Motivation is defined as an inner state of arousal, with the aroused energy directed to achieving a

goal. The motivated consumer is energized, ready, and willing to engage in a goal-relevant activity.
For example, if you learn that a much-anticipated video game will go on sale next Tuesday, you may
be motivated to be at the store early that morning. Consumers can be motivated to engage in
behaviours, make decisions, or process information, and this motivation can be seen in the context
of acquiring, using, or disposing of an offering.

High-Effort Behaviour

One outcome of motivation is behaviour that takes considerable effort. For example, if you are
motivated to buy a good car, you will research vehicles online, visit dealerships, take test drives, and
so on. Likewise, if you are motivated to lose weight, you will buy low-fat foods, eat smaller portions,
and exercise. Motivation not only drives behaviours consistent with a goal but also creates a
willingness to expend time and energy engaging in these behaviours. Thus, someone motivated to
buy a new video game may earn extra money for it, drive through a snowstorm to reach the store,
and then wait in line for an hour to buy it.

High-Effort Information Processing and Decision Making

Motivation also affects how we process information and make decisions. When consumers are
highly motivated to achieve a goal, they are more likely to pay careful attention to it, think about it,
attempt to understand or comprehend goal relevant information, evaluate that information
critically, and try to remember it for later use. Doing all this takes a lot of effort.

Felt Involvement

A final outcome of motivation is that it evokes a psychological state in consumers called

involvement. Researchers use the term felt involvement to refer to the psychological experience of
the motivated consumer

Felt involvement can be (1) enduring, (2) situational, (3) cognitive, or (4) affective.

What Affects Motivation?

Personal Relevance A key factor affecting motivation is the extent to which something is personally
relevantthat is, the extent to which it has a direct bearing on and significant implications for your
life.22 For example, if you learn that your laptop computers battery is being recalled because it can
overheat and cause a fire, you will probably find this issue to be personally relevant

Consistency with Self-Concept Something may be personally relevant to the extent that it bears on
your selfconcept, or your view of yourself and the way you think others view you. Self-concept helps
us define who we are, and it frequently guides our behavior. Note that different parts of a self-
concept can be salient at different time

Perceived Risk shows that another factor of consumers motivation to process information about a
product or brand is perceived risk, the extent to which the consumer is uncertain about the personal
consequences of buying, using, or disposing of an offering.

Perceived risk can be associated with any product or service, but it tends to be higher (1) when little
information is available about the offering, (2) when the offering is new, (3) when the offering has a
high price, (4) when the offering is technologically complex, (5) when brands differ fairly
substantially in quality and might cause the consumer to make an inferior choice, (6) when the
consumer has little confidence or experience in evaluating the offering,
Types of Perceived Risk

Performance risk, financial risk, Physical (or safety) risk, Social risk, Psychological risk, Time risk

Inconsistency with Attitudes A final factor affecting motivation, shown in Exhibit 2.1, is the extent to
which new information is consistent with previously acquired knowledge or attitudes. We tend to be
motivated to process messages that are moderately inconsistent with our knowledge or attitudes
because such messages are perceived as moderately threatening or uncomfortable. Therefore, we
try to eliminate or at least understand this inconsistency

Consumer Ability: Resources to Act

Motivation may not result in action unless a consumer has the ability to process information, make
decisions, or engage in behaviours. Ability is defined as the extent to which consumers have the
necessary resources to make the outcome happen.

Product Knowledge and Experience

Consumers vary greatly in their knowledge about an offering. They can gain knowledge from
product or service experiences such as ad exposures, interactions with salespeople, information
from friends or the media, previous decision making or product usage, or memory.

Cognitive Style

Consumers can differ in cognitive style, or their preferences for ways information should be
presented. Some consumers are adept at processing information visually, whereas others prefer to
process information verbally. For example, some consumers prefer to check a map, and others
prefer to read directions when planning to reach a destination.

Complexity of Information

The complexity of the information to which consumers are exposed can also affect their ability to
process it. Individuals may be stymied when information gets too technical or complicated; as
information becomes more complex, peoples ability to process it decreases.

Money Obviously,

the lack of money also constrains consumers who might otherwise have the motivation to engage in
a behavior that involves acquisition. Although motivated consumers who lack money can still
process information and make buying decisions, they are definitely constrained in their immediate
ability to buy from marketers.

Consumer Opportunity

The final factor affecting whether motivation results in action is consumers opportunity to engage in
a behaviour. For example, a consumer may be highly motivated to work out and have sufficient
money to join a health club (ability); however, he may be so busy that he has little opportunity to
actually go. Thus, even when motivation and ability are high, someone may not take action or make
decisions because of lack of time, distractions, and other factors

Time

Time can affect the consumers opportunity to process information, make decisions, and perform
certain behaviours. Some studies show that time-pressured consumers are more likely to buy things
for themselves during the Christmas season because this is one of the few opportunities they have
to shop.

Distraction

Distraction refers to any aspect of a situation that diverts consumers attention. For example, an
important exam can divert a consumers attention from a yoga class she really wants to take.

Amount, Repetition, and Control of Information

The amount of information present can also affect consumers opportunity to process a message.
Moreover, whereas consumers ability to process information is limited by time, distraction, and the
quality and complexity of the information, one factorrepetitionactually enhances it. If
consumers are repeatedly exposed to information, they can more easily process it because they
have more chances to think about, scrutinize, and remember the information

Exposure
Before any type of marketing stimulus can affect consumers, they must be exposed to it. Exposure
refers to the process by which the consumer comes into physical contact with a stimulus Marketing
stimuli are messages and information about products or brands and other offerings communicated
by either the marketer (via ads, salespeople, brand symbols, packages, signs, prices, and so on) or by
non-marketing sources (e.g., the media, word of mouth)

Factors Influencing Exposure

The position of an ad within a medium can affect exposure. Consumers exposure to magazine ads is
greatest when they appear on the back cover because the ads are in view whenever the magazine is
placed face down. Also, consumers are most likely to be exposed to ads placed next to articles or
within TV programs that interest them. Exposure to commercials is greatest when they are placed at
the beginning or end of a commercial break within a program because consumers either are still
involved in the program or are waiting for the program to come back on

Selective Exposure

While marketers can work very hard to affect consumers exposure to certain products and brands,
ultimately consumers, not marketers, control whether their exposure to marketing stimuli occurs or
not. In other words, consumers can actively seek certain stimuli and avoid others. Readers of Vogue
magazine are more likely to selectively expose themselves to fashion-oriented ads, whereas readers
of Car and Driver choose to look at different kinds of ads. Some consumers try to ignore the ads
altogether.

Measuring Exposure

Why would advertisers pay nearly $3 million for a single 30-second spot during the Super Bowl? In
part, they do it because projections of exposure measurements indicate that hundreds of millions of
consumers around the world will watch the game. Marketers are very interested in determining
which media will generate exposure to their marketing stimuli and whether the desired exposure
rates have actually been reached.
Attention

Attention The process by which an individual allocates part of his or her mental activity to a stimulus.

Characteristics of Attention

Attention has three key characteristics: (1) it is selective, (2) it is capable of being divided, and (3) it is
limited.

Attention Is Selective Selectivity means that we decide what we want to focus on at any one time.
At any given time, we are exposed to a potentially overwhelming number of stimuli. When we go to
a store, for example, we are exposed to numerous products, brands, ads, displays, signs, and prices
all at the same time. Because we cannot examine all these marketing stimuli simultaneously, we
must determine which to focus on.

Attention Can Be Divided A second important aspect of attention is that it is capable of being
divided. Thus, we can parcel our attentional resources into units and allocate some to one task and
some to another. For example, we can drive a car and talk at the same time. We can allocate
attention flexibly to meet the demands of things in our environment

Attention Is Limited A third, and critical, aspect of attention is that it is limited. Although we may be
able to divide our attention, we can attend to multiple things only if processing them is relatively
automatic, well practiced, and effortless. Imagine that you are watching TV and, at the same time,
listening to your friends talk. If the conversation turns serious, you will need to turn down the TV so
you can devote your attention to your friends.

Focal and Non-focal Attention

These three characteristics of attention raise questions about whether we can attend to something
in our peripheral vision even if we are already focusing on something else. For example, when we
read a magazine article, can we process the information in an adjacent adeven if our eyes are
concentrating on the article and we are not aware of the ad? When we drive down the highway, can
we process any information from a roadside billboard if we are focusing only on the road?

Preattentive Processing

To the extent that we can process information from our peripheral vision even if we are not aware
that we are doing so, we are engaged in preattentive processing. Because attention is limited, we
are not aware that we are absorbing and processing information about that object.

Hemispheric Lateralization Our ability to process information preattentively depends on (1) whether
the stimulus in peripheral vision is a picture or a word and (2) whether it is placed in the right or left
visual field. These factors are influential because of how the two halves of the brainthe two
hemispheres process information . The right hemisphere is best at processing music, grasping
visual and spatial information, forming inferences, and drawing conclusions. The left hemisphere is
best at processing units that can be combined, performing tasks such as counting, processing
unfamiliar words, and forming sentences. Interestingly, stimuli placed in the right visual fi eld (ads on
the right side of the focal article or billboards on the right side of the road) tend to be processed by
the left hemisphere; those in the left visual field tend to be processed by the right hemisphere.

Note- marketers often need to take steps to attract consumers attention by making the stimulus (1)
personally relevant, (2) pleasant, (3) surprising, and/or (4) easy to process.
Habituation

When a stimulus becomes familiar, it can lose its attention-getting ability, a result called habituation.
Think about the last time you purchased something new for your apartment or room (such as a plant
or picture). For the first few days, you probably noticed the object every time you entered the room.
As time passed, however, you probably noticed the item less and less, and now you probably do not
notice it at all. You have become habituated to it.

Perception

After we have been exposed to a stimulus and have devoted at least some attention to it, we are in a
position to perceive it. Perception occurs when stimuli are registered by one of our five senses:
vision, hearing, taste, smell, and touch.

Perceiving through Vision what arouses our visual perception?

Size and shape, Color, Effects of color on physiological responses and moods.

Perceiving Through Hearing Sound represents another form of sensory input. A major principle
determining whether a sound will be perceived is its auditory intensity. Consumers are more likely to
notice loud music or voices and stark noises

Perceiving Through Taste Food and beverage marketers must stress taste perceptions in their
marketing stimuli. For example, the major challenge for marketers of low-calorie and low-fat
products is to provide healthier foods that still taste good.

Perceiving Through Smell If you were blindfolded and asked to smell an item, you would probably
have a hard time identifying it

Perceiving Through Touch Touch (both what we touch with our fi ngers and the way that things feel
to us as they come in contact with our skin) is a very important aspect of many products and
services, although individual preferences for touch vary.

When Do We Perceive Stimuli? Our senses are exposed to numerous inputs at any given time. To
perceive each one would be overwhelming and extremely difficult. Fortunately, our sensory
processing is simplified by the fact that many stimuli do not enter our conscious awareness. For us to
perceive something, it must be sufficiently intense.

Absolute Thresholds The absolute threshold is the minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for a
stimulus to be perceived. In other words, the absolute threshold is the amount of intensity needed
for a person to detect a difference between something and nothing. Suppose you are driving on the
highway and a billboard is in the distance. The absolute threshold is that point at which you can first
see the billboard.

Differential Thresholds Whereas the absolute threshold deals with whether or not a stimulus can be
perceived, the differential threshold refers to the intensity difference needed between two stimuli
before people can perceive that the stimuli are different. Thus, the differential threshold is a relative
concept; it is often called the just noticeable difference.

Perceptual organization The process by which stimuli are organized into meaningful units.
 Knowledge and Understanding
Knowledge content

Reflects the information consumers have already learned about brands, companies, product
categories, stores, ads, people, how to shop, how to use products, and so on. Companies sometimes
use marketing to develop, add to, or change consumers knowledge content

The content of our knowledge reflects the set of things we have learned in the past and may consist
of many facts. For example, we may know that a banana has about 100 calories.

These pieces of information are not stored as random facts; rather, they are linked to or associated
with a concept. The set of associations linked to a concept is called a schema.

Schemas, Associations, and Brand Equity

The associations in schemas can be described along several dimensions.

Types of associations. Consumers have many types of associations. One schema for banana might
include associations that reflect (1) the attributes of a banana (yellow, long, soft, contains a lot of
potassium), (2) its benefits (nutritious, low in fat), (3) people who eat it (athletes who lose a lot of
potassium through sweating), (4) times when it is eaten

Favourability Associations can also be described in terms of their favourability. The notion that a
banana has 100 calories might be evaluated as favourable.

Uniqueness. Associations vary in their uniquenessthat is, the extent to which they are also related
to other concepts. Greasiness is not unique to McDonalds, but the Golden Arches and Ronald
McDonald are.

Salience. Associations vary in their salience, or how easily they come to mind.

Images

Brand image A subset of salient and feeling-related associations stored in a brand schema

Script

A special type of schema that represents knowledge of a sequence of actions involved in performing
an activity

Knowledge structure

Describes how consumers organize knowledge. Consumers often organize knowledge into
categories, storing similar things in the same category. For example, the names of certain brands of
toothpaste, such as Rembrandt, may be stored in a category called whitening toothpastes. In
addition, this brand, along with others such as Crest and Colgate, may be stored in a more general
category called toothpaste.

Categorization The process of labelling or identifying an object. Involves relating what we perceive in
our external environment to what we already know. Thus, we might label Trident gum as a dental
hygiene product instead of a candy product and relate it to our knowledge of other dental hygiene
products.

Graded Structure and Prototypically

Graded structure The fact that category members vary in how well they represent a category.
Prototype The best example of a cognitive (mental) category.

Correlated Associations Although graded structure reflects one way that knowledge is structured,
another way depends on whether the associations linked to category members are correlated, or go
together. For example, consumers might expect a cake with rich flavor to have high calories or
expect nationally advertised brands to be of higher quality than local ones.

Hierarchical Structure A final way in which taxonomic categories are structured is hierarchically. As
Exhibit 4.6 indicates, taxonomic categories can be hierarchically organized into basic, subordinate,
and superordinate levels

Goal-derived category Things that are viewed as belonging in the same category because they serve
the same goals

Comprehension

is the process of using prior knowledge to understand more about what has been categorized. For
example, we might relate the picture, headline, and ad copy in a Trident ad or website and
understand that Trident gum is good for teeth and can achieve some of the same benefi ts as
brushing.

Objective comprehension The extent to which the receiver accurately understands the message a
sender intended to communicate.

Subjective comprehension Reflects what we understand, regardless of whether this understanding is

accurate

Miscomprehension Inaccurate understanding of a message.

Effect of MAO Consumers may not comprehend a marketing message when they have low
motivation and limited opportunity to process it, when the message is complex or shown for only a
few seconds, or when the message is viewed only once or twice

Effect of the Culture The culture in which consumers live can also affect comprehension and
miscomprehension

What Are Attitudes?

An attitude is an overall evaluation that expresses how much we like or dislike an object, issue,
person, or action.2 Attitudes are learned, and they tend to persist over time.

Attitudes are important because they (1) guide our thoughts (the cognitive function), (2) influence
our feelings (the affective function), and (3) affect our behaviour (the conative function)

The Characteristics of Attitudes

Attitudes can be described in terms of five main characteristics: favourability, attitude accessibility,
attitude confidence, persistence, and resistance.

Favorability The degree to which we like or dislike something

Attitude accessibility How easily an attitude can be remembered.

Attitude confidence How strongly we hold an attitude.

Attitude persistence How long our attitude lasts.

Attitude resistance How difficult it is to change an attitude

The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes

Direct or Imagined Experience Elaborating on actual experience with a product or service (or even
imagining what that experience could be like) can help consumers form positive or negative
attitudes

Reasoning by Analogy or Category Consumers also form attitudes by considering how similar a
product is to other products or to a particular product category.

Values-Driven Attitudes Another way that attitudes are generated or shaped is based on individual
values. Suppose that environmental protection is one of your most strongly held values.

Social Identity-Based Attitude Generation The way that consumers view their own social identities
can play a role in forming their attitudes toward products or brands. If you consider yourself a very
serious sports fan, for instance, that may be a defining aspect of your identity. In turn, you will tend
to form positive attitudes toward a brand or product

Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation Consumers sometimes use a more analytical process of
attitude formation in which, after being exposed to marketing stimuli or other information

The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes

Emotional appeals Messages designed to elicit an emotional response.

Attitude Toward the Ad Attitude toward the ad (Aad) Whether the consumer likes or dislikes an ad.

Utilitarian (functional) dimension when an ad provides information

Hedonic dimension when an ad creates positive or negative feelings.

What Is Memory?

Consumer memory A personal storehouse of knowledge about products and services, shopping, and
consumption experiences.

Sensory memory Sensory experiences stored temporarily in memory. Echoic memory Very short-
lived memory for things we hear. Iconic memory Very short-lived memory for things we see.

Short-term memory (STM) The portion of memory where incoming information is encoded or
interpreted in light of existing knowledge.

Long-term memory (LTM) The part of memory where information is placed for later use;
permanently stored knowledge

How Memory Is Enhanced

Chunking Traditionally, researchers have believed that the most individuals can process in short-
term memory at any one time is three to seven chunks of information

Rehearsal The process of actively reviewing material in an attempt to remember it.

Recirculation The process by which information is remembered via simple repetition without active
rehearsal.
Elaboration Transferring information into long-term memory by processing it at deeper levels.

Retrieval The process of remembering or accessing what we have stored in memory.