Failures in Sour Gas Environments

Jeffery A. Colwell, Battelle Columbus Laboratories

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Hydrogen-Induced Cracking (HIC)

Hydrogen-induced cracking, also called stepwise cracking or blister cracking, is primarily found in lower-strength steels,
typically with tensile strengths less than about 550 MPa (80 ksi). It is primarily found in line-pipe steels.

This type of degradation also begins with a reaction between steel and hydrogen sulfide in the presence of water. Again,
hydrogen atoms enter the steel, but with HIC, as opposed to SSC, these hydrogen atoms combine to form hydrogen gas at
internal defects. These internal discontinuities can be hard spots of low-temperature transformation products or laminations.
However, manganese sulfide inclusions are the primary sites for this to occur. These inclusions tend to become elongated
during pipe manufacture and give rise to high stresses at the tip of the inclusion when hydrogen gas forms there. As cracks
initiate and propagate, they begin to link up with others, and a series of stepwise cracks can propagate through the material
(Fig. 2). An applied stress is not required for this mechanism to occur. More information on the various forms of hydrogen
attack is available in the article "Hydrogen-Damage Failures" in this Volume.

Fig. 2 HIC of API, grade X-60, line-pipe steel after 28 days of exposure to ASTM seasalt brine, 20% H2S,
20% CO2, 1 atm, 24 C.

Factors That Affect HIC. Aside from reducing the amount of hydrogen being generated by reducing the corrosion
reaction, another way of controlling HIC is through material processing. Shape control of sulfide inclusions is perhaps the
best way to minimize the tendency toward HIC in line-pipe steels. Elongated manganese sulfide inclusions promote crack
initiation and propagation due to the high stresses at the tips of the inclusions. However, the addition of calcium or rare
earths to the steel makes the sulfides spherical, and because of their hardness, they remain spherical after processing. In
addition, reduction of the sulfur content is also beneficial in reducing the susceptibility of steels to HIC. Other alloying
additions that reduce hydrogen permeation, such as copper up to about 0.25%, are also beneficial (Ref 4).

Reference cited in this section

4. G.J. Biefner, The Stepwise Cracking of Line-Pipe Steels in Sour Environments, Mater. Perform., Vol 21,
1982, p 19
Copyright 2002 ASM International. All Rights Reserved.

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