons bits ball with mud. There are
too many solids and not enough gas. Add
detergent, try a drying agent, or switch to mist.

Weeping Formations
Reservoirs, and other low-permeability

formations will weep fluid. This leads to bit
balling and mud rings. Weeping can often be
dried up after the near wellbore fluids are
depleted.
Nitrogen and natural gas, since they are so dry,

are particularly effective at drying a damp or
weeping formation.

Key Seating
Since gas drilling is typically done in hard-rock

dipping formations, key seating, while not
common, does occur. A key-seated pipe can
usually be driven down and out of the seat.
Dropped pipe in a gas hole is often a
catastrophe since there is no buffering from the
drilling mud.

Jammed Bit or Collars
In an open gas drilling hole, sloughing or

broken ledges can drop large pieces of rock on
top of the collars or bit. This can also occur with
a floating bed or by not cleaning the hole before
stopping circulation. The important thing to
remember is to not jam the rock in place by
turning off the gas and/or pulling too hard on
the pipe. Circulate, rotate, and work the pipe.

Coal
Coal, especially broken coals, will slump into the

hole until it reaches its critical angle of repose.
This is true with mud as well as gas. In gas
drilling, washouts reduce gas velocity and cause
a floating bed effect. Working the pipe before a
connection will sometimes help. A gallon of
detergent before a connection also may help.
Coal seams often require mist drilling.

Mist
Air/gas + water (<3% in volume)
Improved density to 0.1 ppg
Improved viscosity
Improved cuttings-carrying capacity
Reduced mud-ring problem
Reduced downhole fire/explosion problem
Increased resistance to string vibration

Unstable Foam
Air/gas + water (<3% in volume) + foaming agents
Improved density to 0.1 ppg
Improved viscosity
Improved cuttings-carrying capacity
Reduced mud-ring problem
Reduced downhole fire/explosion problem
Increased resistance to string vibration

Corrosion
Corrosion occurs in wet systems, i.e., mists and

foams. This issue will be addressed in the Foam
section.

Stable Foam
Water + gas (55-97% in volume) + foaming agents

Density 0.37 ppg
Viscosity 35-115 cp
High cuttings-carrying capacity
Eliminated mud-ring and downhole fire/explosion
problems
Eliminated string vibration problem

Foamers
Foamers need to be classified and used according to
function. In a fresh-water system, KC1 can be used
for pH control and a simple anionic foamer or
household detergent can be used as a foaming agent.
In hard water, saltwater, and with oil influx, the
foaming agent becomes more complex and
expensive. Most mud and service companies carry
common misting agents.

PRODUCT DESCRIPTION SOURCE
Adofoam BF-1 Multipurpose foaming agent Nalco/Exxon, Sugar Land TX

Airfoam B Foaming agent for saltwater Aqua-Clear
Airfoam AP-50 Freshwater foaming agent Aqua-Clear, Charleston, WV
Airfoam 9130 Foamer, fresh water and brine Aquaness
Airfoam 9134 Foamer, fresh water and brine Aquaness
Aquet-297 Foamer, fresh water and brine Aquaness, Houston, TX
Avafoam S1 Foaming agent AVA
Avafoam S2 Salt resistant foaming agent AVA
Ava Tr-Foam Foam agent for Avatrasfoam Sys AVA
AVA Activator Activator for Avatrasfoam Sys. AVA, Rome, Italy
Foamer F-550 Foaming agent, concentrate Baker
Foamer F-500 Foaming agent, field strength Baker, Baker Chem, Houston, TX
Quick Foam Biodegradable foaming agent Baroid
Barafoam Foaming agent Baroid, Houston, TX
Modifoam High elasticity foam BDC, Schiedam, Holland
Ampli-Foam Agent for mist and stiff foam BHI, Houston

Foamers
The quantity of foaming agent starts at 1 or 2%
or about 1 or 2 quarts per bbl and is increased
according to need. Enough misting agent needs to
be added to see just a trace of foam at the blooie
line. A good starting point is 8 bbl/hour of water.
Fine or dissolved cuttings, oil, salts, and water
hardness will all affect misting agents to some
degree. A pilot test in a quart of injection water
should be performed to give an indication of
where to start the mist mixture.
Foamers
If misting is implemented for lifting large
volumes of water the misting agent needs to be
added in a much higher concentration. pH and
corrosion control to be considered on a case-by-
case situation.

Foamers
pH control is important to avoid corrosion for air drilling
and operation using a nitrogen membrane system (which
introduces small levels of oxygen downhole). The pH of
the mixture needs to be kept above 9 at the blooie line.
Lime or cement has been used in injection water, but they
both leave a scale and repress the foamers. On the other
hand, the presence of calcium ions reduces shale swelling.
KC1 appears to be a better choice. It does not leave scale
in the pipe and has a buffer effect. NaOH or caustic soda
is not buffered enough to maintain its pH. Soda ash
(Na2CO3) has been used in some areas.

Corrosion Inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors with air drilling or in the presence of
oxygen from a nitrogen membrane include phosphates
and filming amines. Different compounds have been
found to work satisfactorily in various areas. Corrosion in
fresh water appears to be minimized, although it is worse
when using saline water in UB drilling. With produced
water, corrosion can be significant, and in produced water
with traces of H2S, corrosion is very difficult to control.
There have been local studies of corrosion control, but
there is no single study that covers worldwide operations
or profiles any significant direction. Corrosion control,
like misting agents, is a local issue.
Anticorrosion Chemicals
Acquacore 9100 Anionic phosphate Aquaness, Houston
Acquacore 9314 Anionic phosphate Aquaness
Acquacore 9390 Anionic phosphate Aquaness
Acquacore 9450 Anionic phosphate,cal Aquaness

Tolerant
Aquatec Filming amine for brines BHI, Houston
Baracor 700 Corrosion/scale inhibitor Baroid, Houston
Baracore 1635 Oxygen/corrosion inhibitor Baroid
Barafilm Filming amine Baroid
BRF COR-Clear AF Inhibitor for air drilling Clearwater, Pittsburgh, PA
CI-123 Filming amine Baker, Houston
CI-343 Filming amine Baker
CI-373 Filming amine Baker
Conqor 202 Persistent filming amine MI, Houston

Effect of Corrosion Inhibition on Foam
Increasing the conductivity of the electrolyte in a system
(the fluid) will cause corrosion to increase. Brine water
will increase the conductivity and will act to destabilize
the foam. As the foam begins to break down, the amount
of free water will increase. This further accelerates the
corrosion rate.
As temperature increases, corrosion increases. Foams

exposed to higher temperatures also begin to break down,
yielding additional free water. This compounds the rate of
corrosion.

Effect of Corrosion Inhibition on Foam
Oxygen is probably the worst offender in foam drilling
fluid systems with respect to corrosion. Any foam system
generated with air will be potentially corrosive, unless
properly inhibited.
Two broad categories of corrosion inhibitors exist.

Anionic inhibitors are more compatible with foaming
agents. Cationic inhibitors tend to act contrary to the
foaming agent and have a destabilizing effect on the fluid
system. The following table gives a brief summary of the
advantages and disadvantages of common corrosion
inhibitors.
Category Chemical Advantage Disadvantage Overall Rating
Anionic Organo Foamer Cost Excellent

Phosphate Compatible
Esters Good Solubility
Biodegradable
Chromates Extreme Require pH Control Good Inhibitor,

Solubility Require High But
Foamer Concentrations Environmentally
Compatible Carcinogenic Unacceptable
Nitrates Good Solubility High Concentration Fair

Foamer Required
Compatible High pH Required
Phosphates Moderate Significant Increase in Poor

Foamer Scale
Compatibility Formation
Require Other Additives
Cationic Amines Effective Coating Film Easily Penetrated by Moderate

Inhibitor Oxygen
Foamer Incompatible
Fluid Velocities
Because foam has a superior ability to suspend cuttings,
the annular velocity required to clean the hole will be
much lower for foam than for air or mist. While air and
mist fluids must circulate at approximately 50 ft/s, foam
adequately cleans the hole at velocities of 1 to 3 ft/s. When
foam has a relatively high quality and is at a low pressure,
it can move slower than at lower quality at higher
pressures. This is true because foam performs
rheologically more like a conventional fluid at lower
qualities, and has a lower lifting capacity at lower foam
qualities.

Fluid Velocities
Because foam can move slower and still clean the hole,
less compressed air or gas volume is required than with
pure gas or mist. This results in a benefit for foam
compared to these other media. Less gas compression
means less horsepower required, saving on fuel and
equipment rental.
Table below summarizes air volumes and annular

velocities required for adequate hole cleaning for various
fluid types for a 7-7/8-in. to 8-1/2-in. hole.

Compressible Fluid System Requirements
Air Liquid Annular Injection
Volume Rate Velocity Pressure
Fluid Type
(scfm) (gpm) (ft/min.) (psi)
Air 2,500 0 3,000 100-200
Mist 2,750 0.4 3,000 150-400
Stable Foam 700 40 50-300 150-400
Conventional
Mud 0 300-400 100-300 1,000-1,600
Fluid Velocities
Actual injection rates of both gas and liquid are
dependent on bottom-hole pressure. Bottom-hole pressure
strongly impacts foam quality, which reflects whether the
fluid is even foam. Determining optimum rates is an
iterative process, but the boundaries can be easily
established.
The upper boundary can be set at a flow combination that

yields a mist. The lower boundary can be set at a
combination yielding an aerated fluid.

Hole Cleaning
Both the bottom-hole pressure and the injection pressure will
generally increase when either liquid injection rate or back pressure
are increased. The effect of these changes on hole cleaning may vary.
Hole cleaning is usually improved as liquid injection rate is increased.

Increasing the back pressure with conventional fluids will usually
inhibit hole cleaning. However, if the increased back pressure
prevents the gas phase from breaking out of a foam fluid (i.e.,
maintains foam quality), the cuttings transport can actually be
improved. Increasing back pressure has the effect of increasing the
viscosity of a foam, which helps it clean the hole more efficiently.
The effects of controllable parameters on the hydraulics of foam

fluids are summarized in the following table.
Effects of Increasing Foam Fluid Variables
Increasing Effect on Effect on Effect on Hole

Variable Injection Bottom- Cleaning
Pressure Hole Pressure
Gas Rate Increase Decrease Improve
Liquid Rate Decrease Increase Improve
Back Pressure Slight Increase Slight Increase Improve or Decrease
Fluid Viscosity Slight Increase Slight Increase Improve

Rheological Models
Foam can be treated as a homogeneous fluid with both
variable density and viscosity. During a foam operation,
foam quality is dependent on pressure and temperature
within the tubing and annulus. The pressure has to be
determined using the mechanical energy balance equation
in which the frictional pressure drop term depends on the
foam rheological model. It is therefore very important to
have an accurate rheolgical model describing foam
behavior.

Rheological Models
The models most commonly used in the drilling industry
to describe fluid behavior of non-Newtonian fluids are the
Bingham plastic and power-law models. The equations to
calculate frictional pressure drops are listed in Bourgoyne
et al. (1986) and API SPEC 10 (Beyer et al., 1972).

Polymers
Polymers are used in foam drilling fluids for a variety of
reasons. They may be used as viscosifying agents to
improve foam carrying capacity, as lubricity agents to
decrease the fluid friction factor, or to chemically stabilize
the wellbore, particularly when shales and clays are
present. The following table shows common polymers
used in foam systems, and their respective uses.

Common Foam Polymers
Common Use Polymer Type
Polyacrylamides
Viscosity Control/Fresh
Water PHPA
Carboxy-Methyl Cellulose (CMC)
Hydroxy-ethyl Cellulose HEC) Guar Gum
Viscosity Control/Brine Bio-polymers (Xanthan Gum or XC) Guar

Water Gum
Thermal Stability Bio-polymers
pH Stability Bio-polymers
Wellbore Stability KCL and KCL Substitutes

Rule of Thumb
Every situation should be fully evaluated prior to mixing
any foam components, and every attempt should be made
to optimize the properties of a particular foam system. It
is not possible in all cases to generalize, but typical foam
mixes will be similar.
Most stable foams will consist of the following components

in the volumetric ranges shown in the following table.

General Foam Components
Volume % of Volume % of
Component Purpose Total Liquid
Air or Gas Base Fluid 55--97 N/A
Water Additive Carrier 1--45 97--98

Foamer Stability, Viscosity 26 215
Other Corrosion, <1 <1
Chemicals Viscosity
Guar Gum Viscosity (stiff 0.2 <1

Foam Only)
Bentonite Viscosity, Stability 34 N/A
(Stiff Foam Only)
Rule of Thumb
A typical formula for 1 barrel of a stable foam slurry will
include the following:
1 bbl of fresh water
to 2 gal. Of foaming agent
gal. Of corrosion inhibitor
4 lbs of lime
A typical formula for 1 barrel of a stiff foam slurry will

include the following:
12-14 lbs of bentonite
1-1.5 lb of soda ash
-3/4 lb of CMC
0.4-0.8 gal (0.5-2% by volume) foamer
Mixing Additives
Just as with conventional drilling fluids, any changes or
additions of a new chemical to the foam should be pilot
tested on the surface to determine any readily apparent
drawbacks of making the change. Due to the compressible
nature of the foam and the resulting continuously
changing rheological behavior, not all effects of changes
will be apparent in a pilot test.

Recyclable Foam
Engineers have known for years that acid added to a foam
fluid will break down and destabilize the foam. In the late
1970s and early 1980s, techniques for breaking foams
using acid were developed to aid in cleaning up reservoir
pits full of foam after foam drilling operations were
completed. Lowering the pH of a foam acts to destabilize
it and allows the gas phase to break out much more easily.
In 1994, Clearwater, Inc. developed a procedure to use

this approach in recirculating foam fluid liquid phases.
This serves to greatly reduce the costs associated with
using foam. However, this is a new process and is still
being proven.
Recyclable Foam
Clearwater, Inc. calls their system TransFoam. It is a
process to continually foam, defoam and then re-foam the
drilling fluid for reuse. TransFoam is also the name given
to highly effective Clearwater foaming agent.
Where containment or environmental concerns limit the

use of foam because of the increased fluid volume, the
TransFoam system eliminates these concerns by rapidly
defoaming fluid in the blooie line using a special
defoamer. Rapidly means the foam half-life goes from 6
minutes and 30 seconds to less than 15 seconds. The
system results in a volume reduction of 95% within
seconds.
Recyclable Foam
While defoamer technology is often used in air-foam
drilling, the TransFoam system is unique because the
defoamer does not destroy the foaming agent. The
defoamed fluid can be cycled through the shale shaker
to remove drilled solids and then cycled through the steel
pits for complete settling of the cuttings.
An activator is then added to re-foam the fluid. The

TransFoam activator completely counteracts the
defoamer. Transfoam re-foams to its original stability
level. The number of foam, defoam and re-foam cycles is
virtually unlimited. The process is shown schematically in
the next slide.
Foam/De-Foam/Re-Foam Cycle
+ + H2SO4 + ACTIVATOR
Foam Foam Foam

(100% Volume) (5% Volume) (90% Volume)

Recyclable Foam
At pH levels above 10, the TransFoam foaming agents,
when agitated with water and air, create a viscous stable
foam. When the pH is dropped to 7.0 for TransFoam A
and 3.5 for TransFoam C by the addition of sulfuric acid,
the foaming potential of the water is greatly diminished.
In fact, the foam is essentially killed by addition of the
acid.

Aerated Liquid
Water + gas
Density 48 ppg
Gas fraction-dependent cuttings-carrying capacity
Eliminated mud-ring and downhole fire/explosion
problems in gas drilling
Eliminated string vibration problem in gas drilling

2.1 Gas Drilling Theory
Planning Steps
Gas Volume Requirement
Gas Pressure Requirement
Selection of Compressor Units

Planning Steps
1. Identify the geometry of the borehole section(s) to be drilled
with each of the techniques (i.e., open-hole diameters,
maximum depths, casing sizes, and setting depths).
2. Determine the geometry of the associated drillstring for the

sections to be drilled with each of the techniques (i.e., drill
bit type, drill collar size and length, drillpipe size and
description).
3. Estimate the anticipated drilling ROP in each section based

on the type of rock formation to be drilled.
4. Obtain the information about the elevation of the drilling site

above sea level, the temperature of the air during the drilling
operation, and the approximate geothermal temperature
gradient.
Planning Steps (contd)
5. Decide whether direct or reverse circulation techniques will
be used.
6. Calculate the minimum volume requirements to drill each

sections (i.e., liquid flow rate, gas injection rate).
7. Using the minimum volumetric flow rates, estimate the

bottom-hole pressures, surface injection pressures, and
compressor power.
8. Predict the pressure underbalance at the pay zone if the

objective of using UBD is to minimize formation damage.

Planning Steps (contd)
9. Perform borehole stability analyses.
10. Select a contractor whose compressors will provide the

drilling operation with the appropriate pressures and flow
rates.
11. Estimate drilling progress curve.
12. Estimate the approximate volume of fuel required by the

compressors to drill the well.

Gas Volume Requirement
Criteria
Analytical method
Use of engineering charts
Use of correlations
Reverse circulation

Gas Volume Requirement (contd)
Criteria
Minimum Kinetic Energy Criterion
Minimum required kinetic energy: Emin= 3 lbf-ft/ft3
Kinetic energy index: IK = E/Emin >1
Minimum Velocity Criterion

Use of Engineering Charts
Engineering charts are published in book
Boyun Guo and Ali Ghalambor: Gas Volume Requirements for Underbalanced
Drilling: Deviated Holes, PennWell Books, Tulsa (2002)
Charts give the minimum required gas injection rate at

standard condition covering 17-1/2 to 4-3/4 holes for
- Air-drilling vertical holes

- Gas-drilling vertical holes
- Air-drilling deviated holes

Use of Engineering Charts Example 2.3
A borehole is to be drilled to 2,800 ft with a 17-1/2-in. diameter rotary

drill bit using air as a circulating fluid at an ROP of 90 ft/hr. The
drillstring is made up of 300 ft of 9-in. OD by 4-in. ID drilling collars
and 2,500 ft of API 6-5/8-in. diameter, 27.20-lb/ft nominal (5.9-in. ID)
drillpipe. Ambient conditions are elevation 2,000 ft, temperature 75oF,
relative humidity 0.85, and geothermal gradient 0.01oF/ft. Dewatering
efficiency of the water trap is 95%. The misting water rate is 0 bbl/hr.
Formation water influx is 0 bbl/hr. Blooey line pressure is 14.7 psia.
Assuming drilling solids are particles having a specific gravity of 2.70,

determine the minimum required volumetric flow rate of actual air for
the operation using engineering charts.

Example 2.3 - Solution 17-1/2 x 6-5/8
13000
12000 ROP 0 ft/hr
Flow Rate (scf/min)
ROP 30 ft/hr
11000 ROP 60 ft/hr
10000 ROP 90 ft/hr
9000 ROP 120 ft/hr
ROP 150 ft/hr
8000
7000
6000
5000
Qgo = 5,500 scf/min
4000
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Depth (ft)
Use of Correlations
The data used for developing the engineering charts were utilized for
generating correlations:
Q go = 16.36( Dh D p ) + 10 y 100
2 2
y = a1 log[log( H + 10)] + a 2 R p + a3 log( Dh D p ) + a 4

2 2
where
Dh = hole diameter, in.
Dp = pipe outer-diameter, in.
H = vertical depth, ft
Rp = rate of penetration, ft/hour

Use of Correlations
Hole Size a1 a2 a3 a4
Gas specific gravity 1.0:
17-1/2" - 15" 7.2546075 0.00252683 0.27678264 -1.7651235
12-1/4" - 11" 6.6601733 0.00209705 0.19744638 -1.23402
11" - 9" 6.4082072 0.00192274 0.31610525 -1.321421
9" - 8-3/4" 6.2798063 0.00182764 -0.4792222 0.1548013
8-3/4" - 7-3/8" 6.0455425 0.00168948 0.35335623 -1.1821484
7-3/8" - 6-1/4" 5.679996 0.00147466 0.29013093 -0.8763823
4-3/4" 4.950591 0.00112253 -0.3306047 0.2873023

17-1/2" - 11" 6.7871739 0.00252877 0.21319786 -1.2900067
9-7/8" - 7-7/8" 5.9204969 0.00188266 0.44937033 -1.2100955
7-3/8" - 6-1/4" 5.5090886 0.00157407 0.23107964 -0.6547086
4-1/2" 4.6991645 0.00117097 -27.296318 31.61369

17-1/2" - 11" 6.5881264 0.00272353 0.18417591 -1.0851952
9-7/8" - 7-7/8" 5.7192449 0.00201416 0.4461588 -1.0502658
7-3/8" - 6-1/4" 5.3363167 0.00169377 0.22519935 -0.5077256
4-1/2" 4.5554719 0.0012653 -8.8509529 10.427342
Use of Correlations Exercise Example 2.4
Determine the required volumetric flow rate of air for a 7-7/8-in. hole
with 4-1/2-in. pipe at 60 ft/hr at a depth of 10,000 ft.
Solution:
y = (6.045543) log[log(10,010)] + (0.001689)(60) + (0.353356) log(7.875 2 4.5 2 ) 1.18215

= 3.132
Q go = 16.36(7.875 2 4.5 2 ) + 10 3.132 100

= 1,940 scfm

Reverse Circulation
The major advantage of using reverse circulation technique is to
reduce the minimum gas volume requirement. This is achieved
because of small cross-sectional areas inside the drillpipes where
upward flow of drilling fluid with cuttings is carried out.
All equations derived for the direct circulation technique are

applicable to the reverse circulation technique. The only two
parameters that need to be noted are hydraulic diameter dH and cross-
sectional area of flow path A. They should be calculated based on
drillpipe ID, not annulus diameters.
However, the engineering charts developed for the direct circulation

technique should not be used for reverse circulation based on an
equivalent cross-sectional area of flow path
Use of a spreadsheet program
GasDrill-04.xls

I. INPUT PARAMETERS:
1) Well Geometry:
Total measured depth: 8000 ft

Bit diameter: 7.875 in
Casing, drill pipe, and drill collar: (Fill out tables in sections II and IV)
2) Material Properties:
Specific gravity of rock: 2.8 water = 1

Specific gravity of gas: 1 air = 1
Gas specific heat ratio (k): 1.25
Specific gravity of misting fluid: 1 water = 1
Specific gravity of formation fluid: 1 water = 1
Pipe roughness: 0.0018 in
Borehole roughness: 0.3 in

3) Environment:
Site elevation (above mean sea level): 2000 ft

Ambient pressure: 13.662 psia
Ambient temperature: 75 F
Relative humidity: 0.8 fraction
Geothermal gradient: 0.01 F/ft
Minimum required velocity under standard conditions: 50 ft/sec
4) Operating condition:
Surface choke/flow line pressure: 15 psia

Rate of penetration: 30 ft/hour
Rotary speed: 50 rpm
Misting rate: 5 bbl/hour
Formation fluid influx rate: 10 bbl/hour
De-watering efficiency: 0.95 fraction

Well No.: Junction-3 Qgo = 2,000 scfm
Kinetic Energy Index
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
0
2000
D e p th (ft)
4000
6000
8000
10000
Well No.: Junction-3

Velocity (ft/s)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
0
2000
D e p th (ft)
4000
6000
8000
10000
Gas Pressure Requirement
Annulus pressure
Pressure drop at bit
Standpipe pressure
Injection pressure

Procedure
Select a compressor unit based on the minimum
required gas flow rate
Calculate injection pressure based on the flow
rate capacity of the selected compressor unit
Compare the injection pressure with the working
pressure of the selected compressor unit
Calculate the required compression horsepower
and compare with the horsepower of the selected
compressor unit

Volumetric Deliverability
Selected compressor unit should be capable

of delivering a gas flow rate greater than the
minimum required gas flow rate. A safety
factor should be used.

Pressure Deliverability
Selected compressor unit should be capable

of delivering a pressure greater than the
calculated injection pressure. A safety factor
should be utilized.

Horsepower
Required horsepower for gas compression can be

calculated using the following equation:
k 1

ns kpi Qi po
1
ns k
HPc =
229.17(k 1) pi

where HPc = gas compression horsepower

ns = number of compression stages
pi = input pressure, psia
po = output pressure, psia
Qi = input gas flow rate, cfm

Horsepower (contd)
Efficiency of compressor unit should be

considered in compressor and prime
mover selections
Efficiency of prime mover should be

considered in energy consumption
calculations

Exercise Example 2.6
The minimum required volumetric air flow rate has been

calculated to be 1,499 ft3/min for the conditions given in
Example 2.1. Assuming three 20-1/32-in. bit nozzles are
used, and the pressure drop in the surface injection line is
negligible, select compressor units for the operation.

Exercise Example 2.6 (contd)
Solution:
Looking up the list of compressors available from the local providers
indicates that a semitrailer-mounted compressor unit can be pre-
selected for the drilling job. The unit has both a primary compressor
and a booster compressor driven by a large prime mover. The prime
mover runs at 1,800 rpm and drives the booster at the same rotation
speed. The prime mover drives the primary compressor through a gear
box with a ratio of 1.094. The primary compressor is a German-
manufactured MAN GHH-CF246G, single-stage, oil-flooded, rotary
helical lobe compressor. At a rotation speed of 1,969 rpm, the primary
compressor has a volumetric flow rate of 1,727 scf/min and produces a
fixed discharge pressure of 190 psig at ASME standard conditions. The
discharge pressure can be increased to 210 psig with a slightly lower
volumetric flow rate after a discharge mechanical adjustment is made
to this compressor.

Exercise Example 2.6 (contd)
This compressor unit gives a volumetric safety factor of
(1,727)/(1,499)=1.152. Whether this compressor unit can be used depends
on well (injection) pressure requirements, which can be calculated based on
the compressor flow rate of 1,727 scf/min.
Using the equations presented earlier, the following results are obtained:
Annulus pressure at the casing shoe: 67 psia
Annulus pressure at the collar top: 138 psia
Annulus pressure at the bottom of the hole: 232 psia
Pressure above bit nozzles (subsonic flow): 255 psia
Pressure in the drillstring at the collar top: 259 psia
Standpipe pressure: 186 psia (171 psig)
This well (injection) pressure requirement (171 psig) is less than the
compressor discharge pressure, 190 psig, with a safety factor of
(190)/(171)=1.111. Since this unit also has a booster compressor, the
selected compressor unit can be used for the air drilling operation.
Gas Pressure and Compression
Requirement
GasDrill-04.xls

Gas Pressure and Compression
Requirement - Use of a spreadsheet program
I. INPUT PARAMETERS:
1) Well Geometry:
Total measured depth: 8000 ft

Bit diameter: 7.875 in
Casing, drill pipe, and drill collar: (Fill out tables in sections II and IV)
2) Material Properties:
Specific gravity of rock: 2.8 water = 1

Specific gravity of gas: 1 air = 1
Gas specific heat ratio (k): 1.25
Specific gravity of misting fluid: 1 water = 1
Specific gravity of formation fluid: 1 water = 1
Pipe roughness: 0.0018 in
Borehole roughness: 0.3 in
3) Environment:
Site elevation (above mean sea level): 2000 ft

Ambient pressure: 13.662 psia
Ambient temperature: 75 F
Relative humidity: 0.8 fraction
Geothermal gradient: 0.01 F/ft
Minimum required velocity under standard conditions: 50 ft/sec
4) Operating condition:
Surface choke/flow line pressure: 15 psia

Rate of penetration: 30 ft/hour
Rotary speed: 50 rpm
Misting rate: 5 bbl/hour
Formation fluid influx rate: 10 bbl/hour
De-watering efficiency: 0.95 fraction
Bit nozzles: Nozzle-1: 20 1/32nd in.
Nozzle-2: 20 1/32nd in.
Proposed gas injection rate: 2,000 scfm
Number of compression stages: 3
Pressure tuning factor: 1

Well No.: Junction-3
Pressure (psia)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
0
D e p th (ft)
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
Well No.: Junction-3 3
Density (lbm/ft )
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8
0
2000
D e p th (ft)
4000
6000
8000
10000
Compression Requirement
k 1

ns kpiQi po
1
n s k
HPc = = 424.3060484 horsepower
229.17(k 1) pi

Designed gas inection rate: 2000

Bottom hole pressure at the designed gas injection rate: 219
The minimum required surface injection pressure: 333
The minimum required surface injection horse power: 424

2.2 Foam Drilling Theory
Bottom Hole Pressure

Surface Injection Pressure
Foam Stability Control

Hydraulics Model (contd)
p 14.696
ECD =
0.052H
p static 14.696
EMW =
0.052H

Example
Case 1 Case 2
Hole Size (In): 12.25 12.25

Depth (ft): 2853.6 4264
Liquid Rate (gpm): 130 200
Gas Rate (scfm): 380 700
Measured/Reported ECD (ppg): 5.6 - 5.8 5.00

Model-Calculated ECD (ppg): 5.72 5.46
Difference (%): 2.1 9.2

Ps
Depending upon whom you talk to,
high
commercial foams are generally believed to be
stable when the in-situ foam quality index is
between min=0.55 and max=0.975.
GLR should be adjusted to maintain the foam
quality in a right range throughout the hole.
Backpressure is sometimes necessary to keep
foam stable in the upper hole section.
Theoretically, there is a critical depth where
the annulus pressure reduces foam quality to
min for a given GLR. Foam becomes unstable
beyond this depth. Pbh
low
Maximum Allowable GLR (contd)
60
Qfx/Ql = 0 bbl/hr per gpm
max=0.975
GLRmax without Backpressure

50
Requirement (scf/gal)

40
30
20
10
0
0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99
max

Backpressure (contd)
70
max=0.975
Min. Required Backpressure (psia)

60
50 Qfx/Ql = 3 bbl/hr per gpm
40
.
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20
Injection GLR (scf/gal)

Maximum Allowable Pressure (contd)
2000
Qfx/ Ql = 0 b b l/ hr p er g p m
1800 Qfx/ Ql = 1 b b l/ hr p er g p m
Maximum Allowable Pressure (psia)
1600 Qfx/ Ql = 3 b b l/ hr p er g p m
1400
1200
1000
800 min=0.55
600
400
200
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Injection GLR (scfm /gpm )

Maximum Depth (contd)
8.00
5000
Maximum Depth
ECD at Maximum Depth 7.00
4000
Maximum Depth (ft)
6.00
ECD (ppg)
3000
5.00
Qfx = 0
min= 0.55
2000
4.00
1000 3.00
12.25x6.325 Annulus
0 2.00
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
GLR (scfm/gpm)
Use of Spreadsheet Programs
FoamEMW.xls

FoamEMW Example: 10,000 ft and liquid injection 300 gpm.
Injection GLR Foam Quality
6.5 scf/gal 0.55

6.0 scf/gal 0.50
This example shows that a slight reduction in GLR could cause in-
situ foam quality to be lower than 0.55 which is believed to be the
minimum required foam quality for stable foam.

FoamECD.xls

FoamECD Example: 10,000 ft and liquid injection 300 gpm,
injection GLR 6.5 scf/gal.
Water Influx Foam Quality
0 bbl/hour 0.55
20 bbl/hour 0.50
This example shows that formation fluid influx could cause in-situ
foam quality to be lower than 0.55, which may result in unstable
foam.

Exercises
FoamDrill-04.xls

Predict pressures, velocities, foam qualities,
and ECD at all points of the system defined
by the data in the following table
Total Depth (H): 8000 ft
Liquid Injection Rate (Ql): 300 gpm
Depth of the Surface Choke: 0.00 ft
Surface Temperature: 540 R
Mud Weight (W m ): 8.4 ppg
Gas Specific Gravity (S g): 1 air=1
Formation Fluid Specific Gravity (S f ): 1 water=1
o
Geothermal Gradient (G): 0.001 F/ft
Formation Fluid (water and oil) Influx Rate (Qf ): 10 bbl/hr
Injection GLR: 3 scf/gal
Backpressure (Ps): 14.7 psia
Bit nozzles (dn): 20 20 20 1/32nd in

Well No.: Grand-3
ECD (ppg)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
1000
2000
3000
Depth (ft)
4000
5000
6000
7000
ANNULAR PROFILE
8000 IN-PIPE PROFILE
9000

Well No.: Grand-3
Pressure (psia)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
1000 ANNULAR PROFILE

3000
Depth (ft)
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000

Well No.: Grand-3
Foam Quality
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00
0
1000
2000
3000
Depth (ft)
4000
5000
6000

9000

Well No.: Grand-3
3
Density (lbm/ft )
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
1000
2000
3000
Depth (ft)
4000
5000
6000
7000
ANNULAR PROFILE
9000

Well No.: Grand-3
Velocity (ft/s)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
1000
2000
3000
Depth (ft)
4000
5000
6000
7000
ANNULAR PROFILE
9000

2.3 Aerated Liquid
Drilling Theory

Surface Injection Pressure

Effect of Gas Injection on Flowing Pressure
4500
Flowing Annulus Pressure (psia)
4000 250 scfm 500 scfm

750 scfm 1000 scfm
3500 1250 scfm 1500 scfm
3000
. 2500
2000
1500
200 gpm and 100 psia
1000
backpressure in a vertical
500 borehole
0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Measured Depth (ft)
Effect of Gas Injection on Static Pressure
4000
"Static" Annulus Pressure (psia)

3500 250 scfm backpressure in a vertical
500 scfm borehole
3000
750 scfm
2500 1000 scfm
1250 scfm
2000
1500 scfm
1500
1000
500
0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
M easured D epth (ft)
EMW and ECD
p 14.696
ECD =
0.052H
p static 14.696
EMW =
0.052H

Effect of Gas Injection on ECD
12
11 250 scfm 500 scfm

750 scfm 1000 scfm
1250 scfm 1500 scfm
10
ECD (ppg)

9 backpressure in a vertical
borehole
8
6
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Measured Depth (ft)
Effect of Gas Injection on EMW
10
200 gpm and
2 5 0 s c fm 5 0 0 s c fm
9 100 psia
7 5 0 s c fm 1 0 0 0 s c fm
backpressure in
1 2 5 0 s c fm 1 5 0 0 s c fm
8 a vertical
borehole
EMW (ppg)
2
0 2 ,0 0 0 4 ,0 0 0 6 ,0 0 0 8 ,0 0 0 1 0 ,0 0 0
M e a s u r e d D e p th (ft)
Example
Case 1 Case 2
Well Type: Vertical Horizontal
Hole Size (In): 6 8.5
Depth (ft): 9,381 1,094

4-3/4" Drill 3-1/2" Heavy
5" Drill Pipe
Collar Drill Pipe 3-1/2" Drill Pipe
540 ft 1,000 ft 7,361 ft
480 ft
6" Drill Bit

7,304 ft
9-5/8" Casing, 7,632 ft
7" Liner, 8,859 ft

Openhole, 9,381 ft
Case 1 - Well Geometry
9-5/8 x 602
4-1/2 Pipe
Case 2 - Well Geometry
8-1/2 x 1,094
Example (contd)
Case 1 Case 2
Liquid Rate (gpm): 45 150
Gas Rate (scfm): 1,500 700
Backpressure (psig): 600 50
Measured Bottom Hole Pressure (psig): 2,190 230
Calculated Bottom Hole Pressure (ppg): 2,000 232
Difference (%): 8.66 0.8

AeroECD.xls

AeroECD Example: Liquid 200 gpm, gas 400 scfm.
Choke Pressure ECD @ 1,000 ft
50 psia 8.76 ppg

100 psia 10 ppg
This example indicates that choke pressure significantly

affects ECD at shallow depth, which should be considered in
selection of casing depth to prevent breakdown of shallow
formation.

AeroEMW.xls

AeroEMW Example: Liquid 200 gpm, gas 400 scfm.
Choke Pressure EMW @ 1,000 ft
50 psia 3.48 ppg

100 psia 5.54 ppg
This example indicates that choke pressure significantly

affects EMW at shallow depth, which should be considered in
selection of casing depth to prevent collapse of shallow
formation.

Exercises
ALiqDrill-04.xls

Predict pressures, velocities, GLR, and ECD
at all points of the system defined by the
data in the following table
Total Depth (H): 8000 ft
Gas Injection Rate (Qgo): 600 scfm
Mud Injection Rate (Qm ): 300 gpm
Surface Temperature: 60 F
Backpressure at Choke (Ps): 14.70 psia
Depth of the Surface Choke: 10.00 ft
Rock Specific Gravity (S s ): 2.65 water=1
Mud Weight (W m ): 8.4 ppg
Gas Specific Gravity (S g): 1 air=1
Formation Water Specific Gravity (S w): 1.05 water=1
Formation Oil Specific Gravity (S o): 0.85 water=1
Formation Water Influx Rate (Qw): 3 bbl/hr
Formation Oil Influx Rate (Qo): 7 bbl/hr
Geothermal Gradient (G): 0.01 oF/ft
Bit Diameter (db): 7.875 in
ROP (Rp): 30 ft/hr
Bit nozzles (dn): 20 20 20 1/32nd in
Tuning factor: 9
Operation code (Enter 1 for normal circulating and 0 for circul 1

Well No.: Knox-3 Pressure (psia)
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
0
Depth (ft)

IN-PIPE PROFILE
10000
Well No.: Knox-3 ECD (ppg)

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
Depth (ft)

IN-PIPE PROFILE
10000

Well No.: Knox-3 GLR(dimensionless)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
0
Depth (ft)

IN-PIPE PROFILE
10000
Well No.: Knox-3 3
Density (lb/ft )
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0
Depth (ft)

IN-PIPE PROFILE
10000

Well No.: Knox-3 Velocity (ft/s)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
Depth (ft)

IN-PIPE PROFILE
10000

3. Selection UBD Technique
Gas Drilling
Stable Foam
Aerated Mud Drilling
IADC Guidelines

Considerations
Main Objective
Geological Conditions
Equipment Availability
Safety Issues
Cost

Main Objective
Drilling Fluid Reducing Formation Damage
Air and Gas

Mist and Unstable Foam
increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Rule of Thumb
4 8 0 0
Fluid System Type
Liquid
Aerated Liquid
Foam
Gas/Mist
4 7 9 9
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Pore Pressure Gradient (kPa/m)
Transient Pressure
Sometimes bottom hole pressure is greater

than the pore pressure near wellbore in UBD
This happens due to transient pressures such
as surge and slugging
This type of short-time overbalance can
cause formation impairment
UBD fluid should be selected to minimize
transient pressures

BHP in UBD
7000
Drilling Bottom Hole Pressure (kPa)
6000
Static Reservoir Pressure (kPa)
Pressure (kPa)
5000
4000
3000
A B C
2000
1000 BHP Transient Events
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (hour)
This plot shows that increasing liquid flow rate reduce bottom
hole pressure surge caused by surface pressure changes
10
Pressure Gradient (kPa/m)
0.9 m3/min
8
6 Pbottomhole with 100 kPa Psurface
4
0.1 m3/min
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
N2 Injection Rate (m3/min)
This plot shows a manageable pressure
surge ratio is about 1.5
3
2.5
Economic N2 Cut-Off
P BH / PSurface
Aerated Liquid Unstable

2 Region. Foam Application
1.5 3
0.1 m /min
1 3
Aerated Liquid Stable Region 0.9 m /min
(manageable slugging)
0.5
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
N2 Injection Rate (m3/min)
Use of Foam Reduced Surge and Minimized
Formation Impairment in Canada
7
Aerated 25%
Liquid UB
Frequency (# of Wells)
Foam UB
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000

24 Months Production (103m3)
Main Objective (contd)
Drilling Fluid Improving ROP
Air and Gas

increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Drilling Fluid Controlling Lost Circulation
Air and Gas

increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Drilling Fluid Controlling Fluid Inflow
Air and Gas
increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Drilling Fluid Controlling Sloughing Problem
Air and Gas
increasing
Aerated Liquid
Liquid
Stable Foam

Geological Conditions
Drilling Fluid Ability to Drill Hard Rock
Air and Gas

increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Geological Conditions (contd)
Drilling Fluid Ability to Drill H-P Zones
Air and Gas
increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Geological Conditions (contd)
Drilling Fluid Ability to Control Collapse
Air and Gas
increasing
Stable Foam
Aerated Liquid
Liquid

Equipment Availability
Rentals (compressors, BOP, separators, surface fluid

handling equipment, downhole tools, etc.)
Logistics
Technical services

Safety Issues
Well control equipment and expertise availability

Well type (exploration vs. development wells)
Downhole fires/explosions
Personnel training

Cost
Water disposal
Hydrocarbon handling
Equipment rentals
Material consumption
Time

IADC Guidelines
Corrosion and Erosion Management for UBD
Operations
UBO Committee Guidelines for Underbalanced

Drilling
Guidelines for Fluid Selection for

Underbalanced Drilling

IADC Guidelines
http://www.iadc.org/committees/
underbalanced/Draftdocuments.html

4.1 Surface Equipment
Compression System
Fluid Mixing System
BOP System
Blooie Line
Separation System
Equipment Layout

2-6: Air Compression System
A Typical Compression SystemUniversity

for ofAir Drilling
Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
2-23: Nitrogen Drilling System
Compression System for Nitrogen Drilling

University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
2-24: Drilling with Natural Gas
Compression System for (c)

Copyright Drilling
2004 by Ali with Natural
University Gas2003
of Louisiana at Lafayette,
2-25: Flaring for Drilling with Natural Gas
Flaring Arrangements for Drilling with Natural Gas

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
2-16: Pressure and Flow Rate Meter Chart
Meter chart can be used for

Copyright monitoring
(c) 2004 by Ali Universitygas flow
of Louisiana rate
at Lafayette, 2003
2-17: Standpipe Manifold
Standpipe Manifold inby Gas

Copyright (c) 2004 Ali Drilling
Fluid Mixing System
2-49: Aerated Water Drilling
A typical surface system for aerated water drilling

without significant oilCopyright
production
(c) 2004 by AliandUniversity
surface pressure
of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
Fluid Mixing System
2-50: Aerated Mud Drilling
A typical surface layout for aerated mud or brine

drilling that can handle significant oil production and
surface pressure
2-37: Gasification Techniques
Gas injection methods for drilling

with aerated liquids
2-45: Parasite Tubing Injection Sub
Parasite tubing injection sub

2-46: Parasite Tubing Injection Float Shoe
Parasite tubing injection float shoe

2-47: Casing Head for Annular Gas Injection
Casing head for micro-annular gas injection

2-9 (1): Rotating Head
Rotating head for low pressure operations

(<400 psi)
2-60 Leaking Worn Rotating Head Rubber
Leaking worn rotating

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali head rubber
2-61 Rotating BOP
Rotating BOP (RBOP)

Ghalambor & Boyun Guo University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
Components of a
low-pressure
RBOP
2-9 (2): Rotating Head
Components of high-pressure RBOP

(2,500 psi)
2-62 Rotating BOP Sealing Elements
RBOP Sealing Elements

2-54 BOP Stack
A typical BOP stack configuration for UBD

with Copyright
a conventional
(c) 2004 by Ali
rig
2-67 BOP Stack
A typical BOP stack for UBD

2-53 Snubbing Unit
Hydraulic Rig Assist (HRA) Snubbing Unit

with BOP
2-68 Snub Drilling Choke System
Snub Drilling Choke

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali System
2-57 Flowdrilling Equipment
Surface Equipment Required for Flowdrilling

A typical flowdrilling choke manifold

2-58 Flowdrilling Equipment
Atmospheric surface system for flowdrilling

Typical flowdrilling
Copyright (c) 2004 by BOP
Ali stack
Mudcap Drilling
2-65 Mudcap Drilling Equipment
Equipment required for mudcap

drilling
2-69 Closed Surface System
A typical closed surface system for drilling

in environment-sensitive areas
2-70 Flow Control
Flow control arrangement

2-71 Flow Control and Sample Catcher
Integrated flow control and

sample catcher manifold
Blooie Line
The bypass line should be connected to the

primary jet, which is located inside the blooie
line. When air is pumped through the bypass line
during a trip, the primary jet reduces pressure in
the blooie line. Provided that the pressure
decrease is sufficient, this pull any produced gas
flowing from the well into the blooie line and
away from the rig floor.

Blooie Line (contd)
Recommended jet Construction

Blooie Line (contd)

Separation System
2-33: Foam Disposal
A foam disposal system used offshore

2-34: Foam Recycling
A recyclable foam system

2-72: 4-Phase Separation
A horizontal 4-phase separator for UBD

Equipment Layout
1-1: Simplified Air Drilling Flow System
Simplified air drilling flow system

1-2: Simplified Aerated Liquid Drilling Flow System
Simplified aerated liquid drilling flow system

2-14: Combined Flare and Reserve Pit
Combined flare
Copyright and
(c) 2004 reserve
by Ali Universitypit
of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
2-15: Separate Flare and Reserve Pits
Separate flare
Copyrightand
(c) 2004reserve
by Ali pit of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
University
4.2 Downhole Tools
Float Valve
BHA
Hammer
Bit

Float Valve
2-7: Drillstring Float Valves for Air Drilling

Float Valve (contd)
2-8: Fire Stop and Fire Float Valves

BHA
5-10: BHA for Air Drilling

Hammer
6-16: Internally Ported Hammer with Flat-Bottom Bit

Hammer (contd)
6-18: Externally Ported Hammer

Hammer (contd)
6-19: Components of an Externally Ported Hammer

Bit
6-17: Flat-Bottom Bits Used with Hammer

5.1 Hydraulics Design
Guidelines
Gas Drilling
Stable Foam Drilling

Gas Drilling
Gas injection rate should be high
enough to lift cuttings
Use reverse circulation to avoid too-
high gas injection rate
Change to mist drilling if down hole fire
is predicted
Bit nozzles should be large enough to
avoid sonic flow
If necessary, apply back pressure to
reduce casing/wellbore wash-out
Note: Guo et al.s model duplicates Amocos experience
Gas Drilling (contd)
Map for combustible gas-oxygen mixture

Stable Foam Drilling
GLR should be carefully designed to
maintain foam stability at all depth in
the annulus
Increase GLR to keep foam stable in
deep wells where pressure is higher
If necessary, apply backpressure at
choke to reduce foam quality at surface
Both ECD and EMW should be in the
safe range at all depth
GLR should be carefully designed to
maintain ECD and EMW in the safe
range at all depth
Borehole stability analysis should be
performed
A safe gas-liquid rate window should be
developed for drilling conditions at all
depth

Injection GLR
39 scf/bbl
To get 6
ppg EMW
MW reduction
2.5 ppg
At 4,200 ft
Early-time
technology Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali
ECD
12
11 250 scfm 500 scfm

750 scfm 1000 scfm
1250 scfm 1500 scfm
10
ECD (ppg)

7
backpressure in a vertical
borehole
6
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
Measured Depth (ft)
EMW
10
200 gpm and
250 scfm 500 scfm
100 psia
9 backpressure in 750 scfm 1000 scfm
a vertical 1250 scfm 1500 scfm
8 borehole
EMW (ppg)
2
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000
M easured Depth (ft)
Borehole Stability Analysis
Nomenclature 1 = the maximum principal stress, psi
2 = the intermediate principal stress, psi
3 = the minimum principal stress, psi
a = axial stress along wellbore, psi
r = radial stress, psi
= tangential stress, psi
x = normal stress in x-direction,
a = =
a psi
y = normal stress in y-direction, psi
z = normal stress in z-direction, psi
xo = H max = the maximum horizontal in-situ stress, psi
yo = H min = the minimum horizontal in-situ stress, psi
z = V = vertical in-situ stress, psi
o
xy = yx = shear stress, psi

yz = zy = shear stress, psi
xz = zx = shear stress, psi
r = r = shear stress, psi
ra = ar = shear stress, psi
a = a = shear stress, psi
In-Situ Principal Stresses
zo
zo z = V
o
y = H min
o
yo
x = H max
o
yo
xo
xo

Stresses in the Wellbore Orientation
zo
z y
yo z z
zy
y
yz

x
zx
yx

xo xz
xy
x
x
Stresses in the Wellbore Orientation
x = ( x cos 2 + y sin 2 ) cos 2 + z sin 2

o o
o
y = ( x sin 2 + y cos 2 )
o o
z = ( x cos 2 + y sin 2 ) sin 2 + z cos 2

o o
o
xy = yx = 0.5( x y ) sin 2 sin

o o
yz = zy = 0.5( x y ) sin 2 cos

o o
xz = zx = 0.5( x cos 2 + y sin 2 z ) sin 2

o o
o

Principal Stresses around Wellbore
1 = r = p w = wellbore pressure
2 = = ( x + y p w ) 2( x y ) cos 2 4 xy sin 2
3 = a = z 2 ( x y ) cos 2 4 xy sin 2
ra = ar = 0
r = r = 0
a = a = 2( yz cos xz sin )
= Poissons ratio

von Mises Failure Criterion
J2
1/ 2
=
1
6
[
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ]
1
S p f = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) p f
3
where
1/ 2
J2 = the second deviatoric stress invariant, psi
S = total average stress, psi
p f = formation pore pressure, psi

von Mises Failure Criterion
Failure Area
1/ 2
J2
Safe Area
S pf
von Mises Failure Diagram for 9 Rocks
4.5
3.5
3
J21/2, psi/ft
Cyrus Sandston
2.5
Berea Sandstone
2 Wolfcamp Shale
Atoka Shale
1.5 Carthage Limestone
Mancos Shale
1 Bedford Limestone
Indiana Limestone
0.5
Catoosa Shale
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
S-Pf, psi/ft

Example Case:
Cyrus reservoir rock fails under triaxial tests along 1 = 4060 + 5.5 3
0.75
0.7
0.65
J21/2, psi/ft
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6
S-Pf, psi/ft

Example Case:
Poissons ratio 0.2

Formation pressure gradient 0.45 psi/ft at depth 8530 feet
The maximum horizontal in-situ stress gradient 0.59psi/ft
The minimum horizontal in-situ stress gradient 0.59psi/ft
What is the safe margin of mud weight for different hole

inclinations ?

Example Case - Solution:
Formation pressure p f = (0.45)(8530) = 3839 psi
Wellbore pressure pw = (0.052)(8530) MW psi
In-situ overburden stress z = V = (1)(8530) = 8530 psi

o
The max. horizontal in-situ stress x = H max = (0.59)(8530) = 5033 psi

o
The min. horizontal in-situ stress y = H min = (0.59)(8530) = 5033 psi

o
Drilling along the max. horizontal stress =0
Collapse may occur at high-side of hole =0
Different inclinations are considered = 0 ~ 90

Example Case Solution (contd):
Use computer to calculate the following stresses for different MW and
inclination angles
x = 1 = r = pw
y = 2 = =
z = 3 =a =
yz = zy = ra = ar = 0
xz = zx = r = r = 0
xy = yx = a = a =

Use computer to calculate the following stresses for different MW and

inclination angles
J2
1/ 2
=
1
6
[
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ]
1
S pf = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) p f
3

Use computer to generate safe MW for different hole angles:

20
19
18
Collapse Gradient (ppg)
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Inclination Angle (Degree)

Gas-Liquid Flow Rate Window
High-Vel
Wellbore ocity Boundary
Wash-ou
im ry
it
t Limit
e L da
ur n
ss ou
Liquid Flow Rate
re e B it
i m ar y
e P s ur
e Lund
c s
r
lan -Pre
s s u Bo
r e ure
Ba gh
P
e ress
Hi
s
p -P
la
l ow
Cuttin C o L
Low-V
gs C ar
elocity rying Cap
Bound acity L
ary imit
Gas Injection Rate

Low-Pressure Boundary
The lower limit of drilling fluid

pressure during circulation break is
the borehole collapse pressure that
can be estimated using von Mises
failure criterion .

Flow Rate Combinations to Cause Collapse Pressure
400
Solution Flow Rates

350
"Static" Bottom Hole Pressure (psia)
Gas Mud Mud Flow Rate 100 gpm

(scfm) (gpm)
Mud Flow Rate 200 gpm
300
375 100
720 200
1140 300 Mud Flow Rate 400 gpm
250
1490 400
Collapse Pressure
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Air Injection Rate (scfm)

Low-Pressure Boundary
Liquid Flow Rate (gpm)
500
400
300 it
im
ur eL
ss
200 Pre
ll apse
Co
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Gas Injection Rate (scfm)
High-Pressure Boundary
The upper limit for circulating bottom

hole pressure is the reservoir
pressure in UBD.

Flow Rate Combinations to Cause Balance Pressure
400
Solution Flow Rates

350 Mud Flow Rate 100 gpm
Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure (psia)
Gas Mud
(scfm) (gpm)
300 Mud Flow Rate 300 gpm
100 100
170 200 Mud Flow Rate 400 gpm
250 250 300
390 400 Balanced Pressure
200
150
100
50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Air Injection Rate (scfm)

High-Pressure Boundary
500
400
it
Lim
ure
300
ss
t
imi
Pre
L
s s ure
e
200 Pre
anc
apse
ll
Bal
Co
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Low-Velocity Boundary
The minimum required kinetic

energy
1 mix 2
Emix = vmix
2 g
is 3 lb-ft/ft3
Low-Velocity Boundary
500
it
400
Lim
ure
300
ss
t
imi
Pre
L
s s ure
e
Pre
anc
200 l apse
l
Bal
Cuttings Ca
rrying Co
Capacity L
100 imit
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
High-Velocity Boundary
The maximum allowable

mixture velocity
Qm
vm =
A
can be determined from
local experience
High-Velocity Boundary
500
it
400
Lim
ure
300
ss
t
imi
Pre
L
s s ure
e
Pre
anc
200 l apse
l
Bal
Cuttings Ca
rrying Co
Capacity L
100 imit
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Example
Re se rvoir Pre ssure : 250 psia
De sire d UBD Pre ssure Diffe re ntia l: 25 psig
Colla pse Pre ssure : 100 psia
Ca se d Hole De pth: 602 fe e t
Ca sing ID: 9.125 inche s
Ope n Hole Dia me te r: 8.5 inche s
Ve rtica l De pth: 697 fe e t
Me a sure d De pth: 1094 fe e t
Drill Pipe OD: 4.5 inche s
Spe cific Gra vity of Solid: 2.65 w a te r = 1
Mud We ight: 8.5 ppg
Spe cific Gra vity of Forma tion Fluid 0.9 w a te r = 1
Spe cific Gra vity of Ga s: 0.97 a ir = 1
Pipe Roughne ss: 0.0018 inch
Bore hole Roughne ss: 0.0018 inch
Productivity Inde x : 6 bbl/d/psi
Ambie nt Pre ssure : 14.7 psia
o
Ambie nt Te mpe ra ture : 70 F
o
Ge othe rma l Gra die nt: 0.01 F/foot
Bit Dia me te r: 8.5 inche s
Rota ry Spe e d: 50 rpm
Pe ne tra tion Ra te : 55 ft/hour
Choke Pre ssure : 50 psia
Solution
8 -1/2 " b it, 4 -1/2 " Pip e, 1,0 9 4 ft Dep th, 55'/hr ROP, 150 b b l/h Oil Influx
450
400
350
Mud Flow Rate (gpm)
300
250
200
Balanced Pres s ure
150 Co llap s e Pres s ure
Cutting s Trans p o rt Creterio n
100
Actual Op erating Po int
50 Des ig ned Op erating Po int
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Measured Pressures
600
Cho ke Pres s ure
Bo tto m Ho le Pres s ure
500
Injectio n Pres s ure
Pressures (psig)
400
300
200
100
0
0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00
Time (hour)
5.2 Bit Selection
Bit Selection Process

Bits for Gas and Foam Drilling

Bit Selection Process
Assemble offset well data

Develop a description of the planned well
Review offset well bit runs
Develop candidate bit programs
Confirm consistency with proposed BHAs
Perform economic evaluation

Assemble Offset Well Data
Same field drilled through the same target

formation
Bit records
Mud logs
Wireline logs
Daily drilling reports
Mud and directional drilling reports

Develop a Description of the Planned Well
Characterize the proposed hole geometry
Hole size
Casing points
Trajectory
Rock hardness and abrasivity at all depths (with
sonic logs and bit records)

Review Offset Well Bit Runs
Which bits gave the best and worst performance
Consider the dull grading carefully
Infer the apparent hardness and abrasivity of

the formations

Develop Candidate Bit Programs
Roller Cone Bits
- cutting structure
- bearing and seal type
- gauge protection
PDC Bits
- cutter material, size, backrake, density
- anti-whirl features
Diamond Bits
- very hard and abrasive formations
Develop Candidate Bit Programs (contd)
Sequence of bit types
Start and end depths
Estimated penetration rate and footage of each run

Confirm Consistency with Proposed BHAs
BHA operating parameters (WOB, etc.)
Speed of downhole motor

Perform Economic Evaluation
Predict the probable cost for each bit run
Predict the overall cost per foot

Bits for Gas and Foam Drilling
The rock is subjected to lower confining stress in

UBD
The effective hardness of the rock will probably

be somewhat lower than it would be for
overbalanced drilling with mud
This may allow using bits that are intended for

softer formations than would have been
appropriate when drilling overbalanced
Bits for Gas and Foam Drilling (contd)
Roller Cone Bits
- When drilling underbalanced, selection of bits cutting
structure may be less critical than it is for a
conventionally drilled well
- Abrasive wear rates tend to be higher in gas/foam

drilling than in conventional drilling
- Cones offset seems to have little impact on ROP with air
- Fewer problems with insert loss in gas drilling
- Gauge protection is almost always important in

gas/foam drilling
Bits for Gas and Foam Drilling (contd)
Fixed Cutter Bits
- It is not advisable to use PDC bits with light drilling
fluids, i.e., dry gas, mist or foam, since they do not provide
adequate cooling of the PDC cutters.
- Surfactants in injection water can reduce the diamond

wear rate for natural diamond bits.

5.3 Drill String Design
Buckling of Drillstring
Design Examples
Drag and Torque Prediction
Dual Drill Pipe

Buckling of Drillstring
The BHA should be designed so that the

top 10%-15% of the assembly remains
in tension.
There are times when drillpipe is run in
compression; in some directional and all
horizontal wells. The compressive load
should not exceed the critical buckling
load of the pipe.

Design Examples
Example 1: Drill Collar
Air drilling, buoyancy factor: 1.0
Maximum weight on an 8 bit: 50,000 lbf
Drill collar size: 6 x 2-13/16
Excess collar length: 10%
Solution:
Weight per foot = 2.67(6.52-2.81252)=92 lb/ft
Length of collar = (50,000)(1+0.10)/[(92)(1.0)]=598 ft
Number of 30-ft collars = (598)/(30) = 19.93 or 20
Total weight of collars = (92)(20) = 55,016 lb
Design Examples
Example 2: Drill Pipe
Well depth: 12,000 ft
Drill pipe available: 5, 19.5 lb/ft, Grade E
(API RP7G) 5, 19.5 lb/ft, Grade G
Overpull: 100,000 lbf
Design factor: 1.10
Drill collar: Example 1

Design Examples
Example 2: Drill Pipe (contd)
Solution:
- Tensile capacity of the Grade E and G pipe are
311,000 lbf, and 436,000 lbf, respectively.
- The maximum pull on the Grade E with 1.10 design
factor would be
Pmax=311,000/1.10 = 283,000 lbf
- The maximum weight of Grade E with 100,000 lb
overpull remaining is
Wmax=283,000-55,000-100,000 = 128,000 lbf
- The maximum length of Grade E that can be used is
Lmax=128,000/19.5 = 6,564 ft
Design Examples
- The maximum pull on the Grade G with 1.10 design
factor would be
Pmax=436,000/1.10 = 396,000 lbf
- The maximum weight of Grade G with 100,000 lb
overpull remaining is
Wmax=396,000-55,000-100,000 -128,000 lbf
= 113,000 lb
- The maximum length of Grade G that can be used is
Lmax=113,000/19.5 = 5,795 ft
which is >(12,000-598-6,564=4,838 ft), OK.

Design Examples
- Length summary:
598 ft of drill collar
6,564 ft of 5 19.50 lb/ft, Grade E drillpipe
4,838 ft of 5 19.50 lb/ft, Grade G drillpipe
- Total static weight:

Wtotal = 55,000+(19.50)(6,564+4,838)
= 277,339 or 277,400 lbf

Guos Model (Oil & Gas J. 19 April 1993):
Tension:
F = Co e DL + C1 cos( I b BL) + C2 sin( I b BL)
Torque:
C C C
Tk = Tkb + Dr o (e DL 1) 1 (sin( I b BL ) sin( I b ) ) + 2 (cos( I b BL ) cos( I b ) )
D B B
where Co = Fb C1 cos( I b ) C2 sin( I b )
D D
C1 = C2 =
B2 + 2D2 B2 + 2D2

Nomenclature
F = tension
T = torque
r = drillstring outer diameter
L = drillstring segment length
B = build rate
D = hole curvature
I = inclination angle
= friction coefficient based on off-set wells
= unit weight of drillstring in drilling fluid
b = subscript for bottom

Example:
Bit Depth: 12,200 ft
Drill Bit: 7.875 in
Bottom Collar: OD: 7.75 in
Unit Weight: 136 lb/ft
Length: 0 ft
Middle Collar: OD: 6.5 in
Length: 372 ft
Top Collar/HW Pipe: OD: 5 in
Length: 840 ft
Weight on Bit: 0 lb
KOP: 2,400 ft

Measured Depth Inclination Azimuth Pipe OD Pipe Weight Fluid Weight Friction Tension Torque Remarks
(feet) (degree) (degree) (inches) in Air (lb/ft) (ppg) Coefficient (lb) (lb-ft)
0 0 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 337,355 27,633 Cased Hole
0 0 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 337,355 27,633 Cased Hole
2,400 0 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 297,568 27,633 KOP
2,937 5 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 278,232 26,844 Cased Hole
3,474 11 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 259,648 24,823 Cased Hole
4,010 21 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 232,771 21,004 Cased Hole
4,547 38 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 200,144 16,016 Cased Hole
5,084 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 176,298 12,795 Cased Hole
5,621 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 167,128 12,354 Cased Hole
6,157 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 158,671 11,809 Cased Hole
6,694 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 150,213 11,263 Cased Hole
7,231 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 141,756 10,717 Cased Hole
7,768 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 133,299 10,172 Cased Hole
8,304 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 124,841 9,626 Cased Hole
8,841 49 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 116,384 9,080 Cased Hole
9,378 48 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 107,176 8,234 Open Hole
9,915 47 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 98,034 7,615 Open Hole
10,451 46 155 5 19.5 9.8 0.39 88,878 7,031 Open Hole
10,988 45 155 5 60 9.8 0.6 79,712 6,356 Top Collar
11,828 44 155 6.5 106 9.8 0.6 37,927 3,852 Mid-Collar
12,200 43 155 7.75 136 9.8 0.6 0 0 Bottom Collar
12,200 43 155 7.875 136 9.8 0.6 0 0 Bit

400,000 30,000
350,000
25,000
300,000
Tension Torque 20,000
Torque (lb-ft)
Tension (lb)
250,000
200,000 15,000
150,000
10,000
100,000
5,000
50,000
0 0
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000
Measured Depth (ft)

Exercise: Use of Spreadsheet for Drag
and Torque Prediction
DragTork.xls

Exercise: Use of Spreadsheet for Drag
and Torque Prediction
Example:
Friction coefficient Tension in at Kelly
0.4 341,000 lbf
0.2 271,500 lbf
This example indicates the importance of reducing

the friction coefficient between drill pipe and mud
cake using low-friction drilling fluids.

Dual Drill Pipe DUAL
MUD IN
SWIVEL
Dual drill pipe, ROTATING

AIR IN
with the outer

HEAD
AERATED MUD
RETURNS
string ending at
5 CONCENTRIC
2000-3000 ft, has DRILL PIPE
also been used to JET SBU
inject gas. It
requires special 4 CONVENTIONAL
DRILL PIPE
considerations to
design the drill DRILL COLLARS
pipe.
DRILL BIT
5.4 Wellhead Design
Rotating Head
Rotating BOP
Specific Considerations

Rotating Head
Figure 5-5, 5-6

Rotating Head
Rotating heads are used to pack off the annulus,
diverting the air and gas flow down the blooie
line.
In an air drilling operation, the rotating head is
only a diverter and must not be thought of as a
replacement for a properly designed BOP stack.
Most low pressure rotating heads are not
designed to handle much more than a few
hundred psi (typically 400 psi). The pressure
actuates seals.

Rotating BOP (RBOP)
Fig 5-7

Rotating BOP
Rotating BOP can also be used as a diverter to

replace rotating head.
The sealing element in a rotating BOP is actuated
hydraulically.
New-generation rotating BOPs can seal pressures
up to 2,500 psi while drilling (5,000 psi static).
Unacceptably rapid wear of the seal element and
mechanism will occur if the axis of the diverter is
not aligned directly with the center of the rotary
table or if the lubrication is inadequate.

Dry Air/Nitrogen/Mist Drilling
The diverter system does not remove the need for a
conventional BOP stack.
At minimum, the BOP stack should contain pipe and
blind rams.
For gas wells at least, the pipe and blind rams should
be able to support the highest anticipated formation
fluid pressure.
Where it can be accommodated beneath the rig floor,
it is desirable to have a full stack consisting, from
wellhead up, of pipe rams, blind rams, pipe rams and
annular.
Drilling with Natural Gas
Similar equipment as in air drilling.
Additional equipment:
- Flaring system
- H2S detector

Foam Drilling
A choke should be installed in the blooie line, close to
the rotating head or RBOP.
The section of the blooie line between the chock and
the rotating head should have a pressure rating
sufficient to support the highest backpressure likely to
be imposed.
In very cold conditions, foam returns may freeze and
plug the blooie line. In these areas, it is recommended
to use an additional foam discharge line (also leading
to the flare pit).

Rotating heads are used on top of conventional BOP stacks.
RBOPs are used for Nitrified liquids.
If the rig is equipped with a top drive, it is possible to use
dual annular BOPs to give a high pressure seal around the
string above the return line.
Blind rams are recommended to be installed at the bottom
of the BOP stack.
A second set of pipe rams, below the blind rams, will
provide redundancy in the event that work is required on
one of the elements higher up the stack.

Flowdrilling
Surface equipment is crucial to the success of
flowdrilling.
It requires installations of a rotating head/RBOP on
top of a conventional BOP stack with a high pressure
choke manifold.
A hydraulically-operated control valve (HCR) should be
include in the manifold.
A complete surface separation system is a must.

Mudcap Drilling
An RBOP with its high operating pressure limits is
essential for mudcap drilling.

5.5 Casing Design
General Considerations
Corrosion
Casing Wear

In an air hole, it is very common to run casing
without filling the well with fluid first. In this case,
there is no buoyancy and the string weight should be
based on air weight rather than buoyant weight in
tension design.
The maximum internal yield pressure is usually
based on the maximum anticipated shut-in pressure.
The maximum pressure at depth of interest will be
either the shut-in bottom hole pressure minus a gas
gradient or the fracture gradient at the shoe minus a
gas gradient, whichever is lower.

In designing for collapse resistance in fluid, it is
common to assume that the pressure inside the
casing is zero and the pressure in the annulus is
equivalent to a full column of mud.
Common design factors for a fluid-filled hole and
an air-filled hole are 1.125 and 1.20, respectively.

Corrosion
Casing corrosion can be a problem with mist, foam,
and aerated liquid drilling.
In most air/mist drilling operations, corrosion is
controlled with corrosion inhibitors.
If the mist contains salt for shale stabilization,
uninhibited corrosion rates will increase
substantially.
Foams and aerated liquids will typically have higher
corrosion rates, even when they are treated with
inhibitors.
For long-period drilling, it is necessary to design the
casing with a slightly greater wall thickness.
Casing Wear
Casing wear is accelerated in an air-drilled hole
because there is no lubrication between casing
and drillstring.
Casing wear preferentially occurs in sections of
the hole that have doglegs and where the
drillstring has sufficient tension.
Casing wear will only be a problem when a well
is drilled below the casing string for an extended
period of time.
For long-period drilling, it is necessary to design
the casing with a slightly greater wall thickness.
5.6 Completion Design
Running Casing/Liners Underbalanced

Cementing Pipe Underbalanced
Running Tubing in Underbalanced

Running Casing/Liners
Underbalanced
A float shoe and float collar are usually used.
It may be necessary to flow the well through the
choke manifold while running pipe.
A snubbing unit or a coiled tubing injector head
might be required to push the casing until it becomes
pipe heavy.Slotted liner and liner hanger are run
on the bottom of drillpipe or some other work string.
A drill float is generally run above an on/off tool,
located immediately above the liner hanger. Once
the hanger is set, the on/off tool is released and the
work string is tripped out of the hole.

Cementing Pipe
Underbalanced
Underbalanced cementing is not substantially
different from underbalanced drilling.
The hydrostatic head of the slurry can be reduced by
entraining gas, usually nitrogen, or reduced-density
additives.
There must be annular sealing to prevent flow and
strength must be adequate to resist degradation of
the cement bond under the action of in-situ stresses.
Other common considerations are permeability
elimination in the microannulus, compressive
strength and drilling fluid displacement.

Cementing Pipe
Underbalanced (contd)
Todays high quality foamed cements tend to
reduce flow of formation fluids behind pipe.
Compressible slurry can maintain cement pore
pressure throughout setting and hardening.
Alternatively, normal extenders are suitable for
slurries with densities as low as 11.5 to 12 ppg.
Light-weigh slurries using hollow spheres,
enable slurries in the 9 to 12 ppg range.

Running in Tubing
Underbalanced
If the underbalanced well is an openhole or slotted
liner completion, there will generally be pressure
at the surface.
Methods have been developed to run completion
assemblies and tubing downhole underbalanced
without backflow of wellbore fluids:
- By placing a breakable glass disk in tubing string, pipe
and tools can be run in the well.
- Wireline-set permanent packer can be run with a pump-
out or push-out plug assembly. Once the packer is set in
place, the pressure above the packer can be bled off to
run the tubing.
- A pressure rupture disk located inside tubing string also
enables running pipe and tools in the well.
5.7 UB Perforating
Wellbore Fluids
Techniques
Pressure Differential

Wellbore Fluids
In some cases, a low density completion fluid

may be used to provide an UB hydrostatic
pressure at the proposed perforation interval.
In other cases, a cushion of lower density
fluid is placed in the tubing before perforating.

Techniques
Perforating can be done through tubing with a

retrievable tubing gun (RTG), a strip-type
perforating charge or a disintegrating link-type
charge, such as the Tornado Jet (T-J).
A more powerful tubing conveyed perforating
gun (TCP) can be run with the tubing and
positioned below the packer.
Rule-of-thumb may recommend anywhere
from 1-quarter to 1-gallon of surge flow per
perforation.

Pressure Differential
Gas wells typically require a higher

underbalance due to the more concentrated
amount of shock damage.
The following underbalanced has been
recommended by Bell:
Permeability Oil Well Gas Well
>100 md 200-500 psi 1000-2000 psi

<100 md 1000-2000 psi 2000-5000 psi

Pressure Differential (contd)
The following underbalanced has been
recommended by Crawford to achieve clean
perforations in oil wells:
2500
Pu (min) = 0.3
k
where P u(min) = minimum required UB, psi

k = reservoir permeability, md

6.1 Drilling
Initiating UBD
Making Connections
Tripping Pipe

Initiating UBD
To Initiate Gas Drilling
Compressor operators do gas drilling routinely.
Their general procedures should be followed
because they know both the local area and/or
their compressors.
To unload an air hole, the cement and
cementing shoe should be drilled out with
water or mud, and the cuttings circulated out of
the hole.
It may take several hours to dry a hole if the
hole is not washed clean.
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Gas Drilling (contd)
1. Go in the hole to the bottom of the casing and pump
alternate slugs of gas to the pressure limit of the
compressors and water (do not use mud) to bring the
pressure back down again for further air injection.
2. When most of the water is out of the hole, pump 5 gallons
of foaming agent into the pipe and circulate it around the
hole. The detergents will bring up a large quantity of
water.
3. Go to bottom and repeat this process.
4. Light the blooie line flare or igniter.
5. Drill a little formation and then pick up the pipe past a tool
joint.
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Gas Drilling (contd)
6. Continue this process until the well begins producing dust.
7. If, after 2 hours, the well still has not dusted:
a. Add 5 gallons of 50% foamer/water mixture and start

again at step 4, or
b. Close the rams and pressure up the hole with air, then
open the rams and let the compressed air blow out of
the hole. Then start again at step 4.
c. Close the radiator shutters, or place a piece of
cardboard on the compressor aftercooler to increase
the heat of the air going in the hole.
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Dust Drilling
1. Unload the mud out of the hole as with air drilling, but
without attempting to dry the hole.
2. Turn on the mist pump and begin gas circulation.
About 1 ft of formation should be drilled and the string
picked up past a tool joint. Continue this procedure for
at least 5 feet. Go to regular mist drilling if there is no
drag on the pick up after 5 feet.
3. As soon as there are steady returns, the mist
quantities can be adjusted. Wait at least 30 minutes
before making additional changes after any
adjustment to the mist volume or mixture.
4. If too many changes are made too quickly, it is difficult
to determine the impact of adjustment.
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Foam Drilling
1. Mud should be unloaded from the hole as with air
drilling. However, the hole should not be dried.
2. Turn on the foam pump and compressor. About 1 ft of
formation should be drilled and the string picked up
past a tool joint. Continue this procedure for at least 5
feet. Go to regular foam drilling if there is no drag on
the pick up after 5 feet.
3. As soon as there are steady returns, the foam
quantities can be adjusted. Wait at least 30 minutes
before making additional changes after any
adjustment to the foam mixture.
4. If too many changes are made too quickly, it is difficult
to determine the impact of adjustment.
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Foam Drilling (contd)
If the flow does not stabilize and continues to head,
check the following:
1) Is there too much gas for the fluid volume? Is the foam
pump actually pumping fluid to the standpipe?
2) Is the foamer making foam with the water? Make a pilot

check with a jar of rig water and a mixer.
3) Is there a fluid influx down hole that is flattening the

foam?
4) Is the foam pump delivering too much water?

Initiating UBD
To Initiate Aerated Liquid Drilling
1. Displace the hole with liquid that is to be aerated. Stop and
check the surface equipment. Check the volume in the
tanks and fill the separator (if used) to operating level.
Check inflow and outflow metering. Check the drilling head
for leaks and determine whether a new rubber is needed.
2. Start fluid and gas circulation. If possible, start the gas
slowly so that a very large head will not be produced at
once.
3. As soon as the hole is unloaded and quasi-steady flow is
achieved, measure the fluid volume increase in the pit and
calculate the bottom hole pressure decrease based on the
mud displaced from the hole:
p=0.052MW(V/A)
Initiating UBD
To Initiate Aerated Liquid Drilling (contd)
4. Compare it with the theoretical calculation. If the two
calculations vary less than 10%, the aerated mixture and
velocities are correct.
5. If the pressure reduction from the displaced mud calculation
is low, the aeration is not efficient and there is slippage
between the gas and fluid. Check the theoretical calculations
against the actual well conditions.
1) Can the viscosity of the fluid be increased while not holding gas in
the pits after going through the separator?
2) Increase the fluid rate to obtain a fluid velocity of greater than 100
ft/min. Increase the fluid volume rate until the heading starts to slow
and become even. Heads should not occur more than 2 minutes apart.
3) With a water-base fluid, can xanthan polymer be added to
decrease the downhole slipping of air and liquid?
Making Connections
1. The well should be circulated until the returns are free of
cuttings or at least minimized.
2. While circulating the hole clean, reciprocate the pipe
slowly to wipe out any potential mud ring that have
started to form.
3. UB fluids should be diverted down the blooie line and the
flow rate from the compressor reduced.
4. Pull the kelly up and set the slips. Open the bleed-off line
and allow gas to bleed off.
5. Slowly break the kelly loose and allow any air to be
vented from the drill string.
6. Make up the next joint of drill pipe as normal.
7. Begin lowering the pipe back to bottom and return the
flow stream down the drill string. When returns are seen
at the blooie line, drilling can be resumed.
Tripping Pipe
1. Tripping can be considered as a series of connections.
However, a major change occurs when the BHA arrives at
the surface. If the drill collar/stabilizer/large OD tools
can pass through the pack-off, then the trip can continue
as before.
2. If they are too large to pass through the pack-off, then
the diverter pack-off will have to be removed.
3. By the time the BHA is tripped to the surface, the annulus
has most likely blown down. If this is the case, the trip
can continue because there is minimal danger from a
kick.
4. If the well is producing gas or liquids that can be
successfully diverted down the flow line or blooie line by
the vacuum created with the compressor flow, then the
trip can be continued with precautions taken on each
connection.
Tripping Pipe (contd)
5. If the well cannot be controlled, then the annular
preventer will need to be closed and a liquid pill pumped
into the annulus to create a cushion and stop the annular
flow. It is possible that the well will have to be killed.
6. Once the bit has cleared the blind ram cavity, the blind
ram should be closed. The pack-off can be removed after
any trapped pressure is bled off.

6.2 Running Casing
Open-Hole Completions
Slotted-Liner Completions
Cased-Hole Completions

Open-Hole Completions
An intermediate casing string is always

required to be set and cemented just at the top
of the productive formation. It provides
wellbore stability and isolation of the
productive formation.
This approach provides maximum well control

possible during UBD operations.

Open-Hole Completions (contd)
The drill string can be stripped out of the well
without killing it, but the tubing head and tree
cannot be nippled up while the well is flowing.
One technique is to balance wellbore pressure by
putting a nondamaging fluid at the bottom of the
hole across the productive formation. Balance
weight mud is then left on top of the nondamaging
fluid while the drill string is removed and the
wellhead installed.
Another technique is to leave a temporary plug
inside the intermediate shoe. This temporary plug,
usually an inflatable bridge plug, will be active and
released by the tubing string.
Slotted-Liner Completions
Slotted-liner completions are the logical next

step beyond open-hole completions. The use of
the slotted liner greatly decreases concerns
about unstable formations.
Well control is difficult during the liner running
operation, and will require that the well be
killed at some point in order to accomplish the
task.
Slotted liner cannot be snubbed or stripped into
a well.

Slotted-Liner Completions (contd)
The same type of temporary plug as used in

open-hole completions can be used for slotted-
liner completions.
A standard overshot can be run on the bottom
of the liner to release the plug before
continuing to bottom.

Cased-Hole Completions
Either long casing strings run from TD to surface

or production liners are cemented in place.
Cased-hole completions are best reserved for
wells drilled UB for some reasons other than
protection of the formation.
Well control is a definite concern when the
casing is in place.
Wellbore stability problems are completely
addressed once the casing is in place.

Cased-Hole Completions (contd)
If the well is high pressure or if gas is being

produced, the casing/liner would have to be
snubbed or stripped into the well to protect the
formation.
Surge pressures while stripping casing/liner
into such a well need to be carefully controlled
or drilling fluid may be forced into the
productive formation anyway.

Cased-Hole Completions (contd)
A popular technique for getting either casing or

a liner into the well without killing it is the two-
stage drilling technique described by Walker
and Hopmann:
1) The intermediate casing is drilled out using
a coiled-tubing unit.
2) The coiled tubing unit is then used to run
and cement the liner in place.

6.3 Cementing
Loading the Hole

Formation Protection

Loading the Hole
The biggest controversy concerning cementing

in air- or gas-drilled holes is whether or not to
load the hole with fluid prior to either running
casing pipe or cementing.
It is normally not difficult to run casing dry
except in highly deviated hole where additional
lubrication is needed to get the casing to
bottom.
In areas with sensitive clays and shales, the
hole can slough significantly after fluid loading.
Generally, it is best to get the pipe to bottom
before loading the hole.
Loading the Hole (contd)
Once the casing/liner is set at TD, some

operators prefer to load the hole completely
with liquid before proceeding with the cement
job.
It is better to find out if the hole is going to
slough and cave in when exposed to the fresh
fluid before cement is inside the pipe.
Pre-loading the hole will allow the hole to be
cleaned up prior to cementing.

In hot holes with high temperature gradients,

the liquid put in the hole will initially cool
everything including any pipe in the hole.
Contraction of the cooled pipe can cause a
problem, especially in liner cementing.
If the hole is not loaded completely prior to
cementing a liner, enough weight (25,000 to
50,000 lbs) must be set down on the liner top
to counteract the contraction.
Loading the hole and circulating one or two
cycles prior to cementing will allow a cooler
gradient to be established.
The minimum amount of pre-flush for any

cement job performed in a dry wellbore is the
capacity of the pipe in the hole. This will at
least ensure that the float equipment is open
and operating correctly.
The smaller volume of drill pipe compared to
casing makes this problem more acute in liner
cement jobs.

Formation Protection
Design the cement slurry to have as low a

filtrate loss (API WL) as reasonably possible,
especially for liner cementing.
Check the rheology of the cement slurry.
Use a good hydraulics model to determine the
optimum pump rate and pressure for the
cement slurry to avoid breaking down the
formation.
Estimate as accurate as possible the frac
gradient for the formation.
Ensure all pre-flush fluids are nondamaging to
the formation.
7.1 Directional Drilling
Bottomhole Assemblies
Downhole Motors
Surveying
Hole Cleaning
Torque and Drag
Horizontal Section Length
Lithology and Target Constraints
Bottomhole Assemblies
The main issues for directional drilling

underbalanced are similar to those for
conventional drilling. The same principles
apply.
Reduced buoyancy effect on weight on bit
should be noticed in directional control.

Downhole Motors
Conventional positive displacement mud
motors can be run on compressible fluids. There
are major disadvantages to doing this:
- Low efficiency
- Prone to stalling and difficult to restart after connections
- Due to the large amount of energy stored in the compressed
fluid in the drill pipe above the motor, the motor can speed
up rapidly and be damaged by overspeeding when the bit is
pulled off bottom.
- Typically, the air volume required to clean the hole is 3
times greater than the recommended flow rate for the
conventional mud motor.
- Mud motors cannot use the expansion work of the
compressed air.
- Boosters are required to provide high pressure drop at the
motor.
Downhole Motors (contd)
New generations air motors are available. They
have advantages:
- Boosters are not needed
- Efficiency is improved
- They do not stall easily
- Overspeeding is less likely
- They can be used with compressible fluids
and slightly compressible fluids.

Surveying
MWD can only be used in UBD if the drilling

fluid inside the drillstring is incompressible.
Electromagnetic MWD (EMWD) continue to
improve for UBD deeper wells (>5,000 ft).

Hole Cleaning
A rule-of-thumb that seems to work is that

adequate cleaning of a horizontal hole will
probably be achieved by using 2.5 times the
volumetric rate that would have been
required for a vertical hole of the same
measured depth.

Torque & Drag
The friction coefficient in an air-drilled hole

can be 3 to 4 times that expected in mud-
filled holes.

Horizontal Section Length
The length of horizontal hole that can be

drilled with air will be less than with mud.
At some point, drag will prevent the
drillstring or casing from falling in the hole.
A typical friction coefficient for an air hole is
0.45. Frictional coefficients in mud-filled
holes range from 0.2 to 0.35.

Lithology and Target Constraints
The types of lithologies that can be drilled

with air are limited. Generally, older ,
consolidated rocks are applicable for air
drilling.
If the formations above the target reservoir
produce significant amounts of water, that
portion of the well would have to be drilled
with fluid.
Air drilling cannot be continued when
excessive oil and/or gas rates are realized
from the formation. 5 MMcf/D can be
handled.
7.2 Percussion Drilling
Applications
Equipment
Hole Cleaning
Gauge Wear
Hole Smoothness
Fatigue
Performance
Applications
Drilling with hammer

Hard formation
Low weight on bit available
- Surface rock in mountain regions
- Highly deviated hole
Crooked hole areas

Equipment
Hammers

Equipment (contd)
Flat-bottom bits

Hole Cleaning
Angels model (minimum velocity 3,000 ft/min)

is valid for dust-like cuttings.
Mud-ring may form at top of the drill collar.
Mist and unstable foam can be used to improve
cuttings carrying capacity of the fluid.
Inhibited mist (3-4% KCl and soap) can
eliminate hydration of clays.
Additional polymer also helps.

Hole Cleaning (contd)
To prevent air slugging, use the optimum

formula, per barrel of water, consisting of:
- 1/8 lb polyanionic cellulose polymer (PAC)

- 1/8 lb xanthan gum polymer (XC)
- 1% foaming agent by weight water
CMC can replace XC and PAC.

Gauge Wear
Use diamond-enhanced hammer bits

Hole Smoothness
Use near-bit stabilizer

Use hammer with stabilized body
Reduce WOB
Do not ream down with a hammer bit

Fatigue
The inside of drill pipe should be clean.

Avoid using smaller diameter hammers than the
hole can accommodate. This minimizes the risk
of bit shanking and provides more hammer
power, leading to higher penetration rates.

Performance
In downhole conditions, hammer may strike

more slowly than indicated by the
manufacturers curves that are developed in
atmospheric pressure conditions.
Choke sizes should be adjusted to keep the on-
versus off-bottom pressure difference at about
100 psi.

Tips
Maintain proper WOB

Rotate as slowly as possible
Provide an air bypass if necessary
Keep the threads clean. Dope the pins only.
The next bit should be no more than 0.25
larger than the bit being removed.
Use stabilizers.
Monitor the compressors and standpipe gauge.
Blow the hole clean periodically.
Never run on downhole junk.
8.1 Risk Management
Safety Issues
Risk Identification
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Risk Mitigation Planning

Safety Issues
H2S Operations
Flaring Gas
Separation & Storage
Downhole Fire
Backflow
Well Control Procedures
Equipment
Training

H2S Operations
Provide necessary notice of the proposed

operations and hazards.
Adequate training.
Special safety equipment (sensors, alarms,
respirators, etc.).
Emergency contingency plan.
H2S-resistant materials and training.
Pressured surface separation vessels and
auxiliary vacuum degassing equipment

Flaring Gas
Adequately sized flare lines

Properly positioned flare stacks
Automatic flame igniters
Wind direction consideration
Flare stack height adjusted for optimum
performance
Flare lines adequately anchored

Separation & Storage
Liquid hydrocarbon separation and storage

facilities must be positioned remotely with
wind direction considered.
Adequate storage volume, properly manifolded
for transfer and loading, is necessary.

Downhole Fire
Air, when used to lighten a drilling fluid column

for UBD, may lead to explosion or fire when
contacted with hydrocarbons. Extreme caution
must be exercised when air is used as a drilling
fluid.
The flammable conditions should be examined
carefully based on available chart.

Downhole Fire (contd)
Chart for estimating flammable conditions

Downhole Fire (contd)
Chart for estimating flammable conditions

Omin = 13.98 - 1.68 log(P)

In USA, liquid hydrocarbon separation and storage

facilities must at least meet the following
guidelines:
- API RP 500B
- National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 70
- NFPA 496

Backflow
For optimum conditions, a good rule-of-thumb is

to install a float every 12 joints.
Two floats should be placed close to the surface to
minimize the time required to bleed off pressure
before making a connection.

Well Control Procedure
Carefully develop contingency plans before the

drilling operations start.
Casing program, circulation design, and on-
location quality control and monitoring are
particularly important.

Equipment
Operational and equipment testing procedure

must be established, comprehended by all
personnel and enforced.
Operations should not continue if pressures
exceed the maximum limits established.
In flowing drilling, emphasis is placed on
monitoring pressure while drilling, tripping and
stripping.
BOP stack must be tested each time they are
reinstalled.
Regularly inspect and monitor surface equipment
Equipment (contd)
Stop flowdrilling when H2S is detected.

Inspect mud/gas separators daily.
Inspect diverter rubber elements several times a
day
Check diverter alignment with rotary table.
Have developed contingency plans.

Training
Personnel safety training and detailed, written,

UBD procedures are required.
Emergency, back-up escape access is very helpful
in the event of wind direction change.
Gas detection, fire extinguishing and other
equipment should be placed at strategic locations.

Risk Identification
Source of Risk (SOR)
- Internal risk designer and operator can control
- External risk imposed by economy, weather,

environment, society, government, etc.

Probability of Occurrence (POO)
- Scale from 1 to 10 (or very low to very high) by
expert opinions
review of case histories
personal experience
knowledge of engineering principles

Potential Impact (PI)
- Relative indicator of the effect of a particular risk

factor
- Rank from low to very high

Action to Mitigate (ATM)
- Choose substitute equipment types

- Upgrade specifications such as materials
strength, rating, etc.
- Modify the basic design
- Transpose steps in the procedure
- Change mud systems, completion options, etc.
- Include backup equipment

Cost to Mitigate (CTM)
- Estimated based on rough approximations

- The rating or categorization of the CTM
should be determined relative to the total
replacement cost of the well

Probability Mitigation Succeeds (PMS)
Example:
Probability Probability
Description of Source Potential Cost to
of Action to Mitigate Mitigation
Risck of Risk Impact Mitigate
Occurrence Succeeds
Hurricane strikes Create plan for temporary

while drilling and shut-in of well and
External Low Medium Low High
requires shutdown abadonment of offshore
of operations plateform
Institute tubular testing

program that includes
Drill string failure Internal Medium Medium pressure testing and Medium High
magnetic scanning for
micro-fractures

Quantitative Risk Analysis
Uncertainty:
the estimated amount or percentage by

which an observed or calculated value may
differ from the true value

Risk Analysis and Decision-Making:
- The need to make a decision is the

motivation behind any risk analysis.
- Risk analysis is performed in every

decision.
- The results of an UBO are much more

difficult to predict.

Quantitative Risk Analysis:
is a method of quantifying the

consequences of the risks by intuition
through a structured approach to decision-
making based on
- what you think you know

- what you dont know
- what you can do
- what you want the outcome to be

When to Use Quantitative Risk Analysis?
- to improve the quality of technical

evaluations
- to improve risk mitigation techniques
- to consider design alternatives
- to evaluate risk at the organization level
- to compare projects within a company

Why Use Quantitative Risk Analysis?
- to lead to superior forecasting
- to help decision-making

Quantitative Risk Analysis Process:
- Problem identification
develops a clear statement of problem
- Deterministic Analysis
makes decision based on specific set of input assumptions
with sensitivity analyses
- Probabilistic Analysis
develops a complete probability distribution for each
uncertainty variable and initiates risk analysis
- Evaluation and Communication
checks if the results make sense
- Decision and Action
recommends the best alternative
Problems with Quantitative Risk Analysis:
- Determining the probabilities

- Understanding the inner workings of the model
- Lack of reality checks
- Ignoring relationships between variables

Monte Carlo Simulation:
- An improved version of sensitivity studies with

3-level estimate risk analysis method.
- Calculates a result (e.g., NPV) when all the

parameters are varied simultaneously.

Risk Mitigation Planning
Risk Mitigation Plan (RMP):
- A RMP should be incorporated into the individual well

program for each well.
- RMP should be kept as simple as possible and should only

deal with those eventualities affecting operations.
- The plan should include emergency phone numbers,

engineering drawings and sketches, and risk mitigation
procedures

Risk Response (RR):
- Field personnel must be prepared to respond if the risk

events actually occur.
- Inspections, audits and field visits will assist project

managers in ascertaining the ability of operations personnel
to adequately respond to a particular risk.

8.2 Environmental Issues
Land and Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Produced Water Disposal

Land and Water Pollution
UBD provides some environmental benefits

such as eliminating the use of heavy metals
found in mud.
But it also causes some unique environmental
complications.
Produced oil and natural gas have to be safely
and environmentally processed.
Oil-coated cuttings are commonly jetted to
lined containers.
The cuttings are either trucked or barged to
designated disposal sites.
Land and Water Pollution (contd)
Closed loop surface facilities provide extra

environmental protection over drilling
operations.
Sufficient surface production handling
equipment are required.

Air Pollution
Burning hydrocarbon is a concern.

With air drilling, noise pollution may be a
special concern near populated areas.

Produced Water Disposal
Defoaming is an important surface procedure in

foam drilling.
Depending on its volume and quality, water can
be disposed into surface water drainage
system.
Subject to regulations, it can also be reinjected
into permeable zones in designated disposal
wells.

8.3 Regulatory Issues
United States
Canada
United Kingdom

Regulations in US
In the United States, a survey of the primary oil

and gas producing states indicated that there
were no special regulations written specifically
for UBD. In most cases, the existing regulations
could be broadly interpreted to cover UBD.
What the operator should do:
- Research specific regulations of the
governing agencies.
- Interact with the relevant agencies.
- Adopt reasonable practices.
Regulations in Canada
Interim Directive ID 94-3 from the Energy

Resources Conservation Board (ERCB) in
Alberta, Canada. This document is available
from the ERCB.
ERCS has mandated strict enforcement for 3
areas, pertaining to
- BOP system configurations
- Tripping procedures, and
- Well control certification of key personnel

Regulations in UK
The Department of Trade and Industry (DTI),

with authority under the Petroleum Production
Regulations, sets specific requirements and
regulations pertinent to the drilling and
completions of UB wells.
The DTI has delegated this authority to the
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) to review
operators applications and detailed well plans,
and to grant or deny permits for the proposed
work.

8.4 UBD-Added Reserves
Reduces well skin and thus reservoir-
wellbore pressure drop
Lowers abandonment reservoir pressure
Results in additional recoverable-reserves
Accelerates recovery of investment for new
fields
Extend life of depleted fields
Recovers reserves in deepwater that are not
accessible by OBD
Trend of production decline for typical solution-gas-drive oil reservoirs
Production Rate / Reservoir Pressure
Constant production rate with

declining bottom hole pressure Production declines
while the critical
A critical (minimum
Bottomhole Pressure
bottom hole pressure

permissible) bottom is maintained
hole pressure is reached
Abandonment due
to non-economical
production rate
ct N i
I II Nr = ( pi p a )
B
0 Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali
Production Time University of Louisiana at Lafayette, 2003
Effects of UBD on a New Field
OBD-wells vs. UBD-wells

Effect of Skin on Abandonment
Reservoir Pressure and Reserves
0.472re
141.2q a B ln + s
rw
p a = p wf
c
+
kh
ct N i
N r = ( p a p a ')
B
Effect of Skin on Production Time
nkh
b=
0.472re
141.2 ct N i ln + s
rw
bc t N i bt
q= ( p 0 p wf ) e
c
nB
1
t a = ln
(
bct N i p 0 p wf
c
)

b nBq a
A Generic Solution-Gas-Drive Oil Reservoir
Pay zone thickness 20 ft
Initial oil in place 5000000000 stb
Initial reservoir pressure 2000 psia
Effective permeability 50 md
Oil viscosity 5 cp
Formation volume factor of oil 1.3
Wellbore radius 3.8125 in
Well spacing 160 acres
Abandonment production rate 10 stb/d
Minimum bottom hole pressure 500 psia
Skin factor of OBD wells 10
Skin factor of UBD wells 0
Total reservoir compressibility 0.000005 psi-1
Number of wells 100
Predicted Production Rates
of OBD- and UBD-Wells
200
Well Production Rate (stb/d)
180
160
140
UBD
120 OBD
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Production Time (years)
Predicted Reservoir Pressure Declines
Using OBD- and UBD-Wells
2000
Average Reservoir Pressure (psia)
1800
UBD
1600
OBD
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20
Effect of Skin on Added Reserves
35
UBD-Added Reserve (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40
Skin Factor of OBD-Wells
Effect of Skin on Time Saving
Development Time Saving (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
Effects of UBD on a Depleted Field
Replacing OBD-wells with UBD-wells

Additional Production from UBD Wells
Production Rate / Reservoir Pressure
Abandonment due
Bottomhole Pressure
to non-economical
production rate
with OBD wells
Abandonment due
to non-economical
production rate
with UBD wells
I II III
0 Production Time
Effect of Skin on Abandonment
Reservoir Pressure and Reserves
0.472re
141.2qa B ln + s
rw
pa = p wf +
c
kh
0.472re
141.2qa B ln + 0
rw
p a = p wf +
' c
kh
ct N i
N r = ( p a p a ')
B
Time to Recover the Additional Reserves
t a = ln
(
1 bct N i pOBD p
c
wf )

b nBq a

Production Rate / Reservoir Pressure For the same generic reservoir:
UBD added reserves:

Bottomhole Pressure
1,765,000 stb or 7%
Extended life 3.17 years
I II III
0 Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali
Production Time
Effects of UBD on a Deepwater Field

UBD-Added Reserves in Deepwater
Reservoirs
A large amount of oil and gas reserves have

been found in deepwater
Low-fracture gradient makes it impossible to

recover the oil and gas in place with OBD

Press. Grad. from Shot Point Data
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 30"
6000
26"
7000
Vertical Depth, ft
Fracturing Pressure
TVD from RKB ft
8000
Gradient 20"
9000
10000
11000 13-3/8"
12000
9-5/8"
13000
14000
Pore Pressure 7"
Gradient
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
6 7 8 9 10
Copyright
11
(c) 2004
12 13
by Ali
14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Press. Grad. in Mud Weight Form, ppg
Pressure Gradient, ppg
PP Grad FP Grad Overburden Act MW Meas PP Meas FP
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 30"
6000
26"
7000
Vertical Depth, ft
Fracturing Pressure
TVD from RKB ft
8000
Gradient 20"
9000
10000
11000 13-3/8"
12000
9-5/8"
13000
14000
Pore Pressure 7"
Gradient
15000
16000
17000 This window is too Non-

recoverable
18000
narrow for OBD
19000 Reserves
20000
6 7 8 9 10
Copyright
11
(c) 2004
12 13
by Ali
14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Press. Grad. in Mud Weight Form, ppg
Pressure Gradient, ppg
PP Grad FP Grad Overburden Act MW Meas PP Meas FP
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000 30"
6000
26"
7000
Vertical Depth, ft
Fracturing Pressure
TVD from RKB ft
8000
Gradient 20"
9000
10000
Pore Pressure
11000
Gradient 13-3/8"
12000
9-5/8"
13000
14000 7"
Collapse Pressure
15000 Gradient
16000
17000
This window is Recoverable
OK for UBD
18000
19000 with UBD

20000
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Ghalambor
Press. Grad. in Mud
Pressure
& Weight
Boyun
Gradient,
Guo
ppgForm, ppg
PP Grad. FP Grad. Overburden Act. MW Meas. PP Meas. FP
Summary
1. UBD can add reserves very significantly.
For the low pressure, thin oil reservoir of
solution-gas-drive type analyzed in this
study, UBD can increase oil reserve by 7%
for a skin factor reduction from 10 to 0.
2. Field development time can be greatly
shortened using UBD wells. For the
reservoir example, UBD wells can save
development time by 38% for a skin factor
reduction from 10 to 0.
Summary (contd)
3. Replacing the high-skin OBD wells with

UBD wells in a depleted field can increase
reserves and extend the economic life of the
field.
4. UBD can add deepwater hydrocarbon
reserves that are not accessible by OBD.

8.5 Technology Advances
Analytical Tools
Fully Automated System
UBD with Casing
Applications to Managed Pressure
Drilling (MPD)

Analytical Tools
UBD simulator UBitTS (Scandpower

Petroleum Technology) simulates transient
and stable UBD operations and couples all
the essential elements in the system, such
as surface equipment, drillstring, wellbore
and reservoir inflow model for productive
zones.

Analytical Tools
Suitable UB Reservoir Evaluation software

SURE (Weatherford) increases reservoir
screening efficiency and improves certainty
in comparing OB and UB drilling and
completion methodologies.

Analytical Tools
IFPs well skin analyzer predicts skins of

OBD and UBD wells accounting for
temporary overbalance, capillary
imbibitions, and relative permeabilities (SPE
86558).

Fully Automated System
A fully automated system has been

developed to accurately control downhole
pressure during (SPE 85310). The system
applies a backpressure to the annulus exit
as surface by use of a computer-controlled
choke manifold and pump.

UBD with Casing
Three wells were drilled Underbalanced in

the South Texas with casing (SPE 84173).
Well costs have been reduced by 30%.

Drilling (MPD)
MPD is defined as an adaptive drilling

technique used to precisely control the
annular fluid pressure profile within a
wellbore. Its purpose is to both ascertain
the downhole pressure environment limits
and to manage the annular hydraulic
pressure profile to fit within that window.

Drilling (MPD)
MPD allows faster corrective action to deal

with observed pressure variations. The
concept of containment practiced in MPD
allows drilling of what might otherwise be
economically unattainable prospects.

Drilling (MPD)
Containment used in this context means

that MPD is focused not on creating a
pressure draw-down across formations that
may produce hazardous flow products, but
instead to contain any flow incidental to the
operation.

Drilling (MPD)
A recent venue (1st MPD Forum) further

defined the technology and its application
to the industry at large and to regulatory
bodies.

Drilling (MPD)
Currently there are a number of MPD

projects under way. Some are in shallow
water from rigs with surface BOP stacks,
several are in deep water from floating rigs
with subsea BOP stacks, and at least one
has practiced MPD when a top hole drilling
riserless.

Drilling (MPD)
Several of the many variations of MPD are

being applied. On-going projects are South
China Sea, North Sea, GoM, offshore Viet
Nam, and Brazil.

8.6 UBD Market
Technology Overview
UBD Methods
Market Dynamics
Market Size and Growth
Limited UBD Markets
Impact on other Markets
UBD Market
Trends and Acquisitions
Technology Overview
Overbalanced well control not an issue

Nearbalanced well control is an issue
Underbalanced well control & hole stability

Figure 1

Figure 2

UBD Methods
Air/Gas
Mist
Flow Drilling
Foam
Aerated Fluid

Figure 3

IADC UBD Classification Matrix
Risk Level 0 1 2 3 4 5
Low Head (A), UBD (B) A B A B A B A B A B A B
Gas Drilling 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Mist Drilling 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Foam Drilling 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Gasified Liquid Drilling 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
Liquid Drilling 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
Risk level code: 0 5 from low-risk to high-risk management.

Pressure code: A = near balance drilling; B = UBD.
Operation code: 1 5 from light to heavy fluids.

Risk-Management Levels
0 = No hydrocarbon containing zones.

1 = Well is incapable of natural flow to surface, inherently stable and is a
low-level risk from a well-control point of view.
2 = Well is capable of natural flow to surface but allows conventional
well-kill method and limited consequences in case of catastrophic
equipment failure.
3 = Geothermal and non-hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in
pressure is less than UBD equipment operating pressure rating.
Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
4 = Hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in pressure is less than
UBD equipment operating pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has
immediate serious consequences.
5 = Maximum projected surface pressures exceed UBD operating
pressure ratings but are below the BOP stack rating. Catastrophic
failure has immediate serious consequences.
Market Dynamics
Two primary driving forces
1. Improving well productivity by reducing formation
damage at the reservoir
2. Reducing drilling cost by overcoming differential sticking
and lost circulation issues
Other Benefits
1. Reduces well completion cost
2. Accelerate production and allows for production testing
while drilling
3. Improve recovery of hydrocarbons in pressure depleted
fields
4. Faster drilling rates of penetration
Two-thirds
of the UBD
wells are
drilled for
reservoir
reasons
(reducing
skin) and the
Fig. 4 other third
for drilling
reasons
(reducing
drilling cost)

Market Dynamics
Resistant Force - Cost

1. Blow out
2. Additional rentals
3. Limited service providers
4. Training
5. Limited technology availability
6. Regulations (environmental and safety)

Market Size and Growth US Wells

Market Size and Growth US Footage

Market Size and Growth Canada

Market Size and Growth International
Middle East
Far East
Africa
Europe
Latin America

Market Size and Growth - International

Market Size and Growth - Worldwide

Limited UBD Markets
Deep reservoirs
Wildcat exploration
Offshore
High pressure and flow rates

Impact on other Markets
Increased demand for air compressors

Increased demand for rotating heads
Increased demand for coiled tubing
Decreased demand for drilling fluids
Decreased demand for hydraulic fracturing

UBD Market

Fig. 3

Weatherford and Precision significantly

consolidated the UBD market over the last 4 years
- Weatherford has made enough acquisitions that

they now offer a complete line of UBD services
(everything except the rig).
- Precision also made acquisitions to compliment

its Inter-Tech and Northland subsidiaries.

8.7 Economics
Project Value
Cost
Net Present Value (NPV) of Project
Illustrative Examples

Project Value
A project can be defined as 1 well, a batch

of wells, or a field.
Value of a project is defined as the total
revenue of the project to be realized by
oil/gas sales over the whole life of the
project.
Project value is evaluated on the basis of
present value.

Project Value =
($projected oil/gas price for year 1)
x(oil/gas production in year 1) /(1 + interest rate)1
+ ($projected oil/gas price for year 2)

+ ($projected oil/gas price for year 3)

+ ($projected oil/gas price for year Lp)

x(oil/gas production in year Lp) /(1 + interest rate)Lp
where Lp = project life in years.

Mathematically
Lp
( FV ) i
PV =
i =1 (1 + Rint )
i
where PV = project value (present)

FV = oil/gas value in year I (future)
Rint = annual interest rate
Lp = project life in years.

Cost
Cost is defined as the expenditure of the

project mainly on drilling and completion.
Operational cost during production phase is

not considered as part of the project cost.
Cost is evaluated at the present time.

Net Present Value (NPV)
NPV = Project Value Cost
Lp
( FV ) i
NPV = - $cost
i =1 (1 + Rint )
i

Illustrative Example 1
Single-Phase Oil Reservoir
Initial oil in place 5,000,000,000 stb
Initial reservoir pressure 2000 psia
Effective permeability 50 md
Oil viscosity 5 cp
Formation volume factor of oil 1.3
Wellbore radius 3.8125 in
Abandonment well production rate 10 stb/d
Minimum bottom hole pressure 500 psia
Skin factor of OBD wells 10
Skin factor of UBD wells 0
Total reservoir compressibility 0.000005 psi -1
Number of wells in the field 100

Example 1 - Result Summary
Time Production (STB) Future Value ($MM) Present Value ($MM) Cumulative PV ($MM) NPV ($MM) Increase in NPV
(Year) OBD UBD OBD UBD OBD UBD OBD UBD OBD UBD ($MM)
0.00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.4 0.6
1.08 35,111 77,544 1.0533 2.3263 0.9995 2.2074 0.9995 2.2074 0.5995 1.6074 1.0079
2.15 31,087 59,265 0.9326 1.7780 0.8397 1.6008 1.8392 3.8082 1.4392 3.2082 1.7690
3.23 27,524 45,295 0.8257 1.3589 0.7054 1.1609 2.5446 4.9691 2.1446 4.3691 2.2245
4.30 24,370 34,618 0.7311 1.0386 0.5927 0.8419 3.1373 5.8110 2.7373 5.2110 2.4737
5.38 21,577 26,458 0.6473 0.7937 0.4979 0.6106 3.6352 6.4216 3.2352 5.8216 2.5864
6.45 19,104 20,222 0.5731 0.6066 0.4183 0.4428 4.0535 6.8644 3.6535 6.2644 2.6108
7.53 16,915 15,455 0.5075 0.4636 0.3514 0.3211 4.4050 7.1855 4.0050 6.5855 2.5805
8.60 14,977 11,812 0.4493 0.3544 0.2953 0.2329 4.7002 7.4183 4.3002 6.8183 2.5181
9.68 13,260 9,028 0.3978 0.2708 0.2481 0.1689 4.9483 7.5872 4.5483 6.9872 2.4389
10.76 11,741 6,900 0.3522 0.2070 0.2084 0.1225 5.1567 7.7097 4.7567 7.1097 2.3530
11.83 10,395 5,273 0.3119 0.1582 0.1751 0.0888 5.3318 7.7985 4.9318 7.1985 2.2667

Effect of Skin on Production Rate
bc t N i bt
q= ( p 0 p wf ) e
c
nB
where
nkh
b=
0.472re
141.2 ct N i ln + s
rw

Effect of Skin on Production Rate
200
Well Production Rate (stb/d)
180
160
140
UBD
120 OBD
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Effect of Skin on Reservoir Pressure
2000
Average Reservoir Pressure (psia)
1800
UBD
1600
OBD
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20
Effect of Skin on Added Recoverable Reserves
35
UBD-Added Reserve (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40
Effect of Skin on Time Saving
Development Time Saving (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40
Effect of Skin on Cumulative Production
400,000
350,000 UBD
300,000 OBD
250,000
200,000
150,000 R e duc ing s kin fa c to r fro m 10 to
100,000 0 will inc re a s e c um ula tive
50,000 pro duc tio n by 38% in 12 ye a rs .
0
0 5 10 15 20
P ro duc tio n Tim e (ye a rs )

Effect of Skin on NPV
OBD Well Co s t = 0 .4 $M M . UBD Well Co s t = 0 .6 $M M .

Oil Price = $3 0 /b b l. Annual Interes t Rate = 5%
10
UBD
8
OBD
2 Re duc ing skin fa c t or from 10 t o 0 will inc re a se NP Vby

40%a t a proje c t life of 12 ye a rs.
0
0 5 10 15 20
Pro ject Life (years )

Illustrative Example 2
Two-Phase Oil Reservoir
Porosity 0.21
Effective permeability to oil 13 md
Radus of wellbore 0.328 ft
Initial reservoir pressure 4350 psi
Viscosity of oil 1.70 cp
Well skin factor 10
Minimum Bo 1.18
Abandonment reservoir pressure 3000 psi
Water saturation 0.3
Viscosity of gas 0.023 cp
o
Reservoir temperature 150 F
API gravity of stock tank oil 50 API
Specific gravity of gas 0.7 air=1
Average z-factor 0.9
Oil price 30 $/bbl
Interest rate 5 %
OBD-Well Cost 0.4 $MM
UBD-Well Cost 0.6 $MM
Example 2 - OBD Result Summary
Time FV PV NPV
(days) (years) $MM $MM $MM
0 -0.6
62 0.171 1.02388 1.015379 0.415
282 0.773 3.4454 3.317843 3.733
595 1.631 4.67108 4.313733 8.047
870 2.383 3.9067 3.477837 11.52
1099 3.011 3.12005 2.693799 14.22

Example 2 - UBD Result Summary
Time FV PV NPV
(days) (years) $MM $MM $MM
0 -0.6
28 0.075 1.02388 1.020112 0.42
125 0.342 3.4454 3.388398 3.809
263 0.722 4.67108 4.509456 8.318
385 1.055 3.9067 3.710737 12.03
486 1.332 3.12005 2.923681 14.95

5000
OBD
4500
Reservoir 4000
Reservoir Pressure (psia)

Pressure
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)
5000
UBD
4500
4000
Reservoir Pressure (psia)
3500
UBD can shorten 3000
project life from 3 2500
years to 1.5 years. 2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)
600
OBD
Well Production Rate (STB/D)

500
Production 400
Rate 300
200
100
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)
1400
UBD
1200
Well Production Rate (STB/D)
1000
800
UBD can increase 600
production rate from 400
about 500 stb/d to 200
about 1000 stb/d. 0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)

600,000
OBD
Well Cumulative Production (STB)

Cumulative 500,000
Production
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)
600,000
UBD
Well Cumulative Production (STB)
500,000
400,000
UBD can recover
the same amount of 300,000
oil in 1.5 years in 200,000
stead of 3 year. 100,000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Time (years)

16
OBD
14
12
10
Well NPV ($MM)

NPV 8
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
-2
Project Life (years)
16
UBD
14
12
10
Well NPV ($MM)
UBD can help 8
achieving the same 6
net project value in

4
1.5 years in stead of

2
0
3 years. -2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Project Life (years)


Petroleum Underbalanced Eng

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Petroleum Underbalanced Eng

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UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

Dr. Ali Ghalambor

Copyright 2004 by Ali Ghalambor & Boyun Guo

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

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0.433 psi/ft for fresh water

0.465 psi/ft for seawater

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Gradient less than 0.433

Either natural or depleted

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Trapped pressure under

Mountainous areas with

Normal formation pressure

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- BHP can be expressed in

- ECD varies with depth in both

- Pump pressure (PP) is sum of

- This is NOT true in UBD due to

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

0 = No hydrocarbon containing zones.

Risk level code: 0 5 from low-risk to high-risk management.

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

Operation 2: Foam is used to drill a zone containing oil

Operation 3: Aerated mul is used to drill a zone containing oil

Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

Air/Gas, Mist, and Unstable Foam (Foamed

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Gas phase is a continuous phase

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Chips are often long and ^ ^

Larger chips can blow out of a ^

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Water and detergent injected Mud ^

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Modern air compressors usually use a rotary compressor for

Make sure they do not overheat or become overloaded.

Compressor hazards include:

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End of Air/Gas Drilling Section

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Foam is an emulsion with gas as dispersed

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Foam is usually made up locally based on half-life

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Foams are not stable under

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Stable foam can be obtained

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Salt/hard water requires more foaming agent or

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Copyright (c) 2004 by Ali

Dry foams (foams with high concentration of