‘STABILITY OF SLOPES n, N.R. (1963) Stability charts for earth slopes during ( || method for cof general slip surfaces, Computer ment dam, Geoveeh (1964) Long-term stability of clay slopes, jue, M4, 75-102. A.W. (1970) Fics Note), Geote bankments assuming parallel intersice forces, Geotechnique, 17, 11-26. 19. Taylor, DW. (1937) Stal slopes, Journal ofthe Boston Socier of Civil Engineers, 24, No.3, 377-86, i, RV. and Bailey, W.A. (1967) Use of computers fr slope Ground investigation 10 Jo. nvTRODUCTION ‘An adequate ground execution of a civil laboratory tests to fy the groundwater ‘include the periormance of in-s results of a groun for exampl sed structure to be selected arise duting excavation, gation should provide adequat most suitable type of foundat and to indicate I special problems are likel photographs can be useful in identifying features of geological significance. Before the start of field work an inspection of the site and the surrounding area should be made on foot. River banks, existing excavations, quarries and road or railway cuttings, for ex: yield valuabie information regarding jon obtained in advance enables the most suitable type of inves to be decided. ‘The actual investigation procedure depends on the nature of the strata and the type of project but will normally involve the excavation ofa (GROUND INVESTIGATION [ [METHODS OP INVESTIGATION =] boreholes or trial pits. The number and location of boreholes or pits be planned to enable the basic geological structnre of the site to be determined and significant irregularities in the sub-surface conditions to be detected. The gr 1e degree of variability of the ground ions the greater the aumber of boreholes or pits required. The locations should be offset from areas on which it is known that foun- gation is taken to an adequate depth. This type and size of the project but must inchide WAcancly affected by the structure and must extend below all strata rength for the support of fot jeantseltlement. Ifthe use of pil 0 extend to a considerable dep depth depends on t ble to be si er underground cavities, nd trial pits should be backfilled after use. Back jay be adequate in many cases but if the groundwater tered by a borehole and the resultant flow eauld produce is necessary’to use 2 cement-based grout to seal the conditions are adverse effects then project, the lower the & percentage of the total cst. The cost 0 2% of the project cost. To reduce ion for financial reasons alone is never j cost ofthe ground inves is ly within the range of 0.1 the scope af un inves 10.2 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION is a simple and reliable me am depth of Sm. The so removed by means of the back-shovel of a mechanical excavator. Before ‘any person enters the pit the sides must always be supported unless they are sloped at a safe angle or are stepped: the excavated soil should be placed at least 1m from the edge of the pit. If the pit is to extend below the water table, some form of dewatering is necessary in the more per- ‘meabie soils, resulting in increased costs. The use of trial pits enables the situ soil conditions to be examined visually, and thus the boundaries between strata and the nature of any macro-fabrie can be accurately determined. It is selatively easy to obtain disturbed or undisturbed soi samples: in cohesive soils block samples can be cut by hand from the sides or bottom of the pit and tube samples can be obtained below the bottom of the pit. Trial pi itable for investigations in all types of sol, including those containing cobbles or boulders. Shafts and headings advanced by hand excavation, the sides lings or adits are excavated later into hillsides, both sides and roof being supporte that shafts or headings would be excavated below the are very heir use would be for very large ascertained adequately by res, such a5 Percussion boring ‘The boring rig (Fig. 10.1) consists of @ derrick, a po ‘by means of the winch unit. The two most widely used tools are the shell (or bailer) and the clay cuter. If necessary a heavy steel element called a sinker bat can be fitted immediately above the tool to increase the impact. energy. The shell. which is used in cohesionless soils. is a heavy steel tube fitted with a flap or clack valve at the lower end, Below the water table the percussive action of the shell loosens the coll and produces slurry in the borehole. Above the water table a slurry is produces by introducing water into the borehole. The slurry passes through the clack valve during the downward movement of the shell and 1d by the valve during the upward movement. When full, the shell is raised to the surface to ber= GRC RESTON 7 @ iS own weight: howev be aided by driving. igtion the casing is cecovered by excessive driving I boulders, cobbles and hard a chisel, aided by the additional ight of a sinker bar if necessary le diameters can range from 150mm to 300mm. The maxi borehole depth power u ig and cone penetration testing. q [jeoo? @ ‘Mechanical augers Power-operated augers are generally mounted on vehicles or are in the form of attachments to the derrick used for percussion boring. The power +r depends on the type and size of the auger ownward pressure on the ly or by dead weight. The wer and the bucket auger, 2m. Howev for bored pil use bentonite slurry (Section 6.9) to support the sides of us ‘The presence of eobbles or boulders creates difficulties with the sm sized augers. Shortfight augers (Fig. 10.2(a)) consist of a helix of limited length, wemnons or nvasncaion || a1]GROUND INVESTIGATION METHODS OP INVESTIGATION 398 5 below the helix. The auger is attached to a sel shaft, known e Kelly bar which passes though the rotary head ofthe sg. The suger is advanced un soil is ejected by rotating the auger in the reverse ditection. Clearly, the shorter the helix the more often the auger must be raised and lowered for a given borehole depth. The depth of the hole is limited by the length of ve Kelly ber. t of rods with helix rises to the surface along the helix, obvisting the necessity for withdrawal: additional lengths of auger a added as the hole is advanced. Borehole depths up to SOm are poss with continuous-light augers, but there is @ possibility that differen types may become mixed as they rise to the surface and it may be diffe (o determine the depths at which changes of strata occur, nanted on rods being lowered below the auger, If bedrock steel cylinder, open at the top ith 2 base plate on which eutters are mounted, adjacent 10 slots in the plate: the av we base plate igered holes of Im diameter and larger can be used for the exam. of the soil str the person carrying out the examination being lowered down the hole in a special cage. The hole must be cased when used for his purpose and adequate ventilation is essential ‘Hand and portable augers ‘and augers can be used to excevate boreholes to depths of round Sm Using a set of extension rods. The auger is rotated and pressed down into the soil by means of s T-handle on the upper rod. The two common types are the Iwan or posthole auger (Fig. 10.2(4)) with diameters up to 200mm, and the small helical anger, with diameters of about 50mm, Hand augers are generally used only ifthe sides of the hole require no support and if particles of cosrse gravel size and above are absent. The auger must be withdrawn at frequent intervals for the removal of soil. Undisturbed samples ean be obtained by driving small diameter tubes below the bottom of the borehole. Small portable power augers, generally transported and operated by wo persons, are suitable for boring to depths af 10-1m; the hole iameter may range from 75mm to 300mm. The borehole may be cased if necessary, and therefore the auger can be used in most soil types provided the larger particle sizes are absent. ‘Wash boring method, water is pumped through 2 string of hollow boring rods under pressure through narrow holes in a chisel attached of the rods (Fig. 10.3). The soil is loosened and broken up by jets and the up-and-down movement of the chisel. There is also provision for the manual rotation of the chisel by means of a tiller attached to the boring rods above the surface. The soil particles are ‘washed to the surface between the rods and the side of the borehole and te allowed to sete oot inv sump. The rp consists of a derrick wth 2 power unit, a winch and a water pump. The winch carties a light steel Cable which pases through the sheaf of the deck and is attached fo the top of the boring rods. The string of rods is raised and dropped by means cf the winch unit, producing the chopping action of the chisel. The generally cased but the method can be used in uncased holes. ud may be used as an alternative to water in the method, climinating the need for casing, ‘Wash boring can be used in most types of soil but progress becomes sow if particles of coarse gravel size and larger are present. The accurate identification of soil types is difficult due to particles being broken up by al is washed to the surface: in addition, segregation of particles takes place as they settle out in the sump. However, @ change in the feel of the boring tool can sometimes be detected, and there may be a change in the colour of the water rising to the surface, when the boundaries between different strata are reached The method is unacceptable as a means of obtaining soil samples. 11 is used only as 2 means of advancing a borehole to enable tube samples to bee taken or in-situ tests to be carried out below the bottom of the hole. An advantage of the method is that the soil immediately below the hole remains relatively undisturbed.soon, RSS sn vir pane UL Ly ce Fig. 10.3 Wash boring. Fig. 1044 Rotary ding. {o the lower end of a core barrel which in ugh narrow hole ‘used in wash boring, 3g tool and carries the loose rods and the side of the hole. The fluid also provides some support to the sides of the hole if no casing is used. boring rig. There are two forms of rotary deiling, open-hole dri Griling. Opes-hole Which is generally used ia soils and weak ik down all the material withia the diame ing can thus be used only as 2 means 1g rods can then be removed to allow tube rock, uses a cutting bit to b of the hole. Open-hole dr advancing the Hole: the samples to be taken or in (o be carried out. In core drilling, which is used in rocks and hard clays, the material and an intact core enters the barr be removed as a sample le to be in- ‘of gravel (or larger) particles as and are not brokea up, Water table level can be determined by measuring the depth to the water surface in a borehole. Water levels in boreholes may take a con- siderable time to stabilize, this time, known as the respons ements, therefore, level becomes constant that a stratum of low permeability below a perched water table should not02 (GROUND INVESTIGATION SAMPLING 408 lished, If a perched the borehole must be cased in order that the main etermined: if the perched aquifer is not Sealed, the water Jevel in the borehole will be above the main water table level ‘When it is desired to obtain the water pressure in a particular stratum 1 piezometer should be used. The simples ig the Casagrande piezometer (Fig. 4.30) with the porous element sealed at the appropri depth. However, this type of piezometer has 2 long response time in so of low permeability and in such cases i is preferable to install a hydraul piezometer (Fig. 4.31) having « relatively short response time. Groundwater samples may be required for chemical analysis to deter- ‘mine if they contain sulphates (which may attack Portland cement concrete) or other corrosive constituents. It is important to ensure that samples are not contaminated or diluted. A sample shonld be taken 2 8 ied in boring. It is pre- mm the standpipe piezometers if these Have been installed, 103 SAMPLING ed and for shear ed by techniques whi structure and water content of the soil. In wisturbed samples can be obtained by withdrawing the ing tools (except when hollow-stem continuous-light augers are used) ‘and driving or pushing sample tube into the soil at the bottom of the hhole. The sampler is normally attached to a length of boring rod which can be raised fy the cable of the percussion rig. Whei face, are then covered by protective caps. Undisturbed block samples can be cut by hand from the bottom or sides of 8 tril pit. During cutting, the samples must be protected from water, Wind and sun to avoid any change in water conten: the samples should be covered with molten we ly they have been bi that i compl claborate oF careful sampling technique might be. In the case of clays, for exemple, swelling will take plece adjacent to the bottom of a borehole due to the reduction in total stresses when soil is removed and structural disturbance may be caused by the action of the boring tools: when a sample subsequently is removed from the ground the total stresses are reduced to zero, | Soft clays are extremely sensitive to sampling disturbance, the effects more pronounced in clays of Jow plasticity than in those of high plasticity. The central core of a soft clay semple will be y ess disturbed than the outer zone adjacent to the sampling tube. Immediately ter sampling, the pore water pressure in the relatively undisturbed core 1 be negative due to the release of the in-inetotal stresses. Swelling of| the relatively’ undisturbed core will gradually take place due to water consolidate due to the redistribution of water within the sample. pation of the negative excess pore water pressure is accompanied by a corresponding reduction in effective stresses. The soil structure of the sample will thus offer less resistance to shear and will be less rigid than the in-situ soit ‘A disturbed sample is one having the same particle size distribution as the irs soil but in which the soil structure icantly ‘damaged or completely destroyed: in addition, the water content may be different from that of the in-situ soil. Disturbed samples, which are used mainly for soil classification tests, visual classification and compaction fests, can be excavated from trial pits or obtained from the tools used to advance boreholes (e.g. from augers and the clay cutter). The soil recovered from the shell in percussion boring will be deficient in fines and will be unsuitable for use as a disturbed sample. Samples in which the natural water content has been preserved should be placed in air-tight, non-corrosive containers: ell containers should be completely filed so that there is negligible airspace above the sample. the project name, date, ig: in addition, location, borehole number, depth and method of each sample should be given & serial number. Spe Class 1: classficstion, water content, formation and consolidation (ests Class 2: classification, water Class 3: classification ‘and water content (ests. Class &: classification tests Class 5: strata identification For classes 1 and 2 the sample must be undisturbed. Samples of classes 3. 4 and 5 may be disturbed The principal types of tube samplers are described below.aL ‘GROUND INVESTIGATION SAMPLING. 208 | Open drive sampler ‘An open drive sampler (Fig. 10.5¢ ‘with a id at cach end. A the tube, The other end of the tube screws into a sampler head to in turn, the boring rods are connected. The sampler head also in Pe air acd water lo escape as the si the tube and to help to retain the sample as the tube is withdrawn, The inside of the tube should have a smooth surface and must be maintained in a clean condition, imeter of the cutting edge (d.) should be approximately han that of the tube to reduce ric ance between the tube and the sample. This size difference also slight elastic expansion of the sample on entering the tube and = sample retention, The external diameter of the cutting shoe (d,) should be ibe to reduce the force req) the valve to reduce the tisk of sample damage. Af cutting shoe and sampler head are detached and the ends of the sample are sealed, ‘The most widely used sample tube has an internal diameter of 100mm ith of 450mm: the area ratio to disturbance such not employ a separ machined Splicbarrel samplers tudinally into two ig. 10.5(e)) consist of a tube whieh is a shoe and a sampler head incorpor[ ROUND VESGRTION ‘SAMPLING “7 les are screwed onto the ends, The two halves of the tube cen be separated when the shoe and head are detached to allow the sample to Stationary piston sampler This type of sampler (Fig. 10.5(d)) consists of a thin-walled tube fitted ston. The piston is attached to lengths of rod which pass through the sampler head and run inside the hollow boring rods. The sampler is the borehole with the piston located at the lower end of the entering the sampler can be pushed below the bottom of the borehole, by-passing any disturbed soil. The piston is held against the soil (generally by clamping the piston rod to the casing) and the tube is pushed past the piston (until the sampler head meets the top of the piston) to obtain the sample, The sampler is then withdrawn, a locking device in the sampler head holding the piston at the top of the 36 85 this takes pl tween the piston and the sample helps to retain the s piston thus serves as a non-return valve Piston samplers should always be pushed down by hydraulic or mech- anical jacking: they should never be driven. The diameter of the sampler is usually between 35mm and 100mm but can be as large as 250mm. The samplers are generally used for soft clays and can produce samples of ity: they can also be used for silts and silty sands which in the tube: Continous sampler undisturbed samples up to 25 soft clays. Det of ftietional res inside of the sampler tube. To one type of sam Sweden [6], this is achieved by supesimposing between the sample and the tube. ‘The lower e 10.6) has sharp cutting edge above which the external di enlarged to enable of foil to be housed in recesses wi [Boxing ros Air fne cable Spring: | Guide meas | weight Semper head Fig. 10.6 Continuous sampler. Fig, 1.7. Compressed tir mpler. of the sampler. The ends of the foll are attached to a piston which fits loosely inside the sampler: the piston ie supported on a cable which is fixed at the surface. Lengths of sample tube (68mm attached as required to the upper end of the sampler. ‘As the sampler is pushes sample, the piston being be AAs the sampler is withdrawnfell croup nwemonnion id is thade, between adjacent tubes, Ubrough the foil and sample. Sample quality is generally class 1 or 2 Compressed air sampler the tap of the guide head, the supported by means of a shackle which hooks over 2 pe Tength of boring rod: a light cable, leading to the surface, shackle ibe by vietve of arching and the slight the soil. A plug is placed inthe bottom of leased and the tube removed from the sampler head, 10.4 BOREHOLE LOGS hhas been completed and the results of any lab- conditions equipment used should be stated on each log. The location, ‘ground level and diameter of the hole should be specified together with details of any casing used. The names ofthe client and the project should BOREHOLE LOG (egens| Dente fsmptes| Lose tight brown ‘SAND Mediu dense, bows ‘geelySaxb | Very dene, rd ity ‘SAND with ceromposad SANDSTONE‘PRINCIPAL, SYMBOLS PRINCIPAL SYMBOLS 419 te é ee ” 2 B Mu ’ pore water pressure -ady seepage pore water pr Depth coordinate Elevation head > Buoyant it weight Unit weight of water Angle of wall friction Normal strain Volumetric stain Dynamic viscosity Slope of isotropic swelling/recompression line Slope of isotropic normal consolidation line Settlement coetfice ‘Shear strength; peak shear strength Residual sh Potential function Shear strength parameter ‘Undrained (total stress) shear strength parameter Drained (effective stress) shear strength parameter Drained residual shear strength parameter Maximum (peak) angle of shearing resistance Angle of shearing resistance at constant volume ‘True angle of friction Parameter in effective stress equation for pi soil Flow fuas ‘Angle of dilation ally saturatedAnswers to problems Chapter 1 LL SW,MS, ML, CV, (SW, SM, ML, CH) . 20.4% , 9.9 kNin?, 18.7kNim?, 19.3% 96, 4.5%; no W Chapter 2 21 49x 10m 22 23 za 23 26 27 18x 10-9 28 5.9.x 107% 29 1.0 x 10-5 316kNim, BL 32 33 34 33 LORN/m?, 154.2kN/m?, (b) 94.0 kN/m?, 133.8 N/m 36 9.9KN, 73° below horizontal 3.7 30.2kNim?, 10.68Nien™ 38 LS, LSkNim!, 90KN/m? 39 20,0.65m Chapter 4 41 USKNIn® 42 Cc TNSWERS TO PROBLENS 43° 10kN/m?, OF 4a 45 46 47 48 49 Chapter 5 5.1 96kNira? 52 53 122kNIm 62° S7LRNim, 857m 63 , ZODKN Ie 18.7 kim, 198 N/m 64 1TSKN/m?, 9 kNim?, L9 635 395m 66 228kNim?, 35kNim?, 1.2, 1.6 67 5.60m, 26KN 68 21, 314kN 69 225 6.10 10KN eu 17 612 19,48 Chapter 7 TA Gy = 27, 26m%iyear, my = 0.S8mMN, & = 8.1 x 10-% mis 7.2 318mm, 38mm (Four sublayers) 73 2.6 years, 0.95 years Ta 35.2kNiat 75 0.45 76 130mm, 95mm 77 24mm, 38mm, 72mm, 65 mm 7.8 280mm (six sublayers) 79. 0.80 710. 88 years, 0.7 years,ANSWERS 10 PROBLEMS Chapter 8 Chapter 9 91 143,127 92 sz" 93 Osi 94 LOL 95 12 86 1.34 Index 1 Coarse rained soils $ (Coetiient of consolidation 265, 270, Compress Compression index 248 4 ail tetINDEX 2 assive pressure 186, 201 Passive Rankine state 186 Embankments27, 288, 383, [End-product compaction 3t Impermeabie blanket 69 229, 310, 355, 380 Thelied toading of foundations 306 wate pressure 3, 108, nial compression 271 268, 338, 300, 385 leochrones 266 deving forme 45 iroups 341 Iinclays 338 In sande 333 load factor 333, 339 Fite design 70 t toad ests 341 Fine grained sil settlement 334 ‘Fiseuted clay 39,120, Piping 68 loceulated Footing: 298, Foundation pressure 206, Foundations 398 factor of safety 93,306, 3 Dey strength test 11 Ditch sone tet 324 Dynamic conse | [Negative skin friction 340 = | Nena chee Bor prise Noval onotdated ly 118 123, =r i antes, 10,247 39.577, se Earth pressure Earth pressure coef Barth retaining struct Open drive sonpler 404 Open layer 266 Optimum water content 28 Presumed bearing ¥ Presroremeter Primary consol ‘Ground investigation 393 Group symbols 16 Grouting 7#Propped cantilever walls 214 Porehing shear Residual Residual Res Ret 156,181 Rod energy rato 316 Root time method 273, Rotary deting 40 1402 joa Sand 5.12.15, 19,9, 11,196,230, 333, 43s, 59 Saturation ine 29 Sehmectmann's method 329 ‘Secondary compression 271, 276 Sedimentation 6 Seepage 37 shisotropie soils 57 basi theory 43 298. 311.3 385 ‘Shearbox test 105 ‘Shear modulos 137 Shear strength 102 fa terms of effective stress 123 INDEX, 123, 319, 328 ndrained 119, 123, {abrie 10,14, 120,275, 344,408 suction 28, 89 Strain hardening 124, 156 Strain sofeing (24 ‘Stress paths 126 133, 135,257, 261, ‘tres path method 261 insti theory 163, ‘rear ares 168 Tine foad Tot INDEX, Unit weight 25 Surcharge pressure 187 Upper bourd theorem 182 ‘Swedish method of ices 372 Swelling 84, 244, 247 ‘Taylor's slope stability coeticents 368 ‘Tension zone 187, 200,968 ‘Terzagh’'s theory of one-dimensional consolidation 263,285 ‘Teraaghi and Peck method 318 ‘Total pasive resistance 187 ‘Total stees 80 ‘Toughness test 12 ‘Transported soi Utimate bearing capacity 300 ‘Uneonfined compresion test 10 Unconsoidated-undained rina 111, 19 \Undrained condition 84, 11. 176,188, Yield function 156 “Young's modulus 157,174, 330 Zero-te-woid line 29