Handouts

E1.
1 Analysis of Circuits
Mike Brookes
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 1 / 16

1: Introduction
Organization
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams
Charge
Current
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
1: Introduction
Sources
Power Conservation
Units and Multipliers
Summary

Organization
1: Introduction
Organization
18 lectures: feel free to ask questions
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams
Buy the textbook: Hayt, Kemmerly & Durbin Engineering Circuit
Charge Analysis ISBN: 0071217066 (48)
Current
Potential Energy Weekly study group: Problem sheets - KEEP UP TO DATE
Voltage
Resistors Fortnightly tutorial: tutorial problems
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Dissipation
Lecture slides (including animations) and problem sheets + answers
Voltage and Current
Sources
available via Blackboard or from my website:
Power Conservation http://www.ee.ic.ac.uk/hp/staff/dmb/courses/ccts1/ccts1.htm
Summary
Quite dense: you should understand every word
Email me with any errors or confusions in slides or problems/answers

Christmas Test in January
Exam in June (sample papers + solutions available via Blackboard)

What are circuits?
1: Introduction
Organization
A circuit consists of electrical or electronic components
What are circuits? interconnected with metal wires
Circuit Diagrams
Charge Every electrical or electronic device is a circuit
Current
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Sources
Power Conservation
Summary Breadboard Printed Integrated
The function of the circuit is determined by which components are

used and how they are interconnected: the physical positioning of the
components usually has hardly any effect.

Circuit Diagrams
1: Introduction
Organization
A circuit diagram shows the way in which the components are connected
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams
Charge Each component has a
Current
Potential Energy
special symbol
Voltage The interconnecting wires are
Resistors
Cause and Effect
shown as lines
Resistor Power
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Sources
Power Conservation
A node in a circuit is all the points that are connected together via the
Summary interconnecting wires. One of the four nodes in the diagram is coloured red.
Assumption: Interconnecting wires have zero resistance so everywhere along
a node has the same voltage.
Indicate three meeting wires
with a and crossovers
without one.
Junction Crossover Bad Better
Avoid having four meeting wires in case the disappears; stagger the wires
instead.
Charge
1: Introduction
Organization
Charge is an electrical property possessed by some atomic particles
What are circuits? Charge is measured in Colombs (abbreviated C)
Circuit Diagrams
Charge An electron has a charge 1.6 1019 C, a proton +1.6 1019 C
Current Unlike charges attract, like charges repel: the force is fantastically huge
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors Two people 384,000 km apart
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power Each with 1% extra electrons
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Sources
Force = 2 108 N
Power Conservation = 360, 000 their weight
Summary
Consequence: Charge never accumulates in a conductor: everywhere in a

conducting path stays electrically neutral at all times.

Current
1: Introduction
Organization
Current is the flow of charged particles past a measurement boundary
What are circuits? Using an ammeter, we measure current in Ampres (usually abbreviated to
Circuit Diagrams
Charge Amps or A): 1 A = 1 C/s
Current Analogy: the flow of water in a pipe or river is measured in litres per second
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors The arrow in a circuit diagram
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power indicates the direction we choose
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
to measure the current.
Sources I = +1 A 1 C of +ve charge
Power Conservation
Units and Multipliers passes each point every second in
Summary
the direction of the arrow (or else
1 C of ve charge in the opposite
direction)
I = 1 A 1 C of +ve charge in the direction opposite to the arrow
Average electron velocity is surprisingly slow (e.g. 1 mm/s) but (like a
water pipe) the signal travels much faster.
In metals the charge carriers (electrons) are actually ve: in this course
you should ignore this always.

Potential Energy
1: Introduction
Organization
When a ball falls from a
What are circuits? shelf, it loses potential
Circuit Diagrams
Charge energy of mgh or,
h
Current equivalently, gh per kg.
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Dissipation The potential energy per kg of any point on a mountain range is equal to
Voltage and Current
Sources gh where h is measured relative to an equipotential reference surface (e.g.
Power Conservation
the surface of a lake).
Summary
The potential energy difference between any two points is the energy
needed to move 1 kg from one point to the other.
The potential energy difference does not depend on the route taken
between the points.
The potential enegy difference does not depend on your choice of reference
surface (e.g. lake surface or sea level).

Voltage
1: Introduction
Organization
The electrical potential difference (or voltage difference) between any two
What are circuits? nodes in a circuit is the energy per coulomb needed to move a small +ve
Circuit Diagrams
Charge charge from one node to the the other.
Current
Potential Energy
We usually pick one of the nodes as a reference and define the voltage at a
Voltage node to be the voltage difference between that node and the reference.
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power The four nodes are labelled
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
A, B, C, G.
Sources
Power Conservation We have chosen G as the reference
Summary
node; indicated by the ground
symbol.
The potential difference between A and the ground reference, G, is written

VA and is also called the voltage at A.
The potential difference between A and B is written as VAB and shown as
an arrow pointing towards A. This is the energy per coulomb in going from
B to A and satisfies VAB = VA VB . (Different from vectors)
Easy algebra shows that VAB = VBA and that VAC = VAB + VBC .

Resistors
1: Introduction
Organization
A resistor is made from a
What are circuits? thin strip of metal film
Circuit Diagrams
Charge deposited onto an
Current insulating ceramic base.
Potential Energy
Voltage
Resistors The characteristic of a
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power component is a graph showing
Dissipation
Voltage and Current how the voltage and current are
Sources
Power Conservation related. We always choose the
Units and Multipliers current and voltage arrows in
Summary
opposite directions: this is the
passive sign convention.
For a resistor, I V and VI = R, its resistance which is measured in Ohms

(). This is Ohms Law. Sometimes it is more convenient to work in terms
of the conductance, G = R1 = VI measured in Siemens (S).
The graph shows the characteristic of a 12.5 resistor. The gradient of the
graph equals the conductance G = 80 mS. Alternative zigzag symbol.

[Passive Sign Convention]
To measure the voltage in a physical circuit, you use a voltmeter (V

in the figure) which has two test leads connected to it usually coloured
red (marked +) and black (marked ) respectively. The reading on
the voltmeter shows the voltage at the red lead relative to that at the
black lead (or equivalently the red voltage minus the black voltage). To
measure the voltage V in the figure, you would connect the red lead to
the top end of the arrow (pointed end) and the black lead to the bottom
(blunt end).
To measure current you use an ammeter (A in the figure) which also has two test leads coloured red
and black respectively. The reading shows the current flowing through the ammeter into the red lead
and out of the black lead. To measure the current I on the previous slide, you would need to break the
wire carrying the current and insert the ammeter as shown in the figure.
With the connections shown in the figure, the readings on V and A will always have the same sign:
either both positive or both negative and will satisfy Ohms law: V = IR. However, if the connections
are reversed on either V or A, then the two readings will have opposite signs and V = IR which does
not satisfy Ohms law.
So, if you want Ohms law to be true you must be sure to connect the measuring devices the right way
round according to the passive sign convention.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 note 1 of slide 10

Cause and Effect
1: Introduction
Organization
What are circuits?
Ohms law relates the
Circuit Diagrams voltage drop across a
Charge
Current resistor to the current
Potential Energy
Voltage
flowing in it.
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Sources
Power Conservation
Summary If the voltage, V , is fixed elsewhere in the circuit, it is convenient to think
that V causes the current I to flow.
If the current, I, is fixed elsewhere in the circuit, it is more convenient to
think that V is caused by the current I flowing through the resistor.
Neither statement is more true than the other. It is perhaps truer to say
that I and V are constrained to satisfy V = I R.

Resistor Power Dissipation
1: Introduction
Organization
Gravitational potential energy, mgh, lost by a falling object is transformed
What are circuits? into kinetic energy or heat.
Circuit Diagrams
Charge
Current
Current in a resistor
Potential Energy always flows from a
Voltage
Resistors high voltage (more
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
positive) to a low
Dissipation
voltage (more
Voltage and Current
Sources negative).
Power Conservation
Summary When current flows through a resistor, the electrical potential energy that is
lost is transformed into heat.
The power dissipated as heat in a resistor is equal to V I Watts (W). 1
Watt equals one Joule of energy per second. Since V and I always have
the same sign (see graph) the power dissipation is always positive.
Any component: P = V I gives the power absorbed by any component.
V V2
For a resistor only: I =R P =VI = R = I 2 R.

Voltage and Current Sources
1: Introduction
Organization
Energy in an electrical circuit is supplied by voltage and current sources
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams An ideal voltage source 0.2
Charge
Current
maintains the same value of 0.1
I
Potential Energy V for all currents. Its I
Voltage
Resistors characteristic is a vertical V 1.5V
1 V 1 2
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power line with infinite gradient. 0.1
Dissipation
Voltage and
There are two common
Current Sources symbols.
0.2
Power Conservation
Summary An ideal current source 0.2
maintains the same value of 0.1

I
I for all voltages. Its 180mA I
characteristic is a horizontal V
1 V 1 2
line with zero gradient. 0.1
Notice that I is negative.

0.2
If the source is supplying electrical energy to a circuit, then V I < 0.

However, when a recharcheable battery is charging, V I > 0.

Power Conservation
1: Introduction
Organization
In any circuit some circuit elements will be supplying energy and others
What are circuits? absorbing it. At all times, the power absorbed by all the elements will sum
Circuit Diagrams
Charge to zero.
Current
Potential Energy
Voltage The circuit has two nodes whose
Resistors
Cause and Effect
potential difference is 10 V.
Resistor Power
Dissipation Ohms Law:
Voltage and Current
Sources I = VR = 0.01 A
Power
Conservation
Summary
Power absorbed by resistor:
PR = V1 I1 = (+10) (+0.01) = +0.1 W
For Ohms law or power dissipation, V and I can be measured either
way round but must be in opposite directions (passive sign convention).
PR = V2 I2 = (10) (0.01) = +0.1 W
Power absorbed by voltage source:
PS = VS IS = (+10) (0.01) = 0.1 W
Total power absorbed by circuit elements: PS + PR = 0

1: Introduction
Organization
Quantity Letter Unit Symbol
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams
Charge Q Coulomb C
Charge Conductance G Siemens S
Current
Potential Energy Current I Amp A
Voltage
Resistors
Energy W Joule J
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power
Potential V Volt V
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Power P Watt W
Sources Resistance R Ohm
Power Conservation
Units and
Multipliers
Summary
Value Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol
103 milli m 103 kilo k
106 micro 106 mega M
109 nano n 109 giga G
1012 pico p 1012 tera T
1015 femto f 1015 peta P

Summary
1: Introduction
Organization
Circuits and Nodes
What are circuits?
Circuit Diagrams
Charge, Current and Voltage
Charge
Current
Resistors, Voltage Source and Current Sources
Potential Energy
Voltage
Power Dissipation and Power Conservation
Resistors
Cause and Effect
Resistor Power For further details see Hayt et al. Chapter 2.
Dissipation
Voltage and Current
Sources
Power Conservation
Summary

2: Resistor Circuits
Kirchoffs Voltage
Law
Kirchoffs Current
Law
KCL Example
Series and Parallel
Dividers
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel 2: Resistor Circuits
Formulae
Simplifying Resistor
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 1 / 13

Kirchoffs Voltage Law
Kirchoffs Voltage
The five nodes are labelled
Law
A, B, C, D, E where E is the
Kirchoffs Current
Law
KCL Example
reference node.
Series and Parallel
Dividers
Each component that links a pair
Equivalent of nodes is called a branch of the
Resistance: Series
Equivalent network.
Equivalent
Formulae
Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) is a consequence of the fact that the work
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
done in moving a charge from one node to another does not depend on the
Source route you take; in particular the work done in going from one node back to
Summary
the same node by any route is zero.
KVL: the sum of the voltage changes around any closed loop is zero.
Example: VDE + VBD + VAB + VEA = 0
Equivalent formulation:
VXY = VXE VY E = VX VY for any nodes X and Y .

Kirchoffs Current Law
Kirchoffs Voltage
Wherever charges are free to move around, they will move to ensure charge
Law
Kirchoffs Current
neutrality everywhere at all times.
Law A consequence is Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) which says that the current
KCL Example
Series and Parallel going into any closed region of a circuit must equal the current coming out.
Dividers
Equivalent KCL: The currents flowing out of any closed region of a circuit sum to zero.
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Equivalent
Green: I1 = I7
Formulae
Blue: I1 + I2 + I5 = 0
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Gray: I2 + I4 I6 + I7 = 0
Summary

KCL Example
Kirchoffs Voltage
The currents and voltages in any linear circuit can be determined by using
Law
Kirchoffs Current
KCL, KVL and Ohms law.
Law
KCL Example Sometimes KCL allows you to determine currents very easily without having
Series and Parallel
Dividers to solve any simultaneous equations:
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel How do we calculate I ?
Equivalent
Formulae
KCL: 1 + I + 3 = 0
Networks
= I = 2 A
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Summary
Note that here I ends up negative which means we chose the wrong arrow
direction to label the circuit. This does not matter. You can choose the
directions arbitrarily and let the algebra take care of reality.

Series and Parallel
Kirchoffs Voltage
Series: Components that are connected in a chain so that the same current
Law
Kirchoffs Current
flows through each one are said to be in series.
Law
KCL Example R1 , R2 , R3 are in series and the same
Series and Parallel
Dividers current always flows through each.
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Within the chain, each internal node
Equivalent
connects to only two branches.
Formulae
R3 and R4 are not in series and do not
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
necessarily have the same current.
Source
Summary Parallel: Components that are connected to the same pair of nodes are said
to be in parallel .
R1 , R2 , R3 are in parallel and the same
voltage is across each resistor (even
though R3 is not close to the others).
R4 and R5 are also in parallel.

Series Resistors: Voltage Divider
Kirchoffs Voltage
VX = V1 + V2 + V3
Law
Kirchoffs Current = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Law
KCL Example = I(R1 + R2 + R3 )
Series and Parallel
Dividers V1
= IR1
Equivalent VX I(R1 +R2 +R3 )
Resistance: Series
R1 R1
Equivalent
= R1 +R2 +R3 = RT
Equivalent
Formulae
where RT = R1 + R2 + R3 is the
Networks
total resistance of the chain.
Non-ideal Voltage
Source VX is divided into V1 : V2 : V3 in the proportions R1 : R2 : R3 .
Summary
Approximate Voltage Divider:

RA
If IY = 0, then VY = RA +RB VX .
RA
If IY I, then VY RA +RB VX .

Parallel Resistors: Current Divider
Kirchoffs Voltage
Parallel resistors all share the same V .
Law
V
Kirchoffs Current
Law
I1 = R1 = V G1 .
KCL Example
1
Series and Parallel where G1 = R1 is the conductance of R1 .
Dividers
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
IX = I1 + I2 + I3
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel = V G1 + V G2 + V G3
Formulae
Networks
= V (G1 + G2 + G3 )
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Summary I1 V G1 G1 G1
IX = V (G1 +G2 +G3 ) = G1 +G2 +G3 = GP
where GP = G1 + G2 + G3 is the total conductance of the parallel

resistors.
IX is divided into I1 : I2 : I3 in the proportions G1 : G2 : G3 .

Equivalent Resistance: Series
Kirchoffs Voltage
We know that V = V1 + V2 + V3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3 ) = IRT
Law
Kirchoffs Current
Law So we can replace the three resistors
KCL Example
Series and Parallel
by a single equivalent resistor of
Dividers value RT without affecting the
Equivalent
Resistance: Series relationship between V and I.
Equivalent
Equivalent
Formulae
Networks Replacing series resistors by their
Non-ideal Voltage
Source equivalent resistor will not affect any
Summary
of the voltages or currents in the rest
of the circuit.
However the individual voltages V1 ,
V2 and V3 are no longer accessible.

Equivalent Resistance: Parallel
Kirchoffs Voltage
Similarly we known that I = I1 + I2 + I3 = V (G1 + G2 + G3 ) = V GP .
Law
1 1 1
Kirchoffs Current
Law
So V = IRP where RP = GP = G1 +G2 +G3 = 1/R
1 + 1/R +1/R
2 3
KCL Example
Series and Parallel
Dividers
We can use a single
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
equivalent resistor of
Equivalent
Resistance:
resistance RP without
Parallel affecting the
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel relationship between
Formulae
Simplifying Resistor V and I.
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
Source Replacing parallel resistors by
Summary
their equivalent resistor will not
affect any of the voltages or
currents in the rest of the circuit.
R4 and R5 are also in parallel.
Much simpler - although none of the original currents I1 , , I5 are now

accessible. Current IS and the three node voltages are identical.

Equivalent Resistance: Parallel Formulae
Kirchoffs Voltage
For parallel resistors GP = G1 + G2 + G3
Law
1
Kirchoffs Current
Law
or equivalently RP = R1 ||R2 ||R3 = 1/R
1 +1/R 2+
1/R
3
.
KCL Example
Series and Parallel These formulae work for any number of resistors.
Dividers
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent For the special case of two parallel resistors
Equivalent 1 R1 R2
Resistance: RP = 1/R
1 + /R2
1 = R1 +R2 (product over sum)
Parallel Formulae
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage If one resistor is a multiple of the other
Source
Summary
Suppose R2 = kR1 , then
R1 R2 kR12 k 1
RP = R1 +R2 = (k+1)R1 = k+1 R1 = (1 k+1 )R1
99 1

Example: 1 k || 99 k = 100 k = 1 100 k
Important: The equivalent resistance of parallel resistors is always less than

any of them.

Simplifying Resistor Networks
Kirchoffs Voltage
Many resistor circuits can be
Law
Kirchoffs Current
simplified by alternately combining
Law
KCL Example
series and parallel resistors.
Series and Parallel
Dividers
Equivalent
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Series: 2 k + 1 k = 3 k
Equivalent
Formulae
Simplifying
Resistor Networks
Parallel: 3 k || 7 k = 2.1 k
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Summary
Parallel: 2 k || 3 k = 1.2 k
Series: 2.1 k + 1.2 k = 3.3 k
Sadly this method does not always

work: there are no series or parallel
resistors here.

Non-ideal Voltage Source
Kirchoffs Voltage
An ideal battery has a characteristic that is
Law
Kirchoffs Current
vertical: battery voltage does not vary with
Law
KCL Example
current.
Series and Parallel Normally a battery is supplying energy so V
Dividers
Equivalent and I have opposite signs, so I 0.
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel An real battery has a characteristic that has
Formulae
Simplifying Resistor a slight positive slope: battery voltage
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage decreases as the (negative) current increases.
Source
Summary
Model this by including a small resistor in
series. V = VB + IRB .
The equivalent resistance for a battery

increases at low temperatures.

Summary
Kirchoffs Voltage
Kichoffs Voltage and Current Laws
Law
Kirchoffs Current
Series and Parallel components
Law
KCL Example
Voltage and Current Dividers
Series and Parallel Simplifying Resistor Networks
Dividers
Equivalent Battery Internal Resistance
Resistance: Series
Equivalent
Resistance: Parallel For further details see Hayt et al. Chapter 3.
Equivalent
Formulae
Networks
Non-ideal Voltage
Source
Summary

3: Nodal Analysis
Aim of Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis Stage
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
Dependent Sources
3: Nodal Analysis
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 1 / 12

3: Nodal Analysis
Aim of Nodal
The aim of nodal analysis is to determine the voltage at each node relative
Analysis to the reference node (or ground). Once you have done this you can easily
1: Label Nodes work out anything else you need.
2: KCL Equations There are two ways to do this:
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
(1) Nodal Analysis - systematic; always works
Sources
Weighted Average
(2) Circuit Manipulation - ad hoc; but can be less work and clearer
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
Reminders:
Dependent Sources A node is all the points in a circuit
Dependent Voltage
Sources that are directly interconnected.
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm We assume the interconnections
Summary
have zero resistance so all points
within a node have the same
voltage. Five nodes: A, , E.
Ohms Law: VBD = IR5
KVL: VBD = VB VD
KCL: Total current exiting any closed region is zero.

Nodal Analysis Stage 1: Label Nodes
3: Nodal Analysis
To find the voltage at each node, the first
Nodal Analysis step is to label each node with its voltage
Stage 1: Label
Nodes as follows
2: KCL Equations
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog (1) Pick any node as the voltage reference. Label its voltage as 0 V.
Converter
Dependent Sources
(2) If any fixed voltage sources are connected to a labelled node, label their
Dependent Voltage other ends by adding the value of the source onto the voltage of the
Sources
Universal Nodal labelled end.
Analysis Algorithm
Summary (3) Pick an unlabelled node and label it with X, Y, . . ., then go back to
step (2) until all nodes are labelled.

Nodal Analysis Stage 2: KCL Equations
3: Nodal Analysis
The second step is to write down a KCL equation for each node labelled
Nodal Analysis Stage with a variable by setting the total current flowing out of the node to zero.
1: Label Nodes
Nodal Analysis For a circuit with N nodes and S voltage sources you will have N S 1
Stage 2: KCL
Equations simultaneous equations to solve.
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
Dependent Sources
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
Summary
We only have one variable:
X8 X0 X(2)
1k + 2k + 3k =0 (6X 48) + 3X + (2X + 4) = 0
11X = 44 X=4
Numerator for a resistor is always of the form X VN where VN is the
voltage on the other side of the resistor.

Current Sources
3: Nodal Analysis
Current sources cause no problems.
1: Label Nodes (1) Pick reference node.
2: KCL Equations (2) Label nodes: 8, X and Y .
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
Dependent Sources
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal
(3) Write equations
Analysis Algorithm
Summary X8 X XY
1 + 2 + 3 =0
Y X
3 + (1) = 0
Ohms law works OK if all resistors are in k and all currents in mA.
(4) Solve the equations: X = 6, Y = 9

Floating Voltage Sources
3: Nodal Analysis
Floating voltage sources have neither end connected to a known fixed
Nodal Analysis Stage voltage. We have to change how we form the KCL equations slightly.
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations (1) Pick reference node.
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources (2) Label nodes: 8, X and X + 2 since it
Weighted Average
Circuit is joined to X via a voltage source.
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
Dependent Sources
(3) Write KCL equations but count all the
Dependent Voltage nodes connected via floating voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal sources as a single super-node giving one
Analysis Algorithm
Summary equation
X8 X (X+2)0
1 + 2 + 3 =0
(4) Solve the equations: X = 4
Ohms law always involves the difference between the voltages at either end
of a resistor. (Obvious but easily forgotten)

Weighted Average Circuit
3: Nodal Analysis
A very useful sub-circuit that calculates the weighted average of any
Nodal Analysis Stage number of voltages.
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations KCL equation for node X:
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
XV1 XV2 XV3
Sources
Weighted Average R1 + R2 + R3 =0
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter Still works if V3 = 0.
Dependent Sources
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
Summary
Or using conductances:
(X V1 )G1 + (X V2 )G2 + (X V3 )G3 = 0

X(G1 + G2 + G3 ) = V1 G1 + V2 G2 + V3 G3
P
X= V1 G1 +V2 G2 +V3 G3
= PVi Gi
G1 +G2 +G3 Gi
Voltage X is the average of V1 , V2 , V3 weighted by the conductances.

Digital-to-Analog Converter
3: Nodal Analysis
A 3-bit binary number, b, has bit-weights of 4, 2 and 1. Thus 110 has a
Nodal Analysis Stage value 6 in decimal. If we label the bits b2 b1 b0 , then b = 4b2 + 2b1 + b0 .
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations We use b2 b1 b0 to control the switches which determine whether Vi = 5 V or
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Vi = 0 V. Thus Vi = 5bi . Switches shown for b = 6.
Sources
Weighted Average 1 1 1
2 V2 + 4 V1 + 8 V0
Circuit X= 1 1 1
Digital-to-Analog 2+4+8
Converter
Dependent Sources 1
Dependent Voltage
= 7 (4V2 + 2V1 + V0 )
Sources
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
Summary but Vi = 5 bi since it connects to
either 0 V or 5 V
5
= 7 (4b2 + 2b1 + b0 ) = 75 b
1 1 1
G2 = R2 = 2k = 2 mS, . . .
So we have made a circuit in which X is proportional to a binary number b.

Dependent Sources
3: Nodal Analysis
A dependent voltage or current source is one whose value is determined by
Nodal Analysis Stage voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit. These are most commonly
1: Label Nodes
Nodal Analysis Stage used when modelling the behaviour of transistors or op-amps. Each
2: KCL Equations
Current Sources dependent source has a defining equation.
Floating Voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
In this circuit: IS = 0.2W mA where W is in volts.
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
(1) Pick reference node.
Dependent
Sources (2) Label nodes: 0, U , X and Y .
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Universal Nodal (3) Write equation for the dependent
Analysis Algorithm
Summary source, IS , in terms of node voltages:
IS = 0.2 (U X)
(4) Write KCL equations:
XU X XY Y X Y
10 + 10 + 20 =0 20 + IS + 15 =0
(5) Solve all three equations to find X, Y and IS in terms of U :

X = 0.1U, Y = 1.5U, IS = 0.18U
Note that the value of U is assumed to be known.
Dependent Voltage Sources
3: Nodal Analysis
The value of the highlighted dependent voltage source is VS = 10J Volts
Nodal Analysis Stage where J is the indicated current in mA.
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations (1) Pick reference node.
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
Sources
(2) Label nodes: 0, 5, X, X + 3 and
Weighted Average
Circuit
X + VS .
Digital-to-Analog
Converter (3) Write equation for the dependent
Dependent Sources
Dependent source, VS , in terms of node voltages:
Voltage Sources
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
X+VS 5
Summary VS = 10J = 10 40 3VS = X 5
(4) Write KCL equations: all nodes connected by floating voltage sources
and all components connecting these nodes are in the same super-node
X+VS 5 X X+3
40 + 5 + 5 =0
(5) Solve the two equations: X = 1 and VS = 2

Universal Nodal Analysis Algorithm
3: Nodal Analysis
(1) Pick any node as the voltage reference. Label its voltage as 0 V. Label
Nodal Analysis Stage any dependent sources with VS , IS , . . ..
1: Label Nodes
2: KCL Equations (2) If any voltage sources are connected to a labelled node, label their other
Current Sources
Floating Voltage ends by adding the value of the source onto the voltage of the labelled end.
Sources
Weighted Average
Circuit
(3) Pick an unlabelled node and label it with X, Y, . . ., then loop back to
Digital-to-Analog
Converter
step (2) until all nodes are labelled.
Dependent Sources
Dependent Voltage (4) For each dependent source, write down an equation that expresses its
Sources
Universal Nodal value in terms of other node voltages.
Analysis Algorithm
Summary
(5) Write down a KCL equation for each normal node (i.e. one that is not
connected to a floating voltage source).
(6) Write down a KCL equation for each super-node. A super-node
consists of a set of nodes that are joined by floating voltage sources and
includes any other components joining these nodes.
(7) Solve the set of simultaneous equations that you have written down.

Summary
3: Nodal Analysis
Nodal Analysis
1: Label Nodes
Simple Circuits (no floating or dependent voltage sources)
2: KCL Equations Floating Voltage Sources
Current Sources
Floating Voltage
use supernodes: all the nodes connected by floating voltage
Sources
Weighted Average
sources (independent or dependent)
Circuit
Digital-to-Analog Dependent Voltage and Current Sources
Converter
Dependent Sources Label each source with a variable
Dependent Voltage
Sources
Write extra equations expressing the source values in terms of
Universal Nodal
Analysis Algorithm
node voltages
Summary Write down the KCL equations as before
Mesh Analysis (in most textbooks)
Alternative to nodal analysis but doesnt work for all circuits
No significant benefits ignore it
For further details see Hayt et al. Chapter 4.

4: Linearity and
Superposition
Linearity Theorem
Zero-value sources
Superposition
Superposition
Calculation
Superposition and
dependent sources
Single Unknown
Source
Superposition and
Power
Proportionality
4: Linearity and Superposition
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7087) Linearity and Superposition: 4 1 / 10

Linearity Theorem
4: Linearity and
Superposition
Suppose we use variables instead of fixed values for all of the independent
Linearity Theorem voltage and current sources. We can then use nodal analysis to find all
Zero-value sources
Superposition node voltages in terms of the source values.
Superposition
Calculation
Superposition and (1) Label all the nodes
dependent sources
Single Unknown
(2) KCL equations
Source XU1 X XY
Superposition and
2 + 1 + 3 =0
Power
Y X
Proportionality
3 + (U2 ) = 0
Summary
(3) Solve for the node voltages
X = 13 U1 + 32 U2 , Y = 13 U1 + 11
3 U2
Steps (2) and (3) never involve multiplying two source values together, so:
Linearity Theorem: For any circuit containing resistors and independent
voltage and current sources, every node voltage and branch
P current is a
linear function of the source values and has the form ai Ui where the Ui
are the source values and the ai are suitably dimensioned constants.
Also true for a circuit containing dependent sources providing their values
are sums of multiples of other voltages and/or currents in the circuit.

Zero-value sources
4: Linearity and
Superposition
A zero-valued voltage source has zero volts
Linearity Theorem between its terminals for any current. It is
Zero-value sources
Superposition equivalent to a short-circuit or piece of wire
Superposition
Calculation or resistor of 0 (or S).
Superposition and
dependent sources
Single Unknown
Source
Superposition and
Power
Proportionality A zero-valued current source has no current
Summary
flowing between its terminals. It is equivalent
to an open-circuit or a broken wire or a
resistor of (or 0 S).

Superposition
4: Linearity and
Superposition
We can use nodal analysis to find X in terms of U , V and W .
Linearity Theorem
XU XV X
Zero-value sources
Superposition
KCL: 2 + 6 + 1 W =0
Superposition
Calculation 10X 3U V 6W = 0
Superposition and
dependent sources
Single Unknown X = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W
Source
Superposition and
Power
Proportionality
Summary
From the linearity theorem, we know anyway that X = aU + bV + cW so
all we need to do is find the values of a, b and c. We find each coefficient
in turn by setting all the other sources to zero:
We have XU = aU + b 0 + c 0 = aU .
Similarly, XV = bV and XW = cW X = XU + XV + XW .

Superposition Calculation
4: Linearity and
Superposition
Superposition:
Linearity Theorem
Zero-value sources Find the effect of each source on its own
Superposition
Superposition by setting all other sources to zero. Then
Calculation
add up the results.
Superposition and
dependent sources
Single Unknown
Source
Superposition and
6
Power 6
Proportionality
XU = 7
2+ 67
U= 20 U = 0.3U
Summary
2
2
XV = 3
6+ 32
V = 20 V = 0.1V
6 2 12
XW = 6+ 23
W 3 = 20 W = 0.6W
Adding them up: X = XU + XV + XW = 0.3U + 0.1V + 0.6W

Superposition and dependent sources
4: Linearity and
Superposition
A dependent source is one that is determined by the voltage and/or current
Linearity Theorem elsewhere in the circuit via a known equation. Here V , Y X.
Zero-value sources
Superposition
Superposition Step 1: Pretend all sources are independent
Calculation
Superposition and and use superposition to find expressions for
dependent sources
the node voltages:
Single Unknown
Source
Superposition and
X = 10 1
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 V
Power
Proportionality Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 21 V
Summary
Step 2: Express the dependent source values in terms of node voltages:
V =Y X
Step 3: Eliminate the dependent source values from the node voltage
equations:
X = 10 1 7 1 10
3 U1 + 2U2 + 6 (Y X) 6 X 6 Y = 3 U1 + 2U2
Y = 2U1 + 6U2 + 12 (Y X)) 21 X + 12 Y = 2U1 + 6U2
X = 3U1 + 3U2
Y = U1 + 9U2
Note: This is an alternative to nodal anlysis: you get the same answer.
Single Unknown Source
4: Linearity and
Superposition
Any current or voltage can be written X = a1 U1 + a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . ..
Linearity Theorem
Zero-value sources Using nodal analysis (slide 4-2) or else
Superposition
Superposition superposition:
Calculation
Superposition and
dependent sources
X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 .
Single Unknown
Source Suppose we know U2 = 6 mA, then
Superposition and
Power
Proportionality X = 31 U1 + 23 U2 = 13 U1 + 4.
Summary
If all the independent sources except for U1

have known fixed values, then
X = a1 U1 + b
where b = a2 U2 + a3 U3 + . . . .
This has a straight line graph.

Superposition and Power
4: Linearity and
Superposition
The power absorbed (or dissipated ) by a component always equals V I
Linearity Theorem where the measurement directions of V and I follow the passive sign
Zero-value sources
Superposition convention.
Superposition
V2
Calculation
Superposition and For a resistor V I = R = I 2 R.
dependent sources
Single Unknown
(U1 +U2 )2
Source
Superposition and
Power in resistor is P = 10 = 6.4 W
Power
Proportionality U12
Summary
Power due to U1 alone is P1 = 10 = 0.9 W
U22
Power due to U2 alone is P2 = 10 = 2.5 W
P 6= P1 + P2 Power does not obey superposition.

You must use superposition to calculate the total V and/or the total I and
then calculate the power.

Proportionality
P
4: Linearity and
Superposition
From the linearity theorem, all voltages and currents have the form ai Ui
Linearity Theorem where the Ui are the values of the independent sources.
Zero-value sources
Superposition
Superposition If you multiply all the independent sources by the same factor, k, then all
Calculation
Superposition and voltages and currents in the circuit will be multiplied by k.
dependent sources
Single Unknown
Source
The power dissipated in any component will be multiplied by k2 .
Superposition and
Power
Proportionality Special Case:
Summary
If there is only one independent source, U , then all voltages and currents
are proportional to U and all power dissipations are proportional to U 2 .

Summary
P
4: Linearity and
Superposition
Linearity Theorem: X = i ai Ui over all independent sources Ui
Linearity Theorem
Zero-value sources Superposition: sometimes simpler than nodal analysis, often more
Superposition
Superposition
insight.
Calculation Zero-value voltage and current sources
Superposition and
dependent sources Dependent sources - treat as independent and add dependency
Single Unknown
Source as an extra equation
Superposition and
Power If all sources are fixed except for U1 then all voltages and currents in
Proportionality
Summary the circuit have the form aU1 + b.
Power does not obey superposition.
Proportionality: multiplying all sources by k multiplies all voltages and
currents by k and all powers by k2 .

5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Equivalent Networks
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit
Properties
Determining
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of
Complicated Circuits
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer
Source
Transformation
5: Thvenin and Norton Equivalents
Source
Rearrangement
Series Rearrangement
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7087) Thevenin and Norton: 5 1 / 12

Equivalent Networks
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
From linearity theorem: V = aI + b.
Equivalent
Networks Use nodal analysis:
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit KCL@X: X1 6 + XV
2 =0
Properties
Determining V X
Thevenin Values KCL@V: 2 I =0
Thevenin of
Norton Equivalent
Eliminating X gives: V = 3I + 6.
Power Transfer
Source
There are infinitely many networks with the same values of a and b:
Transformation
Source
Rearrangement
Summary
These four shaded networks are equivalent because the relationship

between V and I is exactly the same in each case.
The last two are particularly simple and are respectively called the Norton
and Thvenin equivalent networks.

Thvenin Equivalent
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Thvenin Theorem: Any two-terminal network consisting of resistors, fixed
Equivalent Networks voltage/current sources and linear dependent sources is externally
Thvenin
Equivalent equivalent to a circuit consisting of a resistor in series with a fixed voltage
Thevenin Circuit
Properties source.
Determining
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of
We can replace the shaded part of the
Complicated Circuits circuit with its Thvenin equivalent
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer network.
Source
Transformation
Source The voltages and currents in the unshaded
Rearrangement
Series Rearrangement part of the circuit will be identical in both
Summary
circuits.
The new components are called the
Thvenin equivalent resistance, RT h , and
the Thvenin equivalent voltage, VT h , of
the original network.
This is often a useful way to simplify a complicated circuit (provided that

you do not want to know the voltages and currents in the shaded part).
Thevenin Circuit Properties
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
A Thvenin equivalent circuit has 1
Equivalent Networks a straight line characteristic with 0

Thvenin Equivalent
the equation:
I (mA)
Thevenin Circuit -1
Properties V = RT h I + VT h
Determining -2
Thevenin Values
1 VT h
Thevenin of
I= RT h V RT h
-3
-2 0 2
V (V)
4 6 8
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer Three important quantities are:
Source
Transformation
Source Open Circuit Voltage: If I = 0 then VOC = VT h . (X-intercept: o)
Rearrangement
Series Rearrangement VT h
Summary
Short Circuit Current: If V = 0 then ISC = R Th
(Y-intercept: x)
dI 1
Thvenin Resistance: The slope of the characteristic is dV = RT h .
If we know the value of any two of these three quantities, we can work out
VT h and RT h .
In any two-terminal circuit with the same characteristic, the three
quantities will have the same values. So if we can determine two of them,
we can work out the Thvenin equivalent.

Determining Thevenin Values
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
We need any two of the following:
Equivalent Networks
Thvenin Equivalent Open Circuit Voltage: VOC = VT h = 6 V
Thevenin Circuit
Properties VT h
Determining Short Circuit Current: ISC = R Th
= 2 mA
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of
Thvenin Resistance: RT h = 2 k + 1 k = 3 k
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer
Source
Transformation
Source
Rearrangement
Summary
Thvenin Resistance:
We set all the independent sources to zero (voltage sources short circuit,
current sources open circuit). Then we find the equivalent resistance
between the two terminals.
The 3 k resistor has no effect so RT h = 2 k + 1 k = 3 k.
Any measurement gives the same result on the equivalent circuit.

Thevenin of Complicated Circuits
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
For a complicated circuit, you can use
Equivalent Networks nodal analysis to find the Thvenin
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit equivalent directly in the form:
Properties
Determining
Thevenin Values V = VT h + IRT h .
Thevenin of
Complicated
Circuits
Norton Equivalent Step 1: Label ground as an output terminal + label other nodes.
Power Transfer
Source
Transformation Step 2: Write down the equations (Y is a supernode)
Source
Rearrangement XV X XY
Series Rearrangement 2 + 1 + 1 =0
Summary
Y 3V Y X Y 3
1 + 1 + 2 =0
V Y +3 V X
1 + 2 I =0
Step 3: Eliminate X and Y and
solve for V in terms of I:
V = 75 I 3
5 = RT h I + VT h

Norton Equivalent
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Norton Theorem: Any two-terminal network consisting of resistors, fixed
Equivalent Networks voltage/current sources and linear dependent sources is externally
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit equivalent to a circuit consisting of a resistor in parallel with a fixed current
Properties
Determining source.
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of
KCL: I IN O + RVT h = 0 1
Norton Equivalent
I = R1T h V IN O 0
Power Transfer
Source -1
Transformation
Source
c.f. Thvenin (slide 5-4): -2
VT h
Rearrangement
Same R and IN O = R Th -3
-2 0 2 4 6 8
Summary V (V)
Open Circuit Voltage: If I = 0 then VOC = IN O RT h .

Short Circuit Current: If V = 0 then ISC = IN O
1
Thvenin Resistance: The slope of the characteristic is RT h .
Easy to change between Norton and Thvenin: VT h = IN O RT h .

Usually best to use Thvenin for small RT h and Norton for high RT h
compared to the other impedances in the circuit.

Power Transfer
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Suppose we connect a variable resistor, RL , across a two-terminal network.
Equivalent Networks From Thvenins theorem, even a complicated network is equivalent to a
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit voltage source and a resistor.
Properties
Determining VT h
Thevenin Values We know I = RT h +RL
Thevenin of
2 VT2h RL
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer
power in RL is PL = I RL = (Rth +RL )2
Source
Transformation
Source To find the RL that maximizes PL :
Rearrangement
Summary
dPL (RT h +RL )2 VT2h 2VT2h RL (RT h +RL )
0= dRL = (RT h +RL )4
VT2h (RT h +RL )2VT2h RL

= (RT h +RL )3
VT2h ((RT h + RL ) 2RL ) = 0

VT2h
RL = RT h P(max) = 4RT h
For fixed RT h , the maximum power transfer is

when RL = RT h (matched load ).
Source Transformation
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Sometimes changing between Thvenin and Norton can simplify a circuit.
Equivalent Networks Suppose we want to calculate I.
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit
Properties
Determining
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer
Source 18(10)
Transformation Norton Thvenin: I = 5 = 5.6 A
Source
Rearrangement
Series Rearrangement Thvenin Norton:
Summary
Parallel resistors make current divider:
2 takes 53 of total current.
Superposition: From 6 A: I = 35 6 = 3.6 A.
From 5 A: I = 25 5 = 2 A.
So I = 3.6 + 2 = 5.6 A
If you cant spot any clever tricks, you can always find out everything with
nodal analysis.

Source Rearrangement
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
If all but one branches connecting to a node are voltage sources or are
Equivalent Networks current sources, you can choose any of the branches to be the sourceless
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit one.
Properties
Determining
Thevenin Values
Voltage Sources:
Thevenin of
Complicated Circuits We can use the left
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer node as the reference =
Source
Transformation
Source
Rearrangement
Summary
Current Sources:
KCL gives current into =
rightmost node

5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
If we have any number of voltage sources and resistors in series we can
Equivalent Networks calculate the total voltage across the chain as:
Thvenin Equivalent
Thevenin Circuit
Properties V = 8I 2 + 7I + 5 + 9I = (2 + 5) + (8 + 7 + 9)I
Determining
Thevenin Values
Thevenin of = 3 + 24I
Norton Equivalent
Power Transfer
Source
Transformation
Source
Rearrangement
Series
Rearrangement
We can arbitrarily
Summary rearrange the order of
the components
without affecting
V = 3 + 24I.
If we move all the voltage sources together and all the resistors together we
can merge them and then we get the Thvenin equivalent.

Summary
5: Thvenin and
Norton Equivalents
Thvenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent Networks
Thvenin Equivalent
How to determine VT h , IN O and RT h
Thevenin Circuit
Properties Method 1: Nodal analysis
Determining
Thevenin Values Method 2: Find any two of VOC = VT h , ISC = IN O , RT h
Thevenin of
Norton Equivalent
RT h is the equivalent resistance with all sources set to zero
Power Transfer
Source Ohms law is satisfied: VT h = IN O RT h
Transformation
Source
Rearrangement Load resistor for maximum power transfer = RT h
Summary Source Transformation and Rearrangement
For further details see Hayt et al. Chapter 5 & A3.

6: Operational
Amplifiers
Operational Amplifier
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
Differential Amplifier
Schmitt Trigger
6: Operational Amplifiers
Choosing Resistor
Values
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-6287) Operational Amplifiers: 6 1 / 12

6: Operational
Amplifiers
An op amp (operational amplifier) is a
Operational
Amplifier circuit with two inputs and one output.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp Y = A (V+ V )
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier The gain, A, is usually very large: e.g. A = 105 at low frequencies.
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier The input currents are very small: e.g. 1 nA.
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
Differential Amplifier Internally it is a complicated circuit with
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor
about 40 components, but we can forget
Values
Summary
about that and treat it as an almost
perfect dependent voltage source.
Integrated circuit pins are

numbered anti-clockwise from
blob or notch (when looking
from above).

Negative Feedback
6: Operational
Amplifiers
In a central heating system, if the temperature falls too low the thermostat
Operational Amplifier turns on the heating, when it rises the thermostat turns it off again.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp Negative feedback is when the occurence of an event causes something to
circuits
Non-inverting happen that counteracts the original event.
amplifier
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
If op-amp output Y falls then V will fall by
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
the same amount so (V+ V ) will increase.
Differential Amplifier This causes Y to rise since
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor Y = A (V+ V ).
Values
Summary Y = A (X Y )
1
Y (1 + A) = AX Y = 1+1/A X X for large A
Y
If Y = A(V+ V ) then V+ V = A which, since A 105 , is normally
very very small.
Golden Rule: Negative feedback adjusts the output to make V+ V .

Analysing op-amp circuits
6: Operational
Amplifiers
Nodal analysis is simplified by making some assumptions.
Negative Feedback Note: The op-amp needs two power supply
Analysing op-amp
circuits connections; usually +15 V and 15 V.
Non-inverting
amplifier These are almost always omitted from the
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
circuit diagram. The currents only sum to
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
zero (KCL) if all five connections are
Differential Amplifier included.
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor
Values 1. Check for negative feedback: to ensure that an increase in Y makes
Summary
(V+ V ) decrease, Y must be connected (usually via other
components) to V .
2. Assume V+ = V : Since (V+ V ) = YA , this is the same as assuming
that A = . Requires negative feedback.
3. Assume zero input current: in most circuits, the current at the op-amp
input terminals is much smaller than the other currents in the circuit,
so we assume it is zero.
4. Apply KCL at each op-amp input node separately (input currents = 0).
5. Do not apply KCL at output node (output current is unknown).

Non-inverting amplifier
6: Operational Y
Amplifiers Circuit has input voltage X and output voltage Y . The circuit gain , X.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp Applying steps 1 to 3:
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier 1. Negative feedback OK.
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Summing
2. V = V+ = X
Amplifier
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor
Values
3. Zero input current at V means R2 and R1 are in series
Summary ( same current) and form a voltage divider. So X = R1R+R
1
2
Y.

So Y = R1R+R
1
2
X = 1 + R2
R1 X = +4X.
Y
Non-inverting amplifier because the gain X is positive.
Consequence of X connecting to V+ input.
R2
Can have any gain 1 by choosing the ratio R 1
.
Cause/effect reversal: Potential divider causes V = 14 Y .
Feedback inverts this so that Y = 4V+ .

Voltage Follower
6: Operational
Amplifiers
A special case of the non-inverting amplifier
Operational Amplifier with R1 = and/or R2 = 0.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp R2
circuits Gain is 1 + R1 = 1.
Non-inverting
amplifier
Voltage Follower
Output Y follows input X.
Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Summing
Advantage: Can supply a large current at Y while drawing almost no
Amplifier
current from X. Useful if the source supplying X has a high resistance.
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor Without voltage follower: Y = 0.01U .
Values
Summary
With voltage follower: Y = U .
Although the voltage gain is only 1, the power gain is much larger.

Inverting Amplifier
6: Operational
Amplifiers
Negative feedback OK.
Negative Feedback Since V+ = 0, we must have V = 0.
Analysing op-amp
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier
Voltage Follower 0X 0Y R2
Inverting Amplifier KCL at V node: R1 + R2 =0 Y = R 1
X = 3X.
Inverting Summing
Amplifier Y
Differential Amplifier Inverting Amplifier because gain X is negative. Consequence of X
Schmitt Trigger connecting to the V input (via R1 ).
Choosing Resistor
R2
Values Can have any gain 0 by choosing the ratio R 1
.
Summary
Negative feedback holds V very close to V+ .

If V+ = 0 V, then V is called a virtual earth or virtual ground .
Nodal Analysis: Do KCL at V+ and/or V to solve circuit. When analysing
a circuit, you never do KCL at the output node of an opamp because its
output current is unknown. The only exception is if you have already solved
the circuit and you want to find out what the op amp output current is
(e.g. to check it is not too high).

Inverting Summing Amplifier
6: Operational
Amplifiers
We can connect several input signals to the
Operational Amplifier inverting amplifier.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp
circuits As before, V = 0 is a virtual earth due to
Non-inverting
amplifier negative feedback and V+ = 0.
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
Differential Amplifier KCL at V node: 0X
R 1
1
+ 0X2
R 2
+ 0X3
R3 +
0Y
RF =0
Schmitt Trigger

RF RF RF
Choosing Resistor Y = R1 X 1 + R2 X 2 + R3 X 3
Values
Summary Y = (8X1 + 4X2 + 4X3 ).
Y is a weighted sum of the input voltages with the weight of Xi equal to
RF
Ri = Gi RF .
Input Isolation: The current through R1 equals XR1 0

1
which is not affected
by X2 or X3 . Because V is held at a fixed voltage, the inputs are isolated
from each other.

6: Operational
Amplifiers
A 2-input circuit combining inverting
Operational Amplifier and non-inverting amplifiers.
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp
circuits
Non-inverting Linearity Z = aX + bY .
amplifier
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
Use superposition to find a and b.
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
Differential
Find a: Set Y = 0. KCL at V+ node V+ = 0. We now have an
Amplifier inverting amplifier, so Z = R
R1 X = 3X a = 3.
2
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor
Values Find b: Set X = 0. We can redraw circuit to make it look more familiar: a
Summary
potential divider followed by a non-inverting amplifier.
R3 and R4 are a potential divider (since current into V+ equals zero), so
V+ = R3R+R4
4
Y = 3
4Y .
The non-inverting amplifier has a gain of R1R+R1
2
= 4.
The combined gain is b = R3R+R 4
4
R1 +R2
R1 = 3
4 4 = +3.
Combining the two gives Z = 3 (Y X). The output of a differential

amplifier is proportional to the diffference between its two inputs.

Schmitt Trigger
6: Operational
Amplifiers
Positive feedback: If op-amp output Y rises then
Operational Amplifier (V+ V ) will increase. This causes Y to rise
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp even more up to its maximum value (e.g. +14 V).
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier If Y = +14 V, then V+ = 4. For any X < 4,
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
(V+ V ) > 0 so the output stays at +14 V.
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
If X > 4, then (V+ V ) < 0, Y will rapidly
Differential Amplifier switch to its minimum value (e.g. 14 V).
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor Now V+ = 4 and Y will only switch back to
Values
Summary
+14 when X falls below 4.
Negative feedback stabilizes the output to make

V+ V .
Positive feedback adjusts the output to maximize
|V+ V |. Output will switch between its
maximum and minimum values, e.g. 14 V
(slightly less than the 15 V power supplies).
Switching will happen when V+ = V .

Choosing Resistor Values
6: Operational
Amplifiers
The behaviour of an op-amp circuit depends on the ratio of resistor values:
Operational Amplifier gain = R2/R1 . How do you choose between 3 /1 , 3 k/1 k , 3 M/1 M
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp and 3 G/1 G?
circuits
Non-inverting
amplifier Small resistors cause large currents.
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
If X = 1 V, then Y = 3 V,
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
and so I = YR02
= 1 A.
Differential Amplifier However typical op-amps can only supply
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor 5 mA, so the circuit will not work.
Values
Summary Large resistors increase sensitivity to
interference and to op-amp input currents.
If the bias current into V is IB = 1 nA,
then KCL at V gives
0Y R2
R2 + 0X
R1 + I B = 0 Y = R1 X + IB R2 = 3X + 3
instead of Y = 3X.
Within wide limits, the absolute resistor values have little effect.
However you should avoid extremes.

Summary
6: Operational
Amplifiers
Ideal properties:
Operational Amplifier Zero input current
Negative Feedback
Analysing op-amp Infinite gain
circuits
Non-inverting Do not use KCL at output (except to determine output current).
amplifier
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback circuits:
Inverting Summing
Amplifier
Assume V+ = V and zero input current
Differential Amplifier Standard amplifier circuits:
Schmitt Trigger
Choosing Resistor
Non-inverting gain = 1 + R2/R1
Values
Summary
Inverting gain = R2/R1
Summing amplifier
Positive feedback circuits:
VOUT = Vmax (no good for an amplifier)
Schmitt Trigger: switches when V+ = V .
Choosing resistors: not too low or too high.

7: Negative
Feedback
Properties
Block Diagram
Solving Block
Diagrams
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback
Examples
Benefits of Negative
Feedback
Gain Stabilization
Distortion Reduction
Interference Rejection
7: Negative Feedback Properties
Cause/Effect
Inversion
Instability
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7224) Negative Feedback Properties: 7 1 / 12

Block Diagram
7: Negative Feedback
Properties
In the non-inverting op amp circuit we take a
Block Diagram fraction of the output signal, Y , and subtract it
Solving Block
Diagrams from the input signal, X.
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback
Examples
We can represent this using a block diagram:
Feedback
A = YE : the gain of the op amp
Gain Stabilization B= W Y = 1
4 : gain of the feedback path
Cause/Effect
The + and signs indicate that the feedback is
Inversion
Instability
subtracted from X to give an error signal, E.
Summary
A gain block has one input and one output

(indicated here by an arrow): V = A U
An adder block many inputs and one output. The
signs indicate whether each input is added or
subtracted: Q = P1 + P2 P3
Normally, inputs are on the left and outputs are on the right.
Solving Block Diagrams
Properties
Label inputs, output and adder outputs
Block Diagram
Solving Block
Diagrams
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback
Examples Write down equations for the output and all adder outputs
Feedback Y = AE
Gain Stabilization
E = X BY
Interference Rejection Do not use Kichoffs law in block diagrams.
Cause/Effect
Inversion
Instability Solve the equations by eliminating unwanted variables
Summary
Y = AE= A (X BY )= AX ABY
Y A
Y (1 + AB) = AX X = 1+AB
AB is called the loop gain of the circuit. If you

break the loop at any point and inject a signal
after the break, this will cause the other side of the
break to change by AB.

Inverting Amplifier
Properties
Sometimes we have an additional block at the
Block Diagram input shown here as C.
Solving Block
Diagrams We see that E = CX BY and, as before,
Inverting Amplifier
Y = AE
Negative Feedback
Y CA
Examples
eliminating E : X = 1+AB = A1C+B B C
.
Feedback Y
Gain Stabilization X equals the forward gain, CA, divided by the loop gain plus one.
Cause/Effect
Inverting Amplifier
Inversion
Instability Error signal is E , V+ V
Summary
Hence V+ = 0 V = E
Op-amp output is Y = AE where A 105 is
the op-amp gain.
Use superposition, nodal analysis or weighted average formula to find an
expression for E in terms of X and Y :
1 1
1 X+ 3 Y
E = 1 1 = 34 X + 14 Y = (CX BY )
1+3
Y C
Hence C = 43 and B = + 41 and X B = 3
Negative Feedback Examples
Properties
Central Heating:
Block Diagram X: Desired temperature
Solving Block
Diagrams Y : Actual room temperature
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback
A: Rather complicated system of
Examples boiler and radiators
Feedback
Gain Stabilization Steam Engine Governor:
Interference Rejection X: Desired Speed
Cause/Effect
Inversion Y : Actual Speed
Instability
Summary
A: Rotational speed causes weights to fly apart
(centrifugal force) which adjusts the steam
supply via a throttle valve.
Many Other Examples:

Economics: Demand Price Supply Supply=Demand
Biology: More rabbits Not enough food Less rabbits Enough food

Benefits of Negative Feedback
Properties
1) Gain Stabilization
Block Diagram
Solving Block The gain of a feedback system is almost entirely determined by the
Diagrams
Inverting Amplifier feedback path and not by the gain of the amplification path. This means
Negative Feedback
Examples
that you can get predictable gains even when the gain of the
Benefits of
Negative Feedback amplification path is unknown or time-varying.
Gain Stabilization
Distortion Reduction 2) Distortion Reduction
Cause/Effect
Inversion
High power amplifiers are often non-linear, e.g. their gain decreases at
Instability high signal amplitudes. Since the gain of a feedback system does not
Summary
depend much on the gain of the amplification path, the non-linearity has
little effect.
3) Interference Rejection
External disturbances have little effect on the output of a feedback
system because the feedback adjusts to compensate for them.

Gain Stabilization
7: Negative Feedback Y A 1
Properties Gain is X = 1+AB = A +B
1
Block Diagram
Solving Block Y 1
Diagrams If A is very large then X B and the precise value
Inverting Amplifier of A makes no difference.
Negative Feedback
Examples
Benefits of Negative very large means A1 B A B1 . So as long as A is much larger
Feedback
Gain Stabilization than the desired gain, its actual value does not matter.
For an op amp A 105 at low frequencies but less at high frequencies.
Cause/Effect
Inversion
Instability
Motor Speed Control:
Summary A is the gain of the amplifier and motor
(units = rotation speed per volt = rad.s1 V 1 ).
A cannot be precisely known: it depends on
mechanical load and friction.
However this is OK so long as it is large enough.
We can sense the motor speed using gear-teeth and
a magnetic (Hall effect) sensor together with a
circuit that converts frequency to voltage.

Properties
If A includes a high-power amplifier and/or 20
y(u)
Block Diagram a mechanical system (e.g. a motor) it is 10
y(x)
Solving Block
Diagrams almost always non-linear. 0
Inverting Amplifier -10
Negative Feedback
y = 15x 2x3 : gain decreases at high |x| -20
Examples -1 0 1
x,u
Feedback x = sin t y = 15 sin t 2 sin3 t 20
Gain Stabilization
Distortion y = 13.5 sin t + 0.5 sin 3t 13.5x(t)
Reduction 10 y(t)
Interference Rejection The gain is only 13.5 instead of 15 Error
0
Cause/Effect
Inversion
and harmonic distortion is added at a
-10
Instability multiple of the original frequency.
Summary -20
The total harmonic distortion (THD) 0 5
Time
10 15
0.52
is equal to 13.52 = 0.14%.
Use feedback to reduce distortion

Put in feedback loop with 100 gain,
A = YE = 100 XY 1
and B = 15
Y 1
Even though A depends on the signal amplitude, the gain is U B = 15.

[Trigonometrical Identities]
The easiest way to derive trigonometrical identities is to use De Moivres theorem

cos 3t + i sin 3t = (cos t + i sin t)3 = cos3 t + 3i sin t cos2 t 3 sin2 t cos t i sin3 t.
Taking the imaginary part of both sides gives

3 sin t cos2 sin3 sin2 t sin3 t = 3 sin t 4 sin3 t

sin 3t = t t = 3 sin t 1
and hence
3 1
sin3 t = 4
sin t 4
sin 3t.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7224) Negative Feedback Properties: 7 note 1 of slide 8

Properties
The amplifier output, Y , is affected by interference, Z.
Block Diagram Y = average of 4X and Z weighted by conductances:
Solving Block 1
Diagrams RO 4X+ R1 Z 1
Inverting Amplifier
Y = 1
+ R1
Z
= 3.996X + 1001 Z
RO Z
Negative Feedback
Examples Z is often much bigger than X (e.g. mains @ 230V).
Feedback
RO is amplifier output resistance.
Gain Stabilization
Distortion Reduction Use feedback to reject interference
Interference
Rejection 5 Y

Cause/Effect Opamp gain = A 10 X = A U 4
Inversion 1
4X+ R1 Z+ 4k
1
0
RO 1
Instability Y = 1 1
Z
1
+ R + 4k
= 3.899X + 1026 Z
Summary RO Z
1
Eliminate X: Y = 4U + 100001026 Z
Interference reduced by the loop gain 105 .
Interference includes any external influence that

may affect the output.
E.g. the mechanical load changing on a motor or
an opened window in a heating system.

Cause/Effect Inversion
7: Negative Feedback Y A 1 1
Properties Gain is X = 1+AB = A +B
1 B
Block Diagram
Solving Block
Diagrams
If multiplying by B is easier than dividing by B, use
Inverting Amplifier feedback to multiply by B1 .
Negative Feedback
Examples
Benefits of Negative Division Circuit
Feedback
Gain Stabilization
Multiplier circuit is quite easy to make: T = P Q
Cause/Effect Use in feedback loop to give Y = X
P
Inversion
Instability P must be +ve to ensure negative feedback.
Summary
Phase Lock Loop
Easy to make a voltage controlled
oscillator with fO = k v
R
Phase comparator output is v (fIN fO ) dt so v increases whenever
fO < fIN and decreases when fO > fIN . When v reaches equilibrium, we
must have fO = fIN so v = k1 fIN .
We have generated a voltage proportional to the input frequency.
Used in FM radios and in many other circuits.
Instability
Properties
The biggest problem of feedback systems is the
Block Diagram possibility of instability.
Solving Block
Diagrams Y A
Inverting Amplifier Gain is X = 1+AB . We have four cases:
Negative Feedback
Examples Y
Benefits of Negative AB > 0 Normal: X B1 < A
Feedback Y
Gain Stabilization
1 < AB < 0 Increased Gain: X >A
Y
Distortion Reduction AB = 1 X =
Cause/Effect
Inversion
AB < 1 Usually saturates or oscillates if AB > 0 at DC
Instability
Summary Delays are Death
For a sine wave, a delay anywhere within the loop of
half a period (e.g. 0.5 ms for 1 kHz) is the same as
multiplying by 1. At this frequency the loop gain,
AB, is large and negative so the system becomes
unstable and oscillates.
Quite a common problem: steering a boat, walking
when drunk, balancing a stick. Science made simple

Summary
Properties
Why negative feedback is wonderful:
Block Diagram The gain is fixed by the feedback B and A does not matter as long
Solving Block
Diagrams as it is big enough.
Inverting Amplifier
Negative Feedback
It makes no difference if A varies with time or with signal amplitude
Examples
(i.e. A is non-linear)
Feedback The effect of external interference at the output is reduced by the
Gain Stabilization
Distortion Reduction loop
Cause/Effect
gain, AB.
Inversion If making a gain B is easy, you can use feedback to make B 1 .
Instability
Summary
The one thing that can go wrong:
Phase lags or delays can make a feedback system unstable
(oscillate).
Must make sure the loop gain falls below 1 before the phase shift
reaches 180 .

8: Nonlinear
Components
Ideal Diode
Operating regions
Switching Point
Bridge Rectifier
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier
Precision Halfwave
Rectifier
Summary
8: Nonlinear Components
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-6713) Nonlinear Components: 8 1 / 9

Ideal Diode
8: Nonlinear
Components
The characteristic of a component is a
Ideal Diode plot of I against V using the passive
Operating regions
Switching Point sign convention.
Bridge Rectifier
Non-Ideal Diode All our components have had
Halfwave Rectifier
Precision Halfwave straight-line characteristics.
Rectifier
Summary
An ideal diode allows current to flow in one

direction only.
Its characteristic is not a straight line, but is
made from two straight line segments:
piecewise-linear . Each segment is a region of
operation.
Each region applies only when a particular condition is true:
Region Condition Equation

Forward Bias (on) I>0 V =0
Reverse Bias (off) V <0 I=0

Operating regions
8: Nonlinear
Components
To analyse a circuit with a diode in it, you first guess which region it is
Ideal Diode operating in, solve the circuit and then check the condition.
Operating regions
Switching Point If you guessed wrongly, the condition will not be met.
Bridge Rectifier
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier Region Condition Equation
Precision Halfwave
Rectifier Forward Bias (on) I>0 VD = 0
Summary Reverse Bias (off) VD < 0 I=0
Voltage across diode is VD = U X.

Current through diode is I = X2 mA.
Assume Forward Bias VD = 0
VD = 0 X = U = 6 I = 3
but condition is I > 0 so bad guess
Assume Reverse Bias I = 0

I = 0 X = 2I = 0 VD = U X = 6
condition is VD < 0 so good guess
Current flows from anode to cathode.

Switching Point
8: Nonlinear
Components
How does X change with U ?
Ideal Diode
Operating regions Voltage across diode is VD = Y 3.
Switching Point
Current through diode is ID = XY mA.
Bridge Rectifier 1
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier Assume Forward Bias Y = 3
Precision Halfwave
Rectifier XU
Summary KCL: 4 + X3
1 + X
4 =0
X = 61 U + 2
1
ID = X3
1 = 6U 1
ID >0 U >6
Assume Reverse Bias ID = 0 4
Potential Div: X = Y = 21 U 2
VD = Y 3 = 12 U 3 0
VD < 0 U < 6 0 5 10
U (Volts)
Diode switches between regions where the graphs intersect (U = 6).

At this point both the diode equations, VD = 0 and ID = 0, are true.

Bridge Rectifier
8: Nonlinear
Components
Bridge Rectifier: 4 diodes:
Ideal Diode D1 and D2 both point towards node X.
Operating regions
Switching Point D3 and D4 both point away from ground.
Bridge Rectifier
The input voltage is U = B A.
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier
Precision Halfwave
Rectifier
Case 1: U > 0. D1 ,D4 on X = U
U
Summary Check D1 , D4 : I1 = I4 = I = 100 >0
Check D2 , D3 : V2 = V3 = U < 0
All diodes OK
Case 2: U < 0. D2 ,D3 on X = U Note: In ,Vn apply to diode n
Check D2 , D3 : I2,3 = I = U
100 > 0
1
Check D1 , D4 : V1 = V4 = U < 0
0
All diodes OK
-1
0 5 10 15
X is always equal to |U |: this is an absolute Time
1
value circuit.
0
If U is a sine wave, then X is a full-wave -1

0 5 10 15
rectified sine wave with twice the frequency. Time

Non-Ideal Diode
8: Nonlinear
Components
An ideal diode allows has V = 0 20
Ideal Diode whenever it is on.

Operating regions 10
Switching Point
Bridge Rectifier
Non-Ideal Diode 0
Halfwave Rectifier -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Precision Halfwave V (Volts)
Rectifier
Summary A real diode has a voltage drop that depends approximately logarithmically
on the current: it increases by about 0.1 V for every 50-fold increase in
current.
For a wide range of currents we can treat V as almost constant:
(a) For low-current circuits (e.g I < 20 mA): V 0.7 V.
(b) For high-current circuits: V 1.0 V.
The two regions of operation are now:
Region Condition Equation

Forward Bias (on) I>0 V = 0.7
Reverse Bias (off) V < 0.7 I=0

Halfwave Rectifier
8: Nonlinear
Components
A halfwave rectifier aims for X = max(U, 0)
Ideal Diode
Operating regions (a) U > 0.7
Switching Point U0.7
Bridge Rectifier Diode on, X = U 0.7, I = 2k >0
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier (b) U < 0.7
Precision Halfwave
Rectifier Diode off, I = 0, X = 0, VD = U < 0.7
Summary
We actually have X = max(U 0.7, 0)

(1) u(t) = 20 sin t 20
The 0.7 V drop makes little

0
difference.
-20
(2) u(t) = sin t 0 5 10 15 20
Time
The 0.7 V drop makes a big 1
difference.
0
-1
0 5 10 15 20
Time

Precision Halfwave Rectifier
8: Nonlinear
Components
Both op-amps have negative feedback, so A = B = 0.
Ideal Diode Second op-amp is an inverting amplifier so X = Y .
Operating regions
Switching Point
Bridge Rectifier Case 1: U > 0. D2 on W = Y 0.7
Non-Ideal Diode
Halfwave Rectifier
KCL @ A: 0U 0Y
10 + 10 = 0
Precision Halfwave Y = U
Rectifier
Summary KCL @ Y: Y100
+ Y10
0
+ I2 = 0
I2 = U5 > 0
Check D1 : V1 = U 0.7 < 0.7
Both diodes OK Note: In ,Vn apply to diode n
Output: X = Y = U
So X = max(U, 0)
Case 2: U < 0. D1 on W = 0.7
KCL @ Y: Y100
+ Y10
0
=0Y =0 Putting diodes in a feedback
KCL @ A: 0U 00 loop allows their voltage
10 + 10 + I1 = 0
U drops to be eliminated.
I1 = 10 >0
Check D2 : V2 = Y W = 0.7 < 0.7
Both diodes OK
Output: X = Y = 0

Summary
8: Nonlinear
Components
Beware: a nonlinear circuit does not obey superposition
Ideal Diode
Operating regions Ideal diode:
Switching Point
Bridge Rectifier Two regions of operation:
Non-Ideal Diode Forward Bias ( = on): V = 0 and I > 0
Halfwave Rectifier
Precision Halfwave Reverse Bias ( = off): I = 0 and V < 0
Rectifier
Summary
Solving a diode circuit:
(a) Guess region
(b) Solve circuit: assuming V = 0 or I = 0
(c) Check condition: either I > 0 or V < 0
Real diode: V 0.7 in forward bias ( 1.0 for high currents)
Fullwave and halfwave rectifier circuits
Precision Rectifier Circuit
Use an opamp to eliminate the 0.7 V diode drop.

9: Capacitors and
Inductors
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor
Inductors
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
Current/Voltage
Continuity
Average
Current/Voltage
9: Capacitors and Inductors
Buck Converter
Power and Energy
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7150) Capacitors and Inductors: 9 1 / 12

Capacitors
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
A capacitor is formed from two conducting plates separated by a thin
Capacitors insulating layer.
Types of Capacitor
Inductors
Passive Components If a current i flows, positive change, q, will
Series and Parallel
Inductors
accumulate on the upper plate. To preserve
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
charge neutrality, a balancing negative charge
Current/Voltage will be present on the lower plate.
Continuity
Average
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
Power and Energy There will be a potential energy difference (or voltage v) between the plates
Summary
proportional to q.
d
v = A q where A is the area of the plates, d is their separation and is the
permittivity of the insulating layer (0 = 8.85 pF/m for a vacuum).
A
The quantity C = d is the capacitance and is measured in Farads (F),
hence q = Cv.
The current, i, is the rate of charge on the plate, hence the
capacitor equation: i = dq dv
dt = C dt .

Types of Capacitor
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
Capacitor symbol represents the two separated
Capacitors plates. Capacitor types are distinguished by the
Types of Capacitor
Inductors material used as the insulator.
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel Polystyrene: Two sheets of foil separated by a
Capacitors
Current/Voltage thin plastic film and rolled up to save space.
Continuity
Average
Values: 10 pF to 1 nF.
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
Power and Energy
Ceramic: Alternate layers of metal and ceramic
Summary (a few m thick). Values: 1 nF to 1 F.
Electrolytic: Two sheets of aluminium foil

separated by paper soaked in conducting
electrolyte. The insulator is a thin oxide layer
on one of the foils. Values: 1 F to 10 mF.
Electrolytic capacitors are polarised: the foil with the oxide layer must
always be at a positive voltage relative to the other (else explosion).
Negative terminal indicated by a curved plate in symbol or -.

Inductors
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
Inductors are formed from coils of wire, often
Capacitors around a steel or ferrite core.
Types of Capacitor
Inductors
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel The magnetic flux within the coil is = Nl A i where N is the number of
Capacitors
Current/Voltage turns, A is the cross-sectional area of the coil and l is the length of the coil
Continuity
Average (around the toroid).
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
Power and Energy
is a property of the material that the core is made from and is called its
Summary permeability . For free space (or air): 0 = 4 107 = 1.26 H/m, for
steel, 40000 = 5 mH/m.
d N 2 A di di
From Faradays law: v = N dt = l dt = L dt .
N 2 A
We measure the inductance, L = l , in Henrys (H).

Passive Components
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
We can describe all three types of passive component by the relationship
Capacitors between V and I using, in each case, the passive sign convention.
Types of Capacitor
Inductors
Passive Resistor: v = Ri
Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
Current/Voltage
Continuity
di
Average Inductor: v = L dt
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
Power and Energy
Summary
Capacitor: i = C dv
dt
Notes: (1) There are no minus signs anywhere whatever you were taught at
school.
(2) We use lower case, v, for time-varying voltages.

Series and Parallel Inductors
9: Capacitors and di di
Inductors v = v1 + v2 = L1 dt + L2 dt
Capacitors di
Types of Capacitor
= (L1 + L2 ) dt
Inductors
Passive Components Same equation as a single inductor of value L1 + L2
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
Current/Voltage
Continuity
Average
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter di d(i1 +i2 ) di1 di2
Power and Energy dt = dt = dt + dt
Summary
v v 1 1
= L1 + L2 = v L1 + L2
1 di
v= 1 1 dt
L +L
1 2
1 L1 L2
Same as a single inductor of value 1
+ L1
= L1 +L2
L1 2
Inductors combine just like resistors.

Series and Parallel Capacitors
9: Capacitors and
Inductors i = i1 + i2 = C1 dv
dt + C 2
dv
dt
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor
Inductors
= (C1 + C2 ) dv
dt
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
Current/Voltage
Continuity
Same equation as a single capacitor of value C1 + C2
Average
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter dv d(v1 +v2 ) dv1 dv2
Power and Energy dt = dt = dt + dt
Summary
i i 1 1
= C1 + C2 =i C1 + C2
1 dv
i= 1
+C1 dt
C1 2
1 C1 C2
Same as a single capacitor of value 1
+ C1
= C1 +C2
C1 2
Capacitors combine just like conductances (i.e. parallel capacitors add).

Current/Voltage Continuity
9: Capacitors and
Inductors Capacitor: i = C dv
dt
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor For the voltage to change abruptly
Inductors
Passive Components dv
Series and Parallel dt = i = .
Inductors
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
This never happens so ...
Current/Voltage
Continuity The voltage across a capacitor never changes instantaneously.
Average
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
Informal version: A capacitor tries to keep its voltage constant.
Power and Energy
Summary
di
Inductor: v = L dt
For the current to change abruptly
di
dt = v = .
This never happens so ...
The current through an inductor never changes instantaneously.
Informal version: An inductor tries to keep its current constant.

Average Current/Voltage
9: Capacitors and
Inductors For a capacitor i = C dv
dt . Take the average of both sides:
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor 1
R t2 1
R t2 dv C
R v(t2 )
Inductors t2 t1 t1 idt = t2 t1 t1 C dt dt = t2 t1 v(t1 ) dv
Passive Components
Series and Parallel C v(t ) C
Inductors = t2 t1 [v]v(t12 ) = t2 t1 (v(t2 ) v(t1 ))
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
Current/Voltage
Continuity
(1) If v(t1 ) = v(t2 ) then the average
Average current exactly equals zero.
Current/Voltage
Buck Converter (2) If v is bounded then the average current
Power and Energy
Summary
0 as (t2 t1 ) .
The average current through a capacitor is zero and, likewise, the average
voltage across an inductor is zero. The circuit symbols remind you of this.
Average can either be over an exact number of periods of a repetitive
waveform or else the long-term average (provided v and i remain bounded).
v is bounded means |v| always stays less than a predefined maximum
value.

Buck Converter
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
[Do not memorize this circuit]
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor
A buck converter converts a high
Inductors voltage, V , into a lower one, Y .
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors The switch, S, closes for a fraction a
Series and Parallel
Capacitors of the time. a is the duty cycle and
Current/Voltage
Continuity
is 31 in this example.
Average
Current/Voltage When S is closed, x = v, and a
Buck Converter
Power and Energy current iL flows.
Summary
When S opens, the current iL cannot
change instantly and so it must
flow through the diode (we
assume the diode is ideal).
The average value of x is aV the average value of y must also be aV .
The average current through R is aV
R so, since the average current through
C must be zero, the average current iL must also be aV
R .
C dy
dt = iL iR if C is large, then the variations in y will be very small.

Power and Energy
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
Electrical power absorbed by any component at the instant t is v(t) i(t).
Capacitors R t2
Types of Capacitor So total energy absorbed between times t1 and t2 is W = t=t1 vi dt.
Inductors
Passive Components
Series and Parallel
Inductors
For a capacitor i = C dv
dt , so
Series and Parallel
Capacitors
R t2 dv
R v(t2 )
Current/Voltage W = C t=t1 v dt dt= C v=v(t1 ) vdv
Continuity
Average
2 v(t2 )
1 1 2 2

Current/Voltage
Buck Converter
=C 2 v v(t1 )
= 2C v (t2 ) v (t1 )
Power and Energy
Summary
If v(t1 ) = v(t2 ) then there has been no nett
energy absorbed: all the energy absorbed
when the voltage rises is returned to the
circuit when it falls.
The energy stored in a capacitor is 12 Cv 2 and likewise in an inductor 12 Li2 .

If v and i remain bounded, then the average power absorbed by a capacitor
or inductor is always zero.

Summary
9: Capacitors and
Inductors
Capacitor:
Capacitors
Types of Capacitor
i = C dvdt
Inductors
Passive Components
parallel capacitors add in value
Series and Parallel
Inductors average i is zero, v never changes instantaneously.
Series and Parallel
Capacitors average power absorbed is zero
Current/Voltage
Continuity
Average Inductor:
Current/Voltage
di
Buck Converter v = L dt
Power and Energy
Summary series inductors add in value (like resistors)
average v is zero, i never changes instantaneously.
average power absorbed is zero

10: Sine waves
and phasors
Sine Waves
Rotating Rod
Phasors
Phasor Examples
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances
Phasor Analysis
CIVIL
Impedance and
Admittance
Summary 10: Sine waves and phasors
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2016-7732) Phasors: 10 1 / 11

Sine Waves
10: Sine waves and

phasors For inductors and capacitors i = C dv
dt and v = L di
dt so we need to
Sine Waves
differentiate i(t) and v(t) when analysing circuits containing them.
Rotating Rod
Phasors
Phasor Examples Usually differentiation changes the 1
Phasor arithmetic 0
Complex Impedances shape of a waveform. -1
0 1 2 3 4
Phasor Analysis t
CIVIL For bounded waveforms there is 5
Impedance and 0
Admittance only one exception: -5
Summary 0 1 2 3 4
t
v(t) = sin t dv
dt = cos t
1
v(t)
0
same shape but with a time shift. -1
0 5 10 15
t
sin t completes one full period every 1
dv/dt
0
time t increases by 2. -1
0 5 10 15
t
sin 2f t makes f complete repetitions every time t increases by 1; this

gives a frequency of f cycles per second, or f Hz.
We often use the angular frequency , = 2f instead.
is measured in radians per second. E.g. 50 Hz 314 rad.s1 .

Rotating Rod
10: Sine waves and

phasors
A useful way to think of a cosine wave is as the
Sine Waves projection of a rotating rod onto the horizontal axis.
Rotating Rod
Phasors
Phasor Examples For a unit-length rod, the projection has length cos .
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances If the rod is rotating at a speed of f revolutions per
Phasor Analysis
CIVIL second, then increases uniformly with time:
Impedance and
Admittance = 2f t.
Summary
The only difference between cos and sin is the starting position of the rod:
1 1
0 0
-1 -1
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
t t

v = cos 2f t v = sin 2f t = cos 2f t 2
sin 2f t lags cos 2f t by 90 (or 2 radians) because its peaks occurs 1

4 of
a cycle later (equivalently cos leads sin) .

Phasors
10: Sine waves and

phasors
If the rod has length A and starts at an angle then the projection onto
Sine Waves the horizontal axis is
Rotating Rod
Phasors
A cos (2f t + )
Phasor Examples
Phasor arithmetic = A cos cos 2f t A sin sin 2f t
Complex Impedances
Phasor Analysis = X cos 2f t Y sin 2f t
CIVIL
Impedance and
Admittance
At time t = 0, the tip of the rod has coordinates
Summary (X, Y ) = (A cos , A sin ).
If we think of the plane as an Argand Diagram (or complex plane), then the
complex number X + jY corresponding to the tip of the rod at t = 0 is
called a phasor .

The magnitude of the phasor, A = X 2 + Y 2 , gives the amplitude (peak
value) of the sine wave.
Y
The argument of the phasor, = arctan X , gives the phase shift relative
to cos 2f t.
If > 0, it is leading and if < 0, it is lagging relative to cos 2f t.

Phasor Examples
10: Sine waves and

phasors
V = 1, f = 50 Hz 1
Sine Waves v(t) = cos 2f t 0
Rotating Rod -1
0 0.02 0.04 0.06
Phasors t
Phasor Examples V = j 1
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances v(t) = sin 2f t 0
-1
Phasor Analysis 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
CIVIL t
Impedance and
Admittance
V = 1 0.5j = 1.12 153
Summary v(t) = cos 2f t + 0.5 sin 2f t
= 1.12 cos (2f t 2.68)
V = X + jY V = A = Aej
v(t) = X cos 2f t Y sin 2f t v(t) = A cos (2f t + )
Beware minus sign.
A phasor represents an entire waveform (encompassing all time) as a single
complex number. We assume the frequency, f , is known.
A phasor is not time-varying, so we use a capital letter: V .
A waveform is time-varying, so we use a small letter: v(t).
Casio: Pol(X, Y ) A, , Rec(A, ) X, Y . Saved X & Y mems.
[Algebraic PhasorWaveform Mapping]
A phasor is a complex number, V , that uniquely defines a waveform, v(t), via the mapping V =
Aej v(t) = A cos (2f t + ). It is sometimes conveninet to give an algebraic formula for this.
For the direction V v(t) the mapping is easy:
1
v(t) = V ej2f t = (V + V ) cos 2f t + 21 j (V V ) sin 2f t.

2
The reverse mapping, V v(t) is a bit more complicated and we use a technique that you will also
use in the Maths of Fourier transforms. The mapping is given by
Z 1
f
V = 2f v(t)ej2f t dt.
0
To confrm that this is true, we can substitute v(t) = A cos (2f t + ) and do the integration:
Z 1 Z 1
f f

j2f t j(2f t+j j2f tj
2f v(t)e dt = Af e +e ej2f t dt
0 0
Z 1 Z 1
f f

= Af ej + ej4f tj dt = Aej + Af ej ej4f t dt
0 0
Af ej j4f t
h i1 Af ej j4
j f j
1 = Aej

= Ae + e = Ae + e
j4f 0 j4f
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2016-7732) Phasors: 10 note 1 of slide 5

Phasor arithmetic
10: Sine waves and

phasors
Phasors Waveforms
Sine Waves
Rotating Rod V = X + jY v(t) = X cos t Y sin t
Phasors
Phasor Examples where = 2f .
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances aV a v(t) = aX cos t aY sin t
Phasor Analysis
CIVIL
Impedance and V1 + V2 v1 (t) + v2 (t)
Admittance
Summary
Adding or scaling is the same for waveforms and phasors.
dv
dt = X sin t Y cos t
V = (Y ) + j (X) = (Y ) cos t (X) sin t
= j (X + jY )
= jV
Differentiating waveforms corresponds to multiplying
phasors by j.
Rotate anti-clockwise 90 and scale by = 2f .

Complex Impedances
10: Sine waves and

phasors
Resistor:
Sine Waves
V
Rotating Rod v(t) = Ri(t) V = RI I =R
Phasors
Phasor Examples
Phasor arithmetic
Complex
Impedances Inductor:
Phasor Analysis
di V
CIVIL
Impedance and
v(t) = L dt V = jLI I = jL
Admittance
Summary
Capacitor:
i(t) = C dv
dt I = jCV V
I = 1
jC
For all three components, phasors obey Ohms law if we use the complex
1
impedances jL and jC as the resistance of an inductor or capacitor.
If all sources in a circuit are sine waves having the same frequency, we can
do circuit analysis exactly as before by using complex impedances.

Phasor Analysis
10: Sine waves and

phasors
Given v = 10 sin t where = 2 1000, find
Sine Waves vC (t).
Rotating Rod
Phasors
Phasor Examples (1) Find capacitor complex impedance
1 1
Phasor arithmetic Z = jC = 6.28j104 = 1592j
Complex Impedances
Phasor Analysis
CIVIL
Impedance and
Admittance (2) Solve circuit with phasors 10
v
R
Z vC
Summary
VC = V R+Z vR
0
1592j
= 10j
C
10001592j
= 4.5 7.2j = 8.47 122 -10
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
vC = 8.47 cos (t 122 ) t (ms)
(3) Draw a phasor diagram showing KVL:

V = 10j
VC = 4.5 7.2j
VR = V VC = 4.5 2.8j = 5.3 32
Phasors add like vectors

[Differential Equation Analysis]
To solve the problem form the previous slide without using phasors, we define i to be the current flowing
clockwise and use the capacitor equation i = C dv C
dt
.
From KVL, we have v = vR + vC = iR + vC .
dv di 1
Differentiating and applying the capacitor equation gives dt
= 10 cos t = R dt + C
i.
We need to find the particular integral for the above equation. To do so, we guess that the answer will
be of the form i = A cos t + B sin t and substitute it into the equation (multiplied by C).
10C cos t = RC (A sin t + B cos t) + (A cos t + B sin t)

= (A + RCB) cos t + (B RCA) sin t
which gives two siultaneous equations: A + RCB = 10C and RCA + B = 0. Substituting
values for R, C and gives A + 0.628B = 0.00628 and 0.628A + B = 0. Solving these simultaneous
equations gives A = 4.5 mA and B = 2.8 mA.
The resistor voltage is therefore vR = iR = 4.5 cos t + 2.8 sin t and therefore, from KVL, the
capacitor votage is vC = v vR = 4.5 cos t + 7.2 sin t.
Thus we get the same answer as using phasors but with more work even for a simple circuit like this.
For more complicated circuits the difference is much much bigger.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2016-7732) Phasors: 10 note 1 of slide 8

CIVIL
10: Sine waves and

phasors Capacitors: i = C dv
dt I leads V
Sine Waves
di
Rotating Rod Inductors: v = L dt V leads I
Phasors
Phasor Examples Mnemonic: CIVIL = In a capacitor I lead V but V leads I in an inductor.
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances
Phasor Analysis
CIVIL
COMPLEX ARITHMETIC TRICKS:
Impedance and
Admittance (1) j j = j j = 1
Summary
(2) 1j = j
(3) a + jb = r = rej
where r = a2 + b2 and = arctan ab (180 if a < 0)
(4) r = rej = (r cos ) + j (r sin )
a
(5) a b = ab ( + ) and b = ab ( ).
Multiplication and division are much easier in polar form.
(6) All scientific calculators will convert rectangular to/from polar form.
Casio fx-991 (available in all exams except Maths) will do complex
arithmetic (+, , , , x2 , x1 , |x|, x ) in CMPLX mode.
Learn how to use this: it will save lots of time and errors.

Impedance and Admittance
10: Sine waves and

phasors
For any network (resistors+capacitors+inductors):
Sine Waves
Rotating Rod (1) Impedance = Resistance + j Reactance
Phasors
Phasor Examples Z = R + jX ()
Phasor arithmetic
Complex Impedances
|Z|2 = R2 + X 2 Z = arctan X
R
Phasor Analysis
1
CIVIL (2) Admittance = Impedance = Conductance + j Susceptance
Impedance and
Admittance Y = Z1 = G + jB Seimens (S)
Summary
|Y |2 = |Z|
1 2
2 = G + B
2
Y = Z = arctan B G
Note:
Y = G + jB = 1
Z = 1
R+jX = R
R +X 2
2 + j R2X
+X 2
R R
So G = R2 +X 2 =
|Z|2
X X
B= R2 +X 2 = |Z|2
1
Beware: G 6= R unless X = 0.

Summary
10: Sine waves and

phasors
Sine waves are the only bounded signals whose shape is unchanged by
Sine Waves differentiation.
Rotating Rod
Phasors
Phasor Examples Think of a sine wave as the projection of a rotating rod onto the
Phasor arithmetic horizontal (or real) axis.
Complex Impedances
Phasor Analysis A phasor is a complex number representing the length and position
CIVIL
Impedance and of the rod at time t = 0.
Admittance
Summary
If V = a + jb = r = rej , then
jt

v(t) = a cos t b sin t = r cos (t + ) = V e
The angular frequency = 2f is assumed known.
If all sources in a linear circuit are sine waves having the same
frequency, we can use phasors for circuit analysis:
1
Use complex impedances: jL and jC
Mnemonic: CIVIL tells you whether I leads V or vice versa
(leads means reaches its peak before).
Phasors eliminate time from equations ,, converts simultaneous
differential equations into simultaneous linear equations ,,,.
Needs complex numbers / but worth it.
see Hayt Chapter 10
11: Frequency
Responses
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
Logarithmic axes
Logs of Powers
Straight Line
Approximations
Plot Magnitude
Response
Low and High
Frequency
Asymptotes
Phase Approximation
11: Frequency Responses
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7206) Frequency Responses: 11 1 / 12

Frequency Response
11: Frequency
Responses If x(t) is a sine wave, then y(t) will also be a sine
Frequency
Response
wave but with a different amplitude and phase
Sine Wave Response shift. X is an input phasor and Y is the output
Logarithmic axes
Logs of Powers phasor.
Straight Line
Approximations
Y 1/jC 1
Plot Magnitude
Response
The gain of the circuit is X = R+1/jC = jRC+1
Low and High
Frequency
Asymptotes
This is a complex function of so we plot separate graphs for:
Phase Approximation Y 1
Plot Phase Response Magnitude: X = |jRC+1| = 1 2
RCR Circuit 1+(RC)
Summary
Y RC

Phase Shift: X = (jRC + 1) = arctan 1
1 0

-0.2
0.5
-0.4
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
RC RC
Magnitude Response Phase Response

Sine Wave Response
11: Frequency
Responses
RC = 10 ms 0
X
Frequency Response Y
Y 1 1
= = -0.2 X-Y
Imag
Sine Wave
Response X jRC+1 0.01j+1 -0.4
Logarithmic axes =300
Logs of Powers 0 0.5 1

Real
Straight Line
Approximations
Y
Plot Magnitude
Response
= 50 X = 0.89 27 1
w = 300 rad/s, Gain = 0.32, Phase = -72
x=blue, y=red
Low and High 0.5
Y
Frequency
Asymptotes
= 100 X = 0.71 45 0
y
Phase Approximation -0.5

Y
Plot Phase Response = 300 X = 0.32 72 -1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
RCR Circuit time (ms)
Summary
1 0
-20
Phase ()
|Y/X|
-40
0.5
-60
-80
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
(rad/s) (rad/s)
The output, y(t), lags the input, x(t), by up to 90 .

Logarithmic axes
11: Frequency
Responses We usually use logarithmic axes for frequency and gain (but not phase)
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
because % differences are more significant than absolute differences.
Logarithmic axes E.g. 5 kHz versus 5.005 kHz is less significant than 10 Hz versus 15 Hz even
Logs of Powers
Straight Line
though both differences equal 5 Hz.
Approximations
|V2 |
Plot Magnitude
Response
Logarithmic voltage ratios are specified in decibels (dB) = 20 log10 |V1 | .
Low and High
Frequency
Asymptotes
Phase Approximation Common voltage ratios:
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit
|V2 |
Summary
|V1 |
0.1 0.5 0.5 1 2 2 10 100
dB 20 -6 -3 0 3 6 20 40
0 0 Note that 0 does not

exist on a log axis and

-10 -0.2
-20
-0.4
so the starting point of
-30
0.1 1 10 0.1 1 10 the axis is arbitrary.
RC RC
P2
Note: P V 2 decibel power ratios are given by 10 log10 P1

Logs of Powers
11: Frequency
Responses H = c (j)r has a straight-line magnitude graph and a constant phase.
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
Logarithmic axes
Magnitude (log-log graph):
Logs of Powers |H| = c r log |H| = log |c| + r log
Straight Line
Approximations This is a straight line with a slope of r.
Plot Magnitude
Response c only affects the lines vertical position.
Low and High
Frequency
Asymptotes
If |H| is measured in decibels, a slope of r
Phase Approximation is called 6r dB/octave or 20r dB/decade.
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit
Summary
Phase (log-lin graph):

H = j r + c = r 2 (+ if c < 0)
The phase is constant .
If c > 0, phase = 90 magnitude slope.
Negative c adds 180 to the phase.
Note: Phase angles are modulo 360 , i.e.
+180 180 and 450 90 .

Straight Line Approximations
11: Frequency
(
Responses aj for |a| |b|
Frequency Response Key idea: (aj + b)
Sine Wave Response b for |a| |b|
Logarithmic axes
Logs of Powers
1
Straight Line Gain: H(j) = jRC+1
Approximations
Plot Magnitude
1
Response
Low and High
Low frequencies ( RC ): H(j) 1 |H(j)| 1
1 1 1 1
Frequency
Asymptotes
High frequencies ( RC ): H(j) jRC |H(j)| RC
Phase Approximation
Plot Phase Response Approximate the magnitude response 0
RCR Circuit
Summary as two straight lines intersecting at the
|Gain| (dB)
-10
1
corner frequency, c = RC . -20
-30
0.1/RC 1/RC 10/RC
At the corner frequency: (rad/s)
(a) the gradient changes

by 1 (= 6 dB/octave = 20 dB/decade).
1 1
(b) |H(jc )| = 1+j = 2 = 3 dB (worst-case error).
b
A linear factor (aj + b) has a corner frequency of c = a .

Plot Magnitude Response
11: Frequency
Responses The gain of a linear circuit is always a rational polynomial in j and is
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
called the transfer function of the circuit. For example:
Logarithmic axes
60(j)2 +720(j) 20j(j+12)
Logs of Powers H(j) = 3(j)3 +165(j)2 +762(j)+600
= (j+1)(j+4)(j+50)
Straight Line
Approximations
Plot Magnitude
Response Step 1: Factorize the polynomials 0
Low and High Step 2: Sort corner freqs: 1, 4, 12, 50

Frequency -20
Asymptotes Step 3: For < 1 all linear factors equal
Phase Approximation
Plot Phase Response their constant terms: -40
2012 0.1 1 10 100 1000
RCR Circuit |H| 1450 = 1.2 1 . (rad/s)
Summary
Step 4: For 1 < < 4, the factor (j + 1) j so

2012
|H| 450 = 1.2 0 = +1.58 dB.
2012
Step 5: For 4 < < 12, |H| 50 = 4.8 1 .
20
Step 6: For 12 < < 50, |H| 50 = 0.4 0 = 7.96 dB.
20
Step 7: For > 50, |H| = 20 1 .
At each corner frequency, the graph is continuous but its gradient changes
abruptly by +1 (numerator factor) or 1 (denominator factor).

Low and High Frequency Asymptotes
11: Frequency
Responses You can find the low and high frequency asymptotes without factorizing:
Frequency Response 60(j)2 +720(j) 20j(j+12)
Sine Wave Response
H(j) = 3(j)3 +165(j)2 +762(j)+600 = (j+1)(j+4)(j+50)
Logarithmic axes
Logs of Powers
Straight Line 0 0.5
Approximations

Plot Magnitude -20 0
Response
Low and High
Frequency -40 -0.5
Asymptotes 0.1 1 10 100 1000 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Phase Approximation (rad/s) (rad/s)
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit
Summary
Low Frequency Asymptote:
20j(12)
From factors: HLF (j) = (1)(4)(50) = 1.2j
720(j)
Lowest power of j on top and bottom: H (j) 600 = 1.2j
High Frequency Asymptote:
20j(j)
From factors: HHF (j) = (j)(j)(j) = 20 (j)1
60(j)2
Highest power of j on top and bottom: H (j) 3(j)3
= 20 (j)1

Phase Approximation
11: Frequency 1
Responses Gain: H(j) = jRC+1
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response 1
Logarithmic axes
Low frequencies ( RC ):
Logs of Powers
Straight Line H(j) 1 1 = 0
Approximations
Plot Magnitude
1 1
Response
Low and High
High frequencies ( RC ): H(j) jRC j 1 = 2
Frequency
Asymptotes
Phase
Approximate the phase response as 0
Approximation
three straight lines.
Phase/
Plot Phase Response -0.2
RCR Circuit
Summary By chance, they intersect close to -0.4
1
0.1c and 10c where c = RC . 0.1/RC 1/RC 10/RC
(rad/s)
Between 0.1c and 10c the phase changes by 2 over two decades.
This gives a gradient = 4 radians/decade.
(aj + b) in denominator
1 b

gradient = 4 /decade at = 10 a .
b
The sign of gradient is reversed for (a) numerator factors and (b) a < 0.
[Phase Approximation ++]
Like the magnitude response, the phase response can be approximated by a graph that consists of a
sequence of straight line segments that are joined at corners. For this to be true, we need to plot the
phase response using a linear axis for the phase but a logarithmic axis for the frequency.
The previous slide showed the phase response of a filter whose frequency response, H(z), has a single
linear factor in the denominator. On the next slide this is extended to a more complicated frequency
response.
1
Recall that the argument of a complex number is (a + jb) = tan1 ab and a+jb = tan1 ab .
1
Therefore if the frequency response is H(j) = jRC+1 , then the phase is given by H(j) =
tan1 RC which is plotted as the blue curve. At low frequencies, this tends to zero (since tan1 0 =
0) and at high frequencies it tends to 2 (since tan1 = 2 ). The magnitude response graph has
1
a corner frequency at c = RC and at this frequency, H(jc ) = tan1 1 = 4 .
It turns out that we can approximate this curve with three straight lines which meet at two phase
response corner frequencies of 0.1c and 10c . Since the frequency range 0.1c to 10c is two
decades (a factor of 100), the gradient of the central segment of the approximation must be 4
radians/decade. This approximation is not actually the best possible approximation using 3 straight
lines but it is very close and much easier to remember that the optimum approximation.
To summarise: A linear factor of (aj
+ b) in the denominator will result in two corner frequencies in
the phase response at = 101 ab and 10+1 ab . At these frequencies, the gradient of the graph will

change by 4 and + 4 radians/decade respectively. The signs of the gradient changes will be reversed
for numerator factors and reversed again if ab is negative (which is rare and can only happen in the
numerator).
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7206) Frequency Responses: 11 note 1 of slide 9

Plot Phase Response
11: Frequency
60(j)2 +720(j) 20j(j+12)
Responses H(j) = 3(j)3 +165(j)2 +762(j)+600
= (j+1)(j+4)(j+50)
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
Logarithmic axes Step 1: Factorize the polynomials 0.5
Logs of Powers
Straight Line c = {1 , 4 , 12+ , 50 }

Approximations 0
1
Plot Magnitude Step 2: Gradient changes at 10 c .
Response
Low and High Sign depends on num/den and sgn ab : -0.5
0.1 1 10 100 1000
Frequency + + + + (rad/s)
Asymptotes .1 , 10 ; .4 , 40 ; 1.2 , 120 ; 5 , 500
Phase Approximation 1
Plot Phase Step 3: Put in ascending order and calculate gaps as log10 decades:
Response 2
RCR Circuit .1 (.6) .4 (.48) 1.2+ (.62) 5 (.3) 10+ (.6) 40+ (.48) 120 (.62) 500+ .
Summary
Step 4: Find phase of LF asymptote: 1.2j = + 2 .
Step 5: At = 0.1 gradient becomes 4 rad/decade. is still 2 .
Step 6: At = 0.4, = 2 0.6 4 = 0.35. New gradient is 2 .
Step 7: At = 1.2, = 0.35 0.48 2 = 0.11. New gradient is 4 .
Steps 8-12: Repeat for each gradient change. Final gradient is always 0.
At 0.1 and 10 times each corner frequency, the graph is continuous but its
gradient changes abruptly by 4 rad/decade.

[Plot Phase Response ++]
Like the magnitude response, the phase response can be approximated by a graph that consists of a
sequence of straight line segments that are joined at corners. For this to be true, we need to plot
the phase response using a linear axis for the phase but a logarithmic axis for the frequency. As we
saw on the previous slide, each linear factor in either the numerator or the denominator gives rise to
two corners in the phase response graph. At each of these corners, the gradient of the graph changes
abruptly by 4 radians/decade; it follows that the gradient will always be an integer multiple of 4
radians/decade.
In order to plot the phase response graph, we need to determine three things: (a) the frequencies of all
the corners, (b) the sign of the gradient change at each one and (c) the phase at low frequencies (i.e. fre-
20j(j+12)
quencies less than the first corner). The example response on the slide, H(j) = (j+1)(j+4)(j+50)
has four linear factors: one in the numerator and three in the denominator. This means we will have a
total of eight corners (two from each linear factor). Since all the factors have ab > 0 the signs of the
gradient changes will be + followed by for the numerator factor and followed by + for the denom-
b
inator factors. The two corner frequencies corresponding to a factor (aj + b) are at = 0.1 a and

10 ab . So, using a superscript for the sign of the gradient change, we get corners at 1.2+ and 120 for

the numerator factor and at 0.1 , 0.4 , 10+ , 40+ , 5 and 500+ from the three denominator factors.
Sorting these into ascending order of gives corners at 0.1 , 0.4 , 1.2+ , 5 , 10+ , 40+ , 120 and
500+ .

[Plot Phase Response ++]
To plot the phase response, we calculate the low frequency asymptote by taking the terms with the
lowest power of j in numerator and denominator; this gives 1.2j which has a phase of + 2 = 1.57
radians. So we begin with a horizontal line at 1.57 radians until the first corner frequency at = 0.1
where the gradient becomes 4 . The graph will continue with this gradient until the next corner
frequency which is at = 0.4 where the gradient will decrease by another 4 to become 2 .
To work out the phase at the second corner frequency ( = 0.4) we calculate how much the phase has
changed between = 0.1 and 0.4 by multiplying the gradient of the graph ( 4 radians/decade) by
the separation of these two corner frequencies in decades (log10 0.40.1
= 0.602 decades). This product
gives gives a phase change of 0.473 radians. So the phase is 1.571 radians at = 0.1 and decreases
by 0.473 to become 1.098 radians at = 0.4.
The next corner is at = 1.2+ which is log10 1.2 0.4
= 0.477 decades away from = 0.4. Since the

gradient in this segment is 2 = 1.571 rads/decade, the phase change between these two frequencies
is 1.571 0.477 = 0.749 radians. So the phase at = 1.2 is 1.098 0.749 = 0.349 radians.
You continue like this hopping from each corner frequency to the next. At each corner frequency, you
know the new gradient (measured in radians/decade) and so you multiply this by the distance to the next
corner frequency (measured in decades) to get the phase change between the two corner frequencies.
As a check, the gradient after the final corner frequency should be zero and the phase should match
the phase of the high frequency asymptote. In this example, the high frequency asymptote is 20 (j)1
r
which has a phase of 2 . (Remember that j r has a phase of 2 ).


RCR Circuit
11: Frequency 1
R+ jC
Y jRC+1
Responses
Frequency Response X = 3R+R+ jC1 = 4jRC+1
Sine Wave Response
Logarithmic axes 1 1 +
Logs of Powers Corner freqs: 4RC , RC LF Asymptote: H(j) = 1
Straight Line
Approximations
Plot Magnitude
Response
Low and High
Frequency
Asymptotes
Phase Approximation
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit
Summary
Magnitude Response:
1 1
Gradient Changes: 20 dB/dec at = 4RC and +20 at = RC
1 jRC 1
Line equations: H(j) = (a) 1, (b) 4jRC , (c) 4jRC = 4
Phase Response:
LF asymptote: = 1 = 0
0.1 + 2.5 + 10
Gradient changes of 4 /decade at: = 0.025
RC , RC , RC , RC .
0.1
At = RC , = 0 4 log10 0.025
0.1
= 0.15

Summary
11: Frequency Y
Responses Frequency response: magnitude and phase of X as a function of
Frequency Response
Sine Wave Response
Only applies to sine waves
Logarithmic axes
Logs of Powers Use log axes for frequency and gain but linear for phase
Straight Line
Approximations Decibels = 20 log10 VV12 = 10 log10 P
P1
2
Plot Magnitude
Response b
Low and High Linear factor (aj + b) gives corner frequency at = a .
Frequency b
Asymptotes
Phase Approximation
Magnitude plot gradient changes by 20 dB/decade @ = a .
Plot Phase Response
RCR Circuit Phase gradient changes in two places by:
Summary
b
4 rad/decade @ = 0.1 a

b
rad/decade @ = 10
4 a
LF/HF asymptotes: keep only the terms with the lowest/highest power
of j in numerator and denominator polynomials

12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors
Damping Factor and
Q
Parallel RLC
Behaviour at
Resonance
Away from resonance
Bandwidth and Q
Power and Energy at
Resonance
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for
LP filter
12: Resonance
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7330) Resonance: 12 1 / 11

Quadratic Factors
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors A quadratic factor in a transfer function is: F (j) = a (j)2 + b (j) + c.
Damping Factor and
Q
Parallel RLC Case 1: If b2 4ac then we can factorize it:
Behaviour at
Resonance
Away from resonance
F (j) = a(j p1 )(j p2 )
Bandwidth and Q
b b2 4ac
Power and Energy at
Resonance
where pi = 2a .
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for Y 1
X (j) =
0
LP filter 6R2 C 2 (j)2 +7RCj+1
Summary
-20 1
= (6jRC+1)(jRC+1)
-40
0.17 1
0.1/RC 0.3/RC 1/RC 3/RC c = RC , RC = |p1 | , |p2 |

Case 2: If b2 < 4ac, we cannot factorize with real coefficients so we leave it

as a quadratic. Sometimes called a quadratic resonance.
Any polynomial with real coefficients can be factored into linear and
quadratic factors a quadratic factor is as complicated as it gets.

[Derivation of Transfer Function]
KCL at V gives
V X V Y
2R
+ jCV + 3R
= 0 3 (V X) + 6jRCV + 2 (V Y ) = 0
(5 + 6jRC) V = 3X + 2Y .
KCL at Y gives
Y V
3R
+ jCY = 0 (1 + 3jRC) Y = V .
Eliminating V beween these two equations gives

(5 + 6jRC) (1 + 3jRC) Y = 3X + 2Y

2
5 + 21jRC + 18 (jRC) 2 Y = 3X
Y 3 1 1
X
= 3+21jRC+18(jRC)2
= 1+7jRC+6(jRC)2
= (1+6jRC)(1+jRC)
.
At high frequencies, the impedance of the capacitor is much less than 3R so we can think of the circuit
as two potential dividers one after the other (i.e. the current through the 3R is negligible compared
to the current throught the first C). The high frequency asymptote is therefore the product of the
Y 1 1 1
asymptotes for the two potential dividers which gives X 2jRC 3jRC = 6(jRC) 2.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7330) Resonance: 12 note 1 of slide 2

Damping Factor and Q
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors Suppose b2 < 4ac in F (j) = a (j)2 + b (j) + c.
Damping Factor
FHF (j) = a (j)2

and Q
Parallel RLC Low/High freq asymptotes: FLF (j) = c,
Behaviour at
Resonance
Away from resonance
The asymptote
magnitudes
cross at the corner frequency :
2 pc
Bandwidth and Q
a (jc ) = |c| c = a .

Power and Energy at
Resonance
Low Pass Filter b bc b
Resonance Peak for We define the damping factor , zeta, to be = 4ac = 2c = 2ac
LP filter 2
Summary
F (j) = c j c + 2 j c + 1
Properties to notice in this expression:

(a) c is just an overall scale factor.

(b) c just scales the frequency axis since F (j) is a function of c .
(c) The shape of the F (j) graphs is determined entirely by .
(d) The quadratic cannot be factorized b2 < 4ac || < 1.
(e) At = c , asymptote gain = c but F (j) = c 2j.

1 ac
Alternatively, we sometimes use the quality factor , Q 2 = b .

Parallel RLC
12: Resonance Y 1 jL
Quadratic Factors I = 1 1 = LC(j)2 + R
L
Damping Factor and R + jL +jC j+1
pc b
Q
Parallel RLC
c = a = 1000, = 4ac = 0.083
Behaviour at
Resonance 1
Away from resonance
Asymptotes: jL and jC .
Bandwidth and Q
Power and Energy at
Resonance
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for
LP filter
Summary
Power absorbed by resistor Y 2 . It peaks quite

sharply at = 1000. The resonant frequency, r ,
is when the impedance is purely real:
at r = 1000, ZRLC = YI = R.
A system with a strong peak in power absorption
is a resonant system.

Behaviour at Resonance
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors
Damping Factor and
Q
Parallel RLC
Behaviour at
Resonance
Away from resonance
Bandwidth and Q
Power and Energy at
Resonance = 1000 ZL = 100j, ZC = 100j.
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for ZL = ZC IL = IC
LP filter
Summary I = IR + IL + IC = IR = 1
Y = IR R = 6000 = 56 dBV
600
IL = ZYL = 100j = 6j
Large currents in L and C exactly cancel out IR = I and Z = R (real)

Away from resonance
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors
Damping Factor and
Q
Parallel RLC
Behaviour at
Resonance
Away from
resonance
Bandwidth and Q
Power and Energy at
Resonance
= 2000 ZL = 200j, ZC = 50j
1
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for Z = R1 + Z1L + Z1C = 66 84
LP filter
Summary Y = I Z = 66 84 = 36 dBV
IR = YR = 0.11 84
IL = ZYL = 0.33 174 , IC = 1.33 + 6
Most current now flows through C, only 0.11 through R.

Bandwidth and Q
12: Resonance Y 1
Quadratic Factors I = 1/R+j(C1/L)
Damping Factor and
Q
Parallel RLC
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies for
Behaviour at
Y 2
Resonance which I is greater than half its peak.
Away from resonance
Bandwidth and Q
Also called half-power bandwidth or 3dB
Power and Energy at bandwidth.
Resonance
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for
| YI |2 = 1
(1/R) +(C1/L)2
2
LP filter
Summary
Y 2
Peak is I (0 ) = R2 @ 0 = 1000

Y 2 1 Y 2
At 3dB : I (3dB ) = 2 I (0 )

2
2
1 R R
(1/R)2 +(3dB C1/ 2 = 2 1 + 3dB RC 3dB L =2
3dB L)
2
3dB RC R/3dB L = 1 3dB RLC 3dB L R = 0

L+ L2 +4R2 LC
Positive roots: 3dB = 2RLC = {920, 1086} rad/s
Bandwidth: B = 1086 920 = 167 rad/s.
1 0
Q factor 2 = B = 6. (Q = Quality)
Power and Energy at Resonance
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors
Absorbed Power =v(t)i(t):
Damping Factor and
Q
PL and PC opposite and PR .
Parallel RLC Stored Energy = 12 Li2L + 21 Cy 2 :
Behaviour at
Resonance sloshes between L and C.
Away from resonance
Bandwidth and Q
Q , Wstored P R
2 2
Power and Energy

at Resonance = 12 C |IR| 21 |I| R= RC
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for
LP filter
Summary
Q , peak stored energy average power loss.

Low Pass Filter
12: Resonance 1/jC

Y 1
Quadratic Factors
X = 1
R+jL+ jC
= 2
LC(j) +RCj+1
Damping Factor and
Q
1 2
Parallel RLC
Behaviour at
Asymptotes: 1 and LC (j) .
Resonance
pc b R
Away from resonance
c = a = 1000, = 4ac = 200
Bandwidth and Q
X
Y 1 1 Y
Power and Energy at
Resonance
@c : ZL = ZC = 100j, I = R,
=
X RC = 2 , X = 2
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for
LP filter
Magntitude Plot:
Summary Small less loss, higher peak, smaller bandwidth.
Large more loss, smaller peak at a lower , larger bandwidth.
Phase Plot:
Small fast phase change:
over 2 decades.
Y
X
2 1 + 1 log10 c for 10 < c < 10+
R=5, =0.03 0 R=5, =0.03
20 R=20, =0.1
R=60, =0.3 R=20, =0.1

0 R=120, =0.6 R=60, =0.3
C L -0.5 R=120, =0.6
-20
R -1
-40
100 1k 10k 100 251 1k 3.98k 10k
(rad/s) (rad/s)

Resonance Peak for LP filter
12: Resonance Y 1 1
Quadratic Factors X = 2 = 2
Damping Factor and
LC(j) +RCj+1 (j c ) +2j c +1
Q
bc
pc
Parallel RLC c = = 1000, = b = = R
Behaviour at a 4ac 2c 200
Resonance
Y
Away from resonance
Bandwidth and Q Xis a function of c so c just scales frequency axis (= shift on log axis).
Power and Energy at The damping factor , , (zeta) determines the shape of the peak.
Resonance
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak Peak frequency: p 30
R=5, =0.03
for LP filter
999, 26dB
R=20, =0.1
Summary p = c 1 2 2 20 990, 14dB
906, 5dB R=60, =0.3
529, 4dB R=120, =0.6
0.5 passes under corner, 10
0.71 no peak, 0
1 can factorize -10

0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.2 1.4
(krad/s)
Gain relative to asymptote: @ p : 1 @ c : 1

2 Q
2 1 2
Three frequencies: p = peak, c = asymptotes cross, r = real impedance

For < 0.3, p c r . All get called the resonant frequency.
The exact relationship between p , c and r and the gain at these
frequencies is affected by any other corner frequencies in the response.

Summary
12: Resonance
Quadratic Factors
Resonance is a peak in energy absorption
Damping Factor and
Q Parallel or series circuit has a real impedance at r
Parallel RLC
Behaviour at
peak response may be at a slightly different frequency
Resonance
Away from resonance The quality factor, Q, of the resonance is
Bandwidth and Q
Power and Energy at
stored energy
Q , 0 power 0
1
Resonance in R 3 dB bandwidth 2
Low Pass Filter
Resonance Peak for 3 dB bandwidth is where power falls by 12 or voltage by 12
LP filter
Summary
The stored energy sloshes between L and C
2
j
Quadratic factor: c + 2 j c + 1
2
a (j) + b (j) + c c = ac and = b b
p
4ac
= 2ac
40 dB/decade slope change in magnitude response
phase changes rapidly by 180 over = 10 c
1
Gain error in asymptote is 2 Q at 0

13: Filters
Filters
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor
Opamp filter
Integrator
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A)
13: Filters
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B)
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7256) Filters: 13 1 / 13

Filters
13: Filters
Filters
A filter is a circuit whose gain varies with frequency. Often a filter aims to
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter
allow some frequencies to pass while blocking others.
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor Radio/TV: a tuning filter blocks all frequencies
Opamp filter
Integrator except the wanted channel
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter
Loudspeaker: crossover filters send the right
Sallen-Key Filter frequencies to different drive units
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter Sampling: an anti-aliasing filter eliminates all
Transformations (A)
Conformal Filter
frequencies above half the sampling rate
Transformations (B)
Summary Phones: Sample rate = 8 kHz : filter
eliminates frequencies above 3.4 kHz. [Wikipedia]
Computer cables: filter eliminates interference

1st Order Low-Pass Filter
13: Filters Y 1/jC 1 1

Filters X = R+1/jC = jRC+1 = j
1st Order p +1
Low-Pass Filter b 1
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor
Corner frequency: p = a = RC
Opamp filter
Integrator
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter
p
Sallen-Key Filter Asymptotes: 1 and j 0
Twin-T Notch Filter
|Gain| (dB)
Conformal Filter -10
Transformations (A) Very low : Capacitor = open circuit
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B) Very high : Capacitor short circuit -20
Summary -30
0.1p p 10p
(rad/s)
A low-pass filter because it allows low frequencies to pass but attenuates

(makes smaller) high frequencies.
The order of a filter: highest power of j in the denominator.
Almost always equals the total number of L and/or C.

Low-Pass with Gain Floor
13: Filters j
Y R+1/jC jRC+1 q +1
Filters
X = 4R+1/jC = j4RC+1 = j
1st Order Low-Pass p +1
Filter
Low-Pass with 1 1
Gain Floor Corner frequencies: p = 4RC , q= RC
Opamp filter
1
Integrator
High Pass Filter
Asymptotes: 1 and 4
2nd order filter
Sallen-Key Filter Very low : 0
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter Capacitor = open circuit -5
Transformations (A)
Conformal Filter
Resistor R unattached. Gain = 1
Transformations (B) -10
Summary Very high : 0.1q p q 10q

Capacitor short circuit
1
Circuit is potential divider with gain 20 log10 4 = 12 dB.

Opamp filter
13: Filters
Filters
Inverting amplifier so
1st Order Low-Pass
= 3R||(R+ /jC ) 3R(R+ /jC )
Y 1 1
Filter
Low-Pass with Gain X R = R(3R+R+1/jC )
Floor
Opamp filter
= 3 R+1/jC
= 3 jRC+1
Integrator 4R+1/jC j4RC+1
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter
Sallen-Key Filter
Same transfer function as before except 3 = +9.5 dB.
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter Advantages of op-amp crcuit: 10
Transformations (A)
Conformal Filter 5
Transformations (B) 1. Can have gain > 1.
Summary 0
2. Low output impedance - loading
0.1q p q 10q
does not affect filter
3. Resistive input impedance - does

not vary with frequency

Integrator
13: Filters Y 1/jC 1

Filters X = R = jRC
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter
Low-Pass with Gain Capacitor: i = C dvdtC
Floor
Opamp filter
x
i= R = C dydt
Integrator
High Pass Filter dy 1
2nd order filter dt = RC x
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter
Rt dy 1
Rt
Conformal Filter 0 dt
dt = RC 0
xdt 20
Transformations (A)
Rt 0
Conformal Filter 1
Transformations (B) y(t) = RC 0
xdt + y(0) -20
Summary 0.1 1 10
RC
RNote: if x(t) =1cos t 1

cos(t)dt = sin(t) gain .
We can limit the LF gain to 20 dB:

= 10R||R/jC = R(10R+
10R /jC
Y 1 1
X 1/jC )
10 0.1

= j10RC+1 c = RC

High Pass Filter
13: Filters Y R jRC

Filters X = R+1/jC = jRC+1
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter 1
Low-Pass with Gain Corner Freq: p = RC
Floor
Opamp filter
Integrator
Asymptotes: jRC and 1
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter Very low : C open circuit: gain = 0
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter
Very high : C short circuit: gain = 1
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A)
Conformal Filter We can add an op-amp to give a 0
Transformations (B)
Summary low-impedance output. Or add gain: -10
-20
Z RB jRC
X = 1 + RA jRC+1 -30
0.1p p 10p


2nd order filter
13: Filters Y R2 +jL

Filters X = 1/jC +R1 +R2 +jL
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter
LC(j)2 +R2 Cj
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor
= LC(j)2 +(R1 +R2 )Cj+1
Opamp filter
Integrator jC(jL+R2 )
High Pass Filter
= LC(j)2 +(R1 +R2 )Cj+1
2nd order filter
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A)
Conformal Filter Asymptotes: jR2 C and 1 0
Transformations (B)
Summary
Corner frequencies: -20
R2
+20 dB/dec at p = L = 100 rad/s -40
p q
40 dB/dec at q = 1 = 1000 rad/s 100 1k 10k
LC
b q
Damping factor: = 4ac
= 2 (R1 + R2 ) C
= 0.6.
1
Gain error at q is 2 = Q = 0.83 = 1.6 dB (+0.04 dB due to p)
Compare with 1st order:
2nd order filter attenuates more rapidly than a 1st order filter.

Sallen-Key Filter
13: Filters
0
Filters
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter -20
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor -40
Opamp filter
Integrator 100 1k 10k

High Pass Filter 2
2nd order filter j
Sallen-Key Filter Asymptotes: p and 1
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A)
KCL @ Y : Y1/jC
X
+ 1Y/jC
Z
+ YR
Z
=0 [assume V+ = V = Z]
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B)
Y (1 + 2jRC) Z (1 + jRC) = XjRC
Summary
Z ZY
KCL @ V+ : mR + 1/jC = 0 Z(1 + jmRC) = Y jmRC
Sub Y : Z (1+jmRC)
jmRC (1 + 2jRC) Z (1 + jRC) = XjRC
Z m(jRC)2 (j/p)2
X = m(jRC)2 +2jRC+1
= (j/p)2 +2(j/p)+1
Corner freq: p = 1 = 996 rad/s, = 1

= pRC = 1 = 0.6
mRC 2Q m
Sallen-Key: 2nd order filter without inductors. Can easily have gain >1.

Designing: Choose m = 2 ; C any convenient value; R = pC .

Twin-T Notch Filter
13: Filters
Filters
After much algebra:
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter Z (1+m)((2jRC)2 +1)
Low-Pass with Gain X = (2jRC)2 +4(1m)jRC+1
Floor
Opamp filter
Integrator
(1+m)((j/p)2 +1)
High Pass Filter
= (j/p)2 +2(j/p)+1
2nd order filter
1
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch
p= 2RC = 314, = 1 m = 0.1
Filter
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A)
Very low : C open circuit m+1 = 5.6dB 2 p
Z
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B)
Non-inverting amp, X =1+m 0
Summary -20
Very high : C short circuit
Z
Non-inverting amp, X =1+m -40
200 300 500
(rad/s)
2
At = p, jp = 1: numerator = zero resulting in infinite attenuation.
The 3 dB notch width is approximately 2p = 2(1 m)p.
Used to remove one specific frequency (e.g. mains hum @ 50 Hz)
Do not try to memorize this circuit

Conformal Filter Transformations (A)
13: Filters
Filters
A dimensionless gain, VVX
Y
, can always be written using dimensionless
1st Order Low-Pass ZR ZL jL ZL 2
Filter impedance ratio terms: Z C
= jRC, ZR
= R , ZC
= LC.
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor
Opamp filter 0
Integrator
Impedance scaling:
-10
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter Scale all impedances by k: -20
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter
R = kR, C = k1 C, L = kL -30
Conformal Filter
Transformations
Impedance ratios are unchanged 10 100 1k 10k
rad/s
(A)
so graph stays the same.
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B) (k is arbitrary)
Summary
Frequency Shift:
k = 20
Scale reactive components by k:
R = R, C = kC, L = kL
Z (k1 ) Z()
Graph shifts left by a factor of k.
k=5
Must scale all reactive components in the circuit by the same factor.
Conformal Filter Transformations (B)
13: Filters
Filters 0
1st Order Low-Pass Change LR circuit to RC:
Filter -10
Low-Pass with Gain 1
Floor Change R = kL, C = kR -20
Opamp filter ZR jL
ZL
Integrator Z
= jR C = R = ZR
-30
High Pass Filter C
1k 10k 100k 1M
2nd order filter rad/s
Sallen-Key Filter
Impedance ratios are unchanged
Twin-T Notch Filter
Conformal Filter
at all so graph stays the same.
Transformations (A) (k is arbitrary)
Conformal Filter
Transformations
(B)
Summary
Reflect frequency axis around m : k = 106
Change R = mk C , C = m1kR
2
ZR m
Z = Z ZR ()
C
C
k = 0.1, m = 20 k
(a) Magnitude graph flips
(b) Phase graph flips and negates since z = z.
(k is arbitrary)

Summary
13: Filters
Filters
The order of a filter is the highest power of j in the transfer function
1st Order Low-Pass
Filter
denominator.
Low-Pass with Gain
Floor Active filters use op-amps and usually avoid the need for inductors.
Opamp filter
Integrator Sallen-Key design for high-pass and low-pass.
High Pass Filter
2nd order filter
Twin-T design for notch filter: gain = 0 at notch.
Sallen-Key Filter
Twin-T Notch Filter For filters using R and C only:
Conformal Filter
Transformations (A) Scale R and C: Substituting R = kR and C = pC scales
1
Conformal Filter
Transformations (B)
frequency by (pk) .
Summary
Interchange R and C: Substituting R = 0kC and C = k10 R flips
the frequency response around 0 (k).
Changes a low-pass filter to high pass and vice-versa.

14: Power in AC
Circuits
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
Power Factor
Correction
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
Applications
Summary
14: Power in AC Circuits
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7265) AC Power: 14 1 / 11

Average Power
14: Power in AC
Circuits
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
Power Factor
v 2 (t)
Correction
Ideal Transformer
Intantaneous Power dissipated in R: p(t) = R
Transformer
Applications Average Power dissipated in R:
Summary R
1 T 1
R
1 T 2 hv2 (t)i

P 2= T 0 p(t)dt = R 2T 0 v (t)dt = R
v (t) is the value of v (t) averaged over time
p
We define the RMS Voltage (Root Mean Square): Vrms , hv 2 (t)i
hv2 (t)i (Vrms )2
The average power dissipated in R is P = R = R
Vrms is the DC voltage that would cause R to dissipate the same power.
We use small letters for time-varying voltages and capital letters for
time-invariant values.

Cosine Wave RMS
14: Power in AC
Circuits
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
Power Factor
Correction
Ideal Transformer
Cosine Wave: v(t) = 5 cos t. Amplitude is V = 5 V.
Transformer
2 2 2 2 1 1

Applications Squared Voltage: v (t) = V cos t = V + cos 2t
2 2
Summary

2 V 2
Mean Square Voltage: v = 2 since cos 2t averages to zero.
p
RMS Voltage: Vrms = hv 2 i = 12 V = 3.54 V = Ve
Note: Power engineers always use RMS voltages and currents exclusively
and omit the rms subscript.
For example UK Mains voltage = 230 V rms = 325 V peak.

In this lecture course only, a ~ overbar means 2: thus Ve = 1 V
2
.

Power Factor
14: Power in AC
Circuits
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
Power Factor
Correction Suppose voltage and current phasors are:
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
V = |V | ejV v(t) = |V | cos (t + V )
Applications
Summary I = |I| ejI i(t) = |I| cos (t + I )
Power dissipated in load Z is
p(t) = v(t)i(t) = |V | |I| cos (t + V ) cos (t + I )
1 1

= |V | |I| 2 cos (2t + V + I ) + 2 cos (V I )
= 21 |V | |I| cos (V I ) + 12 |V | |I| cos (2t + V + I )
1
Average power: P = 2|V | |I| cos () where = V I

= Ve Ie cos () cos is the power factor
> 0 a lagging power factor (normal case: Current lags Voltage)

< 0 a leading power factor (rare case: Current leads Voltage)
Complex Power
14: Power in AC
Circuits If Ve = 1
2
|V | ejV and I = 1
2
|I| ejI
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor The complex power absorbed by Z is S , Ve Ie
Complex Power
where * means complex conjugate.
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem

Power Factor
Correction
Ve Ie = Ve ejV Ie ejI = Ve Ie ej(V I )
Ideal Transformer
e e j e e
= V I e = V I cos + j Ve Ie sin
Transformer
Applications
Summary
= P + jQ
Complex Power: S , V e Ie = P + jQ measured in Volt-Amps (VA)

Apparent Power: |S| , Ve Ie measured in Volt-Amps (VA)
Average Power: P , (S) measured in Watts (W)
Reactive Power: Q , (S) Measured in Volt-Amps Reactive (VAR)
Power Factor: cos , cos Ve Ie = |S|P
Machines and transformers have capacity limits and power losses that are
independent of cos ; their ratings are always given in apparent power.
Power Company: Costs apparent power, Revenue average power.
Power in R, L, C
14: Power in AC
Circuits For any impedance, Z, complex power absorbed: S = Ve Ie = P + jQ
Average Power 2 2 e |2
| V
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
e (b) Ie Ie = Ie we get S = Ie Z =
Using (a) Ve = IZ
Z
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C 2 2
e |Ve |
Tellegens Theorem
Power Factor
Resistor: S = I R = R =0
Correction
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
Absorbs average power, no VARs (Q = 0)
Applications
Summary
2 2
e |Ve |
Inductor: S = j I L = j L = +90
No average power, Absorbs VARs (Q > 0)
2 2
|Ie|
Capacitor: S = j C = j Ve C = 90
No average power, Generates VARs (Q < 0)
VARs are generated by capacitors and absorbed by inductors

The phase, , of the absorbed power, S, equals the phase of Z
Tellegens Theorem
14: Power in AC
Circuits Tellegens Theorem: The complex power, S, dissipated in any circuits
Average Power components sums to zero.
Cosine Wave RMS
Power Factor
Complex Power xn = voltage at node n
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens
Vb , Ib = voltage/current in branch b
Theorem (obeying passive sign convention)
Power Factor
Correction
Ideal Transformer
Transformer

1 if Vb starts from node n
Applications
Summary
abn , +1 if Vb ends at node n

0 else
e.g. branch 4 goes from 2 to 3 a4 = [0, 1, 1]
P
Branch voltages: Vb = n abn xn (e.g. V4 = x3 x2 )
P P
KCL @ node n: b abn Ib = 0 b abn Ib = 0
P P P
Tellegen: b Vb Ib = b n abn xn Ib
P P P P P
= n b abn Ib xn = n xn b abn Ib = n xn 0
P P P
Note: b Sb = 0 b Pb = 0 and also b Qb = 0.

Power Factor Correction
14: Power in AC
Circuits Ve = 230. Motor modelled as 5||7j .
Average Power e e
Cosine Wave RMS Ie = VR + ZVL = 46 j32.9 A = 56.5 36
Power Factor
Complex Power S = Ve Ie = 10.6 + j7.6 kVA = 1336 kVA
Power in R, L, C P
Tellegens Theorem cos = |S| = cos 36 = 0.81
Power Factor
Correction
Ideal Transformer Add parallel capacitor of 300 F:
Transformer
Applications ZC = jC1
= 10.6j IeC = 21.7j A
Summary
Ie = 46 j11.2 A = 47 14 A
SC = Ve IeC = j5 kVA
S = Ve Ie = 10.6 + j2.6 kVA = 10.914 kVA
P
cos = |S| = cos 14 = 0.97
Average
power to motor, P , is 10.6 kW in both cases.
e
I , reduced from 56.5 47 A (16%) lower losses.
Effect of C: VARs = 7.6 2.6 kVAR , power factor = 0.81 0.97.

Ideal Transformer
14: Power in AC
Circuits A transformer has 2 windings on the same magnetic core.
Average Power P l Vr d
Cosine Wave RMS Ampres law: Nr Ir = A ; Faradays law: Nr
= dt .
Power Factor
Complex Power N1 : N2 + N3 shows the turns ratio between the windings.
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
The indicates the voltage polarity of each winding.
Power Factor
V1 V2 V3
Correction Since is the same for all windings, N1 = N2 = N3 .
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
Applications Assume N1 I1 + N2 I2 + N3 I3 = 0
Summary
These two equations

P allow you to solve circuits and also
imply that Si = 0.
Special Case:
For a 2-winding transformer this simplifies to
V2 = N 2
N1 V 1 and I L = I 2 = N1
N2 I1
2 2
Hence VI11 = N N1
2
V2
I L
= N1
N2 Z
2
N1
Equivalent to a reflected impedance of N 2
Z

Transformer Applications
14: Power in AC
Circuits
Power Transmission
Average Power
Cosine Wave RMS Suppose a power transmission cable has 1 resistance.
100 kVA@ 1 kV = 100 A Ie2 R = 10 kW losses.
Power Factor
Complex Power
Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
100 kVA@ 100 kV = 1 A Ie2 R = 1 W losses.
Power Factor
Correction Voltage Conversion
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
Applications Electronic equipment requires 20 V but mains voltage is 240 V .
Summary
Interference protection
Microphone on long cable is susceptible to interference from nearby
mains cables. An N : 1 transformer reduces the microphone voltage
by N but reduces interference by N 2 .
Isolation
There is no electrical connection between the windings of a transformer
so circuitry (or people) on one side will not be endangered by a failure
that results in high voltages on the other side.

Summary
14: Power in AC
Circuits Complex Power: S = Ve Ie = P + jQ where Ve = Vrms = 12 V .
Average Power 2 2
Cosine Wave RMS e |Ve |
Power Factor For an impedance Z: S = I Z = Z
Complex Power

Power in R, L, C
Tellegens Theorem
Apparent Power: |S| = Ve Ie used for machine ratings.

Power Factor
Correction Average Power: P = (S) = Ve Ie cos (in Watts)
Ideal Transformer
Transformer
Applications Reactive Power: Q = (S) = Ve Ie sin (in VARs)
Summary
Power engineers always use Ve and Ie and omit the ~.

P P P
Tellegen: In any circuit b Sb = 0 b Pb = b Qb = 0
Power Factor Correction: add parallel C to generate extra VARs

P P
Ideal Transformer: Vi Ni and Ni Ii = 0 (implies Si = 0)

15: Transients (A)
Differential Equation
Piecewise steady
state inputs
Step Input
Negative exponentials
Exponential Time
Delays
Inductor Transients
Linearity
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage
Continuity 15: Transients (A)
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7286) Transients (A): 15 1 / 11

15: Transients (A)

Differential
To find y(t):
Equation x(t) constant: Nodal analysis
Piecewise steady
state inputs x(t) sinusoidal: Phasors + nodal analysis
Step Input
Negative exponentials x(t) anything else: Differential equation
Exponential Time
Delays
Inductor Transients i(t) = C dy
dt =
xy
R RC dy
dt + y = x
Linearity
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage General Solution: Particular Integral + Complementary Function
Continuity
Summary
Particular Integral: Any solution to RC dydt + y = x
If x(t) is piecewise constant or sinusoidal, we will use
nodal/phasor analysis to find the steady state solution for y(t).
Complementary Function: Solution to RC dy
dt + y = 0
Does not depend on x(t), only on the circuit.
Solution is y(t) = Aet/
where = RC is the time constant of the circuit.
The amplitude, A, is determined by the initial conditions at t = 0.

Piecewise steady state inputs
15: Transients (A)

We will consider input signals that are sinusoidal or constant for a particular
Piecewise steady time interval and then suddenly change in amplitude phase or frequency:
state inputs
Step Input
Exponential Time
Delays
Inductor Transients
Linearity
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage
Continuity
V=1, =2 V=-1j, =2 V=-2j, =2 V=-1j, =1 V=1.5, =0 V=-0.5, =0
Summary
Sometimes the waveform will be continuous when the change happens and
sometimes there will be a discontinuity.
Note that a DC value at v(t) is just a special case of a cosine wave at zero
frequency ( = 0): v(t) V cos (0t).
The output will be the steady state output plus a transient each time the
input signal changes. The steady state in each time interval has the same
frequency as the input. Each transient is of the form Aet/ with the same
for all transients but different values of A.

Step Input
15: Transients (A)

For t < 0, y(t) = x(t) = 1
Piecewise steady For t 0, RC dy
dt + y = x = 4
state inputs
Step Input Time Const: = RC = 1 ms
Exponential Time
Delays
Steady State (Particular Integral)
Inductor Transients ySS (t) = x(t) = 4 for t 0 4
Linearity
Transient Amplitude 2
Capacitor Voltage
Transient (Complementary Function)
0
Continuity
Summary
yT r (t) = Aet/ -2
-1 0 1 2 3
Steady State + Transient t (ms)
y(t) = ySS + yT r = 4 + Aet/ 4 ySS

y
2
To find A, use capacitor property: 0

yTr
Capacitor voltage never changes abruptly -2
-1 0 1 2 3
t (ms)
y(0+) = 4 + A and y(0) = 1 4 + A = 1 A = 3

So transient: yT r (t) = 3et/ and total y(t) = 4 3et/
Transient amplitude capacitor voltage continuity: vC (0+) = vC (0)

15: Transients (A)

Positive exponentials grow to : 10 et
3et
Piecewise steady et , 3et/4 , 2et/2
state inputs 0
Step Input
-10 -2et
Negative
exponentials 0 1 2 3 4 5
Exponential Time t
Delays Negative exponentials decay to 0: 2
2e-t
Inductor Transients
Linearity 2et , et/4 , 2et/2 0
e-t
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage
Transients are negative exponentials. -2e-t
Continuity -2
0 2 4 6 8
Summary
t
Decay rate of et/a 1
37% after 1 time constant 0.5 0.37

5% after 3, <1% after 5 0.05 0.01
0
a 2a 3a 4a 5a
t
Gradient of et/a 1
Gradient at t hits zero at t + a. 0.5

True for any t.
0
a 2a 3a
t

Exponential Time Delays
15: Transients (A)

Negative exponential with a final
Piecewise steady value of F .
state inputs
y(t) = F + (A F ) e(tTA )/
Step Input
Exponential Time
Delays
Inductor Transients
Linearity
Transient Amplitude How long does it take to go from A to B ?
Capacitor Voltage
Continuity
Summary
At t = TB :
B = F + (A F ) e(TB TA )/
= e(TB TA )/
BF
AF

AF
Hence TB TA = ln BF = ln initial distance to F
final distance to F
Useful formula - worth remembering.

Inductor Transients
We know i = xy
15: Transients (A)
Differential Equation R
Piecewise steady
state inputs y(t) = L dt = R d(xy)
di L
dt = L dx
R dt L dy
R dt
Step Input L dy L dx
Negative exponentials R dt + y = R dt
Exponential Time
Delays
Inductor
Transients Solution: Particular Integral + Complementary Function
Linearity
Transient Amplitude L dy L dx
Capacitor Voltage Particular Integral: Any solution to R dt + y = R dt
Continuity
Summary
If x(t) is piecewise constant or sinusoidal, we will use
nodal/phasor analysis to find the steady state solution, ySS (t).
L dy
Complementary Function: Solution to R dt + y = 0
Does not depend on x(t), only on the circuit.
Solution is yT r (t) = Aet/
L
where = R is the time constant of the circuit.
L
1st order transient is always yT r (t) = Aet/ where = RC or R
Amplitude A no abrupt change in capacitor voltage or inductor current.

Linearity
15: Transients (A)

1st order circuit has only one C or L.
Piecewise steady Make a Thvenin equivalent of the network
state inputs
Step Input connected to the terminals of C. Remember
Exponential Time
x is a voltage source but y is not.
Delays
Inductor Transients Now v(t) = vSS (t) + vT r (t)
Linearity
= vSS (t) + Aet/
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage Time constant is = RT h C
Continuity
Summary where RT h is the Thvenin resistance.
Replace the capacitor with a voltage source

v(t); all voltages and currents in the circuit
will remain unchanged.
Linearity: y = ax + bv = ax + bvSS + bvT r = ySS + bvT r

All voltages and currents in a circuit have the same transient (but scaled).
The circuits time constant is = RT h C or RLT h where RT h is the
Thvenin resistance of the network connected to C or L.

Transient Amplitude
15: Transients (A)

Find Steady State (DC ZL = 0)
Piecewise steady Potential divider: ySS = 21 x
state inputs
Step Input ySS (0) = 1, ySS (0+) = 3
Exponential Time Inductor Current Continuity
Delays
Inductor Transients iSS (0) = 1 mA iL (0+) = 1 mA
Linearity
6
Transient
Amplitude
At t = 0+
4
Capacitor Voltage x y = 1 mA 1 k = 1
Continuity 2
Summary y(0+) = x(0+) 1 = 5 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
Time Constant t (s)
Set x 0 RT h = 2 k 6
y
= RLT h = 2 s 4 ySS
2
yTr
Result 0
y = ySS + (y (0+) ySS (0+)) et/ -5 0 5

t (s)
10 15 20
= 3 + (5 3) et/
= 3 + 2et/

Capacitor Voltage Continuity
15: Transients (A)

Find Steady State (DC ZC = )
vy
Piecewise steady KCL @ V: vx4R + v
8R + 2R = 0
state inputs
Step Input KCL @ Y: yv2R + yx
6R = 0
Exponential Time
13
vSS = 43 x, ySS = 16 x
Delays
Inductor Transients
Linearity Capacitor Voltage Continuity
4
Transient Amplitude
Capacitor Voltage
vSS (0) = 3 v(0+) = 3 2
Continuity 0
Summary At t = 0+: x = 4 and v = 3 -2
KCL @ Y: y(3)
2R + y4
6R = 0
-4
-RC 0 RC 2RC 3RC
t
5
y(0+) = 9+4
4 = 4
4 ySS
Time Constant 2 y
0
= RT h C = 2RC (from earlier slide) -2 yTr
-4
Result -RC 0 RC
t
2RC 3RC
y = ySS + (y (0+) ySS (0+)) et/

= 134 + 5
4 13
4 e t/
13 18 t/
= 4 4e = 3 14 4 21 et/2RC

Summary
15: Transients (A)

1st order circuits: include one C or one L.
Piecewise steady vC or iL never change abruptly. The output, y, is not necessarily
state inputs
Step Input continuous unless it equals vC .
Exponential Time
Delays
Circuit time constant: = RT h C or RLT h
Inductor Transients
Linearity
RT h is the Thvenin resistance seen by C or L.
Transient Amplitude Same for all voltages and currents.
Capacitor Voltage
Continuity
Summary Output = Steady State + Transient
Steady State: use nodal/Phasor analysis when input is piecewise
constant or piecewise sinusoidal. The steady state has the same
frequency as the input signal.
Transient: Find vC (0) or iL (0): unchanged at t = 0+
Find y(0+) assuming source of vC (0+) or iL (0+)
Amplitude never complex, never depends on t.
y(t) = ySS (t) + (y(0+) ySS (0+)) et/
See Hayt Chapter 8.

16: Transients (B)
Piecewise steady
state inputs
Sinusoidal Input
Multiple
Discontinuities
Switched Circuit
Transfer Function
Transient from
Transfer Function
Opamp Circuit
Transient
Summary 16: Transients (B)
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7312) Transients (B): 16 1 / 9

Piecewise steady state inputs
16: Transients (B)

Piecewise steady
We will consider input signals that are sinusoidal or constant for a particular
state inputs time interval and then suddenly change in amplitude phase or frequency:
Sinusoidal Input
Multiple
Discontinuities
Switched Circuit
Transfer Function
Transient from
Transfer Function
Opamp Circuit
Transient
Summary
Output is the sum of the steady state and

the transient: y(t) = ySS (t) + yT r (t).
Steady state, ySS (t), is the same frequency
as the input; use phasors + nodal analysis.
t
Transient is always yT r (t) = Ae .

Sinusoidal Input
16: Transients (B)

Piecewise steady
For t < 0, y(t) = x(t) = 0
state inputs For t 0, x = 2 sin t X = 2j
Sinusoidal Input
Multiple = RC = 1 ms, = 10 krad/s
Discontinuities
Switched Circuit
Transfer Function
Steady State (for t 0)
Y 1
Transient from
Transfer Function X = jRC+1 = 0.1 84

2
Opamp Circuit Y
Transient Y =XX = 2j 0.1 84
0
Summary
ySS (t) = 0.2 cos (t 174 )
-2
Steady State + Transient -1 0 1
t (ms)
2 3
y(t) = 0.2 cos (t 174 ) + Aet/ 0.4

y
0.2 yTr
Transient Amplitude 0
y
y(0+) = 0.2 cos (174 ) + A -0.2 ySS
= 0.198 + A -1 0 1
t (ms)
2 3
y(0+) = y(0) = 0 A = 0.198 yT r (t) = 0.198et/

Complete Expression for y(t)
y(t) = 0.2 cos (t 174 ) + 0.198et/

Multiple Discontinuities
For 0 t < 0.2 ms: X = 2j, 1 = 10 k, = 1 ms

prev page y(t) = 0.2 cos (t 174 ) + 0.198et/
Steady State (for t 0.0002 = 0.63 ms)
X = 3j, 2 = 5 k
Y 1
X = j2 RC+1 = 0.2 79
5
Y
Y =XX = 3j 0.2 79 x
0
ySS (t) = 0.59 cos (2 t 169 )
-5
Steady State + Transient (for t 0.63 ms) -1 0 1
t (ms)
2 3
y = 0.59 cos (2 t 169 ) + Be(t0.00063)/ 1

ySS
Transient Amplitude (at t = 0.63 ms) 0

y
y(0.00063+) = 0.59 cos (0.000632 169 ) + B yTr

y
-1
= 0.577 + B -1 0 1
t (ms)
2 3
y(0.00063) = 0.2 cos (0.000631 174 ) + 0.198e0.00063/ = 0.092

0.577 + B = 0.092 B = 0.67 yT r = 0.67e(t0.00063)/
Complete Expression for y(t) (for t 0.63 ms)
y(t) = 0.59 cos (2 t 169 ) 0.67e(t0.00063)/
Switched Circuit
16: Transients (B)

Piecewise steady
Operating the switch changes :
state inputs Closed: C = (1 k || 9 k) C = 0.9 ms
Sinusoidal Input
Multiple Open: O = 9 k C = 9 ms
Discontinuities
Switched Circuit
Switch closed at t = 0.
Transfer Function
9
Transient from
Transfer Function
ySS = 10 10 = 9V
Opamp Circuit
Transient
y(t) = 9 9et/C
Summary y(2) = 9 9e2/0.9 = 8.02
Switch opened at t = 2.
ySS = 0 V
y(t) = Ae(t2)/O
y(2+) = A = y(2) = 8.02
y(20) = 8.02e(202)/9 = 1.09

Transfer Function
Phasor nodal analysis:

j
Y 5R 10jRC+1 p +1
X = 15R+ 10R = 30jRC+5 = 0.2 j
1+10jRC q +1
1 1 1
Corner freqencies: p = 10RC , q = 6RC , HF gain = 3
Thvenin Equivalent driving C:
VT h = 52 X, RT h = 10R||15R = 6R, = 6RC
1
V = 25 X 6jRC+1 = 52 X j1+1
Denominator is always (j + 1)
Linearity: Y = aX + bV
KCL @ supernode: (Y +V )X
10R
Y
5R =0 3Y + V X = 0
+
5j +3
Y = 31 X 13 V = 31 X 15
2
X j1+1 = 15
X
j +1
Denominator of bV is unchanged by adding aX
1
(1) Denominator corner frequency is always for any transfer function in the circuit.

Y

(2) V = 0 at = , so since Y = aX + bV , a = X = (= HF-gain)
V is never discontinuous so Y discontinuity = HF-gainX discontinuity

Transient from Transfer Function
Calculate Transfer Function

KCL @ V: V4RX V
+ 8R + jCV + V Y
2R =0
KCL @ Y: Y2RV
+ Y6R
X
=0
Y 8jRC+13
Transfer Function: X = 32jRC+16
DC gain: 13
16 , HF gain: 8
32 = 1
4 , = 32RC
16 = 2RC 4
2
Steady State 0
13 13
t < 0: ySS (t) = 16 x(t) = 16 4 = 3 14 -2
13 13
t 0: ySS (t) = 16 x(t) = 16 +4 = +3 14 -4
-RC 0 RC 2RC 3RC
t
Steady State + Transient (for t > 0) ySS

4
t 0: y = 3 14 + Aet/ 2 y
0
Discontinuity Gain (= HF Gain) -2 yTr
1 1 -4
y = y(0+) y(0) = 4 x = 4 8=2 -RC 0 RC 2RC 3RC
t
3 14 + A 3 41 = 2 A = 4 12

Complete Expression
t 0: y(t) = 3 14 4 12 et/2RC

Opamp Circuit Transient
Calculate Transfer Function (Inverting Amplifier)

Y ZF 1 4R(4R+ jC
1
) 4jRC+1
X = R = R 4R+(4R+ jC )
1 = 4 8jRC+1
DC gain: 4, HF gain: 2, = 8RC

Steady State
t < 0: ySS (t) = 4v(t) = 0 1
t 0: ySS (t) = 4v(t) = 4 1 = 4 0.5
0
Steady State + Transient 0 5RC 10RC 15RC 20RC
t 0: y = 4 + Aet/ t
2
Discontinuity Gain (= HF Gain) yTr
0
y(0+) y(0) = 2 (x(0+) x(0)) = 2 -2 y
(4 + A) (0) = 2 A = 2 -4 ySS
0 5RC 10RC 15RC 20RC
Complete Expression t
t 0: y(t) = 4 + 2et/8RC
For opamp circuits get from the transfer function because RT h is difficult to work out.

Summary
16: Transients (B)

Piecewise steady
1st order transients: circuits with only one C or L
state inputs
Sinusoidal Input Transients arise from abrupt changes in the frequency, phase or
Multiple
Discontinuities amplitude of the input signal or else a switch changing
Switched Circuit
Transfer Function
Transient from
Output is steady state + transient
Transfer Function
Opamp Circuit
Transient
Steady state: nodal analysis transfer function
Summary
Transient: Aet/ where:
Two methods to find :
L
Thvenin seen by L or C: = RT h C or RT h
1 a
Transfer function denominator: (aj + b) = c = b
Two methods to find A:

Continuity: VC = 0 or IL = 0
Discontinuity gain: output = HF gain input

17: Transmission
Lines
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
Waves
Power Flow
Reflections
Reflection
17: Transmission Lines
Coefficients
Driving a line
Multiple Reflections
Transmission Line
Characteristics
Summary
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7312) Transmission Lines: 17 1 / 13

Transmission Lines
17: Transmission
Lines
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
Waves Previously assume that any change in vS (t) appears instantly at vR (t).
Power Flow
Reflections
Reflection
Coefficients
This is not true.
Driving a line
Transmission Line
If fact signals travel at around half the speed of light (c = 30 cm/ns).
Characteristics
Summary Reason: all wires have capacitance to ground and to neighbouring
conductors and also self-inductance. It takes time to change the current
through an inductor or voltage across a capacitor.
A transmission line is a wire with a uniform goemetry along its length: the
capacitance and inductance of any segment is proportional to its length.
We represent as a large number of small inductors and capacitors spaced
along the line.
The signal speed along a transmisison line is predictable.
Transmission Line Equations
17: Transmission
Lines Short section of line x long.
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
v(x, t) and i(x, t) depend on both position
Equations and time.
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations Small x ignore 2nd order derivatives:
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward v(x,t)
v(x+x,t) v
Waves
t =t , t .
Power Flow
Reflections Capacitor equation: C v i
t = i(x, t) i(x + x, t) = x x
Reflection
i v
Coefficients Inductor equation: L t = v(x, t) v(x + x, t) = x x
Driving a line
Transmission Line Transmission Line Equations
Characteristics
C L
Summary Substitute C0 = x and L0 = x C0 v i
t = x
where C0 and L0 are capacitance and i v
L0 t = x
inductance per unit length.
General solution to two simultaneous partial differential equations will
include two arbitrary functions (instead of the arbitrary constants that you
get with ordinary differential equations).

[Deriving the Transmission Line Equations]
This note provides slightly more detail about how we derive the transmission line equations. By ex-
panding v(x + x, t) and i(x + x, t) as Taylor Series, we can write
v i
v(x + x, t) = v(x, t) + x (x, t) + O(x2 ) and i(x + x, t) = i(x, t) + x (x, t) + O(x2 ).
x x
From the diagram on the previous page, the voltage across the capacitor is v(x + x, t) and so the
capacitor equation is
v
C (x + x, t) = i(x, t) i(x + x, t).
t
Substituting in the Taylor series expansions for v(x + x, t) and i(x + x, t) and also substituting
C = C0 x results in
2v

v i
C0 x (x, t) + x (x, t) + O(x2 ) = x (x, t) O(x2 )
t xt x
2v

v i
C0 (x, t) + x (x, t) + O(x2 ) = (x, t) O(x).
t xt x
Finally, we let x 0 and so all the terms that are O(x) or smaller disappear which leaves
v i
C0 (x, t) = (x, t).
t x
i v
The inductor equation, L0 t = x , can be derived in a similar way.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7312) Transmission Lines: 17 note 1 of slide 3

Solution to Transmission Line Equations
17: Transmission
Lines Transmission Line Equations: C0 v
t = i
x
i
L0 t v
= x
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations
Solution to
General solution: v(t, x) = f (t ux ) + g(t + ux )
Transmission Line
Equations
x
f (t u x
)g(t+ u )
Forward Wave i(t, x) = Z0
Forward + Backward
Waves q q
1 L0
Power Flow where u = L0 C0 and Z0 = C0 .
Reflections
Reflection
Coefficients
Driving a line u is the propagation velocity and Z0 is the characteristic impedance.
Transmission Line
Characteristics
f () and g() can be any differentiable functions.
Summary
Verify by substitution:
x x
f (t )g (t+ )
i
x = u
Z0
u
u1
= C0 f (t u ) + g (t + u ) = C0 v
x x

t

Forward Wave
17: Transmission
Lines u = 15 cm/ns
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Equations
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
Waves
At x = 0 cm [N], f(t-0/u) f(t-45/u) f(t-90/u)
Power Flow vS (t) = f (t u0 )
Reflections
Reflection
Coefficients At x = 45 cm [N], 0 2 4 6 8
Time (ns)
10
Driving a line 45
v(45, t) = f (t u )
Transmission Line
Characteristics f (t 45
u ) is the same as f (t) but delayed by 45
u = 3 ns.
Summary
At x = 90 cm [N], vR (t) = f (t 90 u ); now delayed by 6 ns.
Waveform at x = 0 completely determines the waveform everywhere else.
Snapshot at t0 = 4 ns:
t = 4 ns f(4-x/u)
the waveform has just
arrived at the point
0 20 40 60 80
x = ut0 = 60 cm. Position (cm)
f (t ux ) is a wave travelling forward (i.e. towards +x) along the line.

Forward + Backward Waves
17: Transmission
Lines Similarly g(t + ux ) is a wave travelling backwards, i.e. in the x direction.
Transmission Lines
f(t-0/u) g(t+0/u)
Transmission Line
Equations
v(x, t) = x=0
Solution to f (t ux ) + g(t + ux ) x=45

f(t-45/u)+g(t+45/u)
Transmission Line
Equations g(t+90/u) f(t-90/u)
Forward Wave At x = 0 cm [N], x=90
Forward +
Backward Waves
vS (t) = f (t) + g(t) 0 2 4 6 8 Time (ns) 10
Power Flow
Reflections
Reflection
Coefficients At x = 45 cm [N], g is only 1 ns behind f and they add together.
Driving a line
At x = 90 cm [N], g starts at t = 1 and f starts at t = 6.
Transmission Line
Characteristics
Summary
Snapshots: f(2-x/u)+g(2-x/u)
At t = 2 ns f and g have not

yet met. 0
t = 2 ns
20 40 60 80
Position (cm)
f(5-x/u)+g(5-x/u)
By t = 5 ns, f and g have
just crossed.
0 20 40 60 80
t = 5 ns Position (cm)
Magically, f and g pass through each other entirely unaltered

Power Flow
17: Transmission x x

Lines Define fx (t) = f t and gx (t) = g t +
u u to be the forward and
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line backward waveforms at any point, x.
Equations
Solution to i is always
Transmission Line
Equations measured in the
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
+ve x direction.
Waves
Power Flow
Reflections
Reflection
Coefficients
Then vx (t) = fx (t) + gx (t) and ix (t) = Z01 (fx (t) gx (t)).
Driving a line Note: Knowing the waveform fx (t) or gx (t) at any position x, tells you it at
all other positions: fy (t) = fx t yx and gy (t) = gx t + yx

Transmission Line u u .
Characteristics
Summary
Power Flow
The power transferred into the shaded region across the boundary at x is
Px (t) = vx (t)ix (t) = Z01 (fx (t) + gx (t)) (fx (t) gx (t))
fx2 (t) 2
gx (t)
= Z0 Z0
fx carries power into shaded area and gx carries power out independently.
Power travels in the same direction as the wave.
The same power as would be absorbed by a [ficticious] resistor of value Z0 .

Reflections
17: Transmission
Lines
vx = fx + gx
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
ix = Z01 (fx gx )
Equations
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
Waves From Ohms law at x = L, we have vL (t) = iL (t)RL
Power Flow
Reflections Hence (fL (t) + gL (t)) = Z01 (fL (t) gL (t)) RL
Reflection
Coefficients
From this: gL (t) = R L Z0
RL +Z0 fL (t)
(t)
We define the reflection coefficient: L = gfLL (t)
Driving a line
Multiple Reflections = R L Z0
RL +Z0 = +0.5
Transmission Line
Characteristics Substituting gL (t) = L fL (t) gives
Summary
vL (t) = (1 + L ) fL (t) and iL (t) = (1 L ) Z01 fL (t)
v0(t) i0(t)
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Time (ns) Time (ns)
2L
i.e. delayed by 2L

At source end: g0 (t) = L f0 t uu = 12 ns.
Note that the reflected current has been multiplied by .

Reflection Coefficients
17: Transmission R
1 1
Lines RZ0 Z0
Transmission Lines
= R+Z0 = R
+1
Z0
Transmission Line 0

Equations vL (t)
Solution to f (t) = 1 +
Transmission Line -1
iL (t)Z0 0 1 2 3 4 5
f (t) = 1
Equations RZ-1
0
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward R
Waves
depends on the ratio Z0 .
Power Flow
Reflections R vL (t) iL (t)Z0
Reflection Z0 f (t) f (t) Comment
Coefficients
Driving a line +1 2 0 Open circuit: vL = 2f , iL 0
Transmission Line
3 +0.5 1.5 0.5 R > Z0 > 0
Characteristics 1 0 1 1 Matched: No reflection at all
Summary
1
3 0.5 0.5 1.5 R < Z0 < 0
2f
0 1 0 2 Short circuit: vL 0, iL = Z0
vL 1+
Note: Reverse mapping is R = iL = 1 Z0
Remember: {1, +1} and increases with R.

Driving a line
17: Transmission
Lines
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
vx = fx + gx
Equations ix = fxZg
0
x
Solution to
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward
Waves From Ohms law at x = 0, we have v0 (t) = vS (t) i0 (t)RS where RS is
Power Flow
Reflections the Thvenin resistance of the voltage source.
Reflection
f0 g0
Coefficients
Driving a line
Substituting v0 (t) = f0 + g0 and i0 (t) = Z0 leads to:
Z0 RS Z0
f0 (t) = RS +Z0 vS (t) + RS +Z0 g0 (t) , 0 vS (t) + 0 g0 (t)
Transmission Line
Characteristics
Summary
So f0 (t) is the superposition of two terms:
(1) Input vS (t) multiplied by 0 = RSZ+Z0
0
which is the same as a
potential divider if you replace the line with a [ficticious] resistor Z0 .
(2) The incoming backward wave, g0 (t), multiplied by a reflection
coefficient: 0 = R S Z0
RS +Z0 .
100 20100
For RS = 20: 0 = 20+100 = 0.83 and 0 = 20+100 = 0.67.

17: Transmission
Lines 0 = 23
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
L = 12
Equations
Solution to
vx = fx + gx
Transmission Line
Equations
Forward Wave Each extra bit of f0 is f 0(t)
Forward + Backward
Waves delayed by 2L
u (=12 ns)
Power Flow
Reflections
and multiplied by L 0 : 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)
Reflection
Coefficients f0 (t)
P= gL(t)
Driving a line i i 2Li

Multiple i=0 0 L 0 vS t u
Reflections
Transmission Line L

Characteristics gL (t) = L f0 t u
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)
Summary
v0(t)
v0 (t) =
L

f0 (t) + gL t u
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)
vL (t) = vL(t)
L

f0 t u + gL (t)
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (ns)

Transmission Line Characteristics
17: Transmission
Lines Integrated circuits & Printed circuit boards
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
High speed digital or high frequency analog
Equations interconnections
Solution to
Transmission Line Z0 100 , u 15 cm/ns.
Equations
Forward Wave
Forward + Backward Long Cables
Waves
Power Flow Coaxial cable (coax): unaffacted by external fields;
Reflections
Reflection
use for antennae and instrumentation.
Coefficients
Driving a line
Z0 = 50 or 75 , u 25 cm/ns.
Multiple Reflections Twisted Pairs: cheaper and thinner than coax and
Transmission Line
Characteristics resistant to magnetic fields; use for computer network
Summary
and telephone cabling. Z0 100 , u 19 cm/ns.
When do you have to bother?

Answer: long cables or high frequencies. You can completely ignore
u
transmission line effects if length frequency = wavelength.
Audio (< 20 kHz) never matters.
Computers (1 GHz) usually matters.
Radio/TV usually matters.

[Transmission Line Grounds]
Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards normally have a ground plane covering the entire circuit
with very low impedance; this typically forms one entire layer of a multilayer printed circuit board. For
transmission lines in these systems, we can assume that all the inductance is in the signal path and use
a common ground reference for all points in the circuit. This is what we have assumed in these notes.
For long coax or twisted pair cables, both conductors have significant inductance and it is not longer
true that the ground signal is the same at both ends of the line. In such circumstances, exactly the
same transmission line equations apply (,), but now we draw both wires explicitly and must measure
the voltages vx (t), fx (t) and gx (t) relative to the ground at position x.
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7312) Transmission Lines: 17 note 1 of slide 12

Summary
17: Transmission
Lines Signals travel at around u 21 c = 15 cm/ns.
Transmission Lines
Transmission Line
Only matters for high frequencies or long cables.
Equations
Solution to
Transmission Line
Forward and backward waves travel along the line:
Equations x x

Forward Wave fx (t) = f0 t u and gx (t) = g0 t + u
Forward + Backward
Waves Knowing fx and gx at any single x position tells you everything
Power Flow
Reflections fx gx
Reflection
Voltage and current are: vx = fx + gx and ix = Z0
Coefficients
Driving a line Terminating line with R at x = L links the forward and backward waves:
Transmission Line
Characteristics
backward wave is gL = L fL where L = RZ R+Z0
0
Summary
the reflection coefficient, L {1, +1} and increases with R
R = Z0 avoids reflections: matched termination.
Reflections go on for ever unless one or both ends are matched.
f is infinite sum of copies of the input signal delayed successively
by the round-trip delay, 2L
u , and multiplied by L 0 .

18: Phasors and
Transmission Lines
Phasors and
transmision lines
Phasor Relationships
Phasor Reflection
Standing Waves
Summary
Merry Xmas
18: Phasors and Transmission Lines
E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7329) Phasors and Transmission Lines: 18 1 / 7

Phasors and transmision lines
18: Phasors and

For a transmission line: x x

Transmission Lines v(t, x) = f t u+g t+ u and
Phasors and x x

transmision lines i(t, x) = Z0 f (t u ) g(t + u )
1
Phasor Reflection We can use phasors to eliminate t from the equations if f () and g() are
Standing Waves
Summary
sinusoidal with the same : f0 (t) = A cos (t + ) F0 = Aej .
Merry Xmas
x x

Then fx (t) = f (t u ) = A cos t u +
Fx = Aej ( u x+) = Aej ej u x = F0 ejkx

where the wavenumber is k , u .

Units: is radians per second, k is radians per metre (note k ).
Similarly Gx = G0 e+jkx .
Everything is time-invariant: phasors do not depend on t.
Nice things about sine waves:
(1) a time delay is just a phase shift
(2) sum of delayed sine waves is another sine wave

Time Domain Phasor Notes
f (t) = A cos (t + ) F = Aej F indep of t

x u x)
j (

fx (t) = f t u Fx = Ae |Fx | |F |
= A cos t + u x = F ejkx indep of x

(xy) xy
fx (t) = fy t u Fx = Fy ejk(xy) Delayed by u

(xy)
gx (t) = gy t + u Gx = Gy e+jk(xy) Advanced by xy
u
vx (t) = fx (t) + gx (t) Vx = Fx + G x

fx (t)gx (t) Fx Gx
ix (t) = Z0 Ix = Z0

Phasor Reflection
18: Phasors and

Transmission Lines
Phasors and
transmision lines
Phasor Reflection
Standing Waves
Summary
Merry Xmas
VL FL +GL
Phasors obey Ohms law: IL = RL = Z0 (FL GL )
1
RL Z0
So GL = L FL where L = RL +Z0
Gx GL ejk(Lx)
At any x, define (x) = Fx = = L e2jk(Lx)
FL e+jk(Lx)
Ohms law at the load determines the ratio G Fx everywhere on the line.
x
Note that |(x)| |L | has the same value for all x.

Vx = F x + G x = F x 1 + L e 2jk(Lx)

Ix = Z0 (Fx Gx ) = Z0 Fx 1 L e
1 1 2jk(Lx)
The exponent 2jk (L x) is the phase delay from travelling from x to L

and back again (hence the factor 2).

Standing Waves
t=1.6 ns = u/f =50 cm t=1.6 ns = u/f =50 cm

v |v|
1 f 1 f
Volts |F|
Volts |F|
g g
0 0
-1 -1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
x (cm) x (cm)
Forward wave phasor: Fx = F ejkx f = 300 MHz

Backward wave phasor: Gx = L Fx e2jk(Lx) = L F e2jkL e+jkx

Line Voltage phasor: Vx = Fx + Gx = F e jkx
1 + Le 2jk(Lx)
Line Voltage Amplitude: |Vx | = |F | 1 + L e2jk(Lx) varies with x

Max amplitude equals 1 + |L | at values of x where Fx and Gx are in phase. This occurs
every 2 away from L where is the wavelength, = 2k = u
f.
Min amplitude equals 1 |L | at values of x where Fx and Gx are out of phase.

Standing waves arise whenever a periodic wave meets its reflection: e.g. ponds, musical
instruments, microwave ovens.

Summary
18: Phasors and

Transmission Lines
Use phasors if forward and backward waves are sinusoidal with the
Phasors and
transmision lines
same .
x

Phasor Relationships fx (t) = f t u Fx = F0 ejkx
Phasor Reflection
x
Gx = G0 e+jkx

Standing Waves
Summary
gx (t) = g t + u
Merry Xmas
k = u is the wavenumber in radians per metre
Time delays phase shifts: Fx = Fy ejk(xy)
When a periodic wave meets its reflection you get a standing wave:

Oscillation amplitude varies with x: 1 + L e
2jk(Lx)

Max amplitude of (1 + |L |) occurs every 2

Merry Xmas

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E1.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 1 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 2 / 16

Email me with any errors or confusions in slides or problems/answers

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 3 / 16

The function of the circuit is determined by which components are

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 4 / 16

Consequence: Charge never accumulates in a conductor: everywhere in a

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 6 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 7 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 8 / 16

The potential difference between A and the ground reference, G, is written

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 9 / 16

For a resistor, I V and VI = R, its resistance which is measured in Ohms

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 10 / 16

To measure the voltage in a physical circuit, you use a voltmeter (V

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 note 1 of slide 10

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 11 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 12 / 16

maintains the same value of 0.1

Notice that I is negative.

If the source is supplying electrical energy to a circuit, then V I < 0.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 13 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 14 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 15 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7003) Introduction: 1 16 / 16

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 1 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 2 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 3 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 4 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 5 / 13

Approximate Voltage Divider:

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 6 / 13

where GP = G1 + G2 + G3 is the total conductance of the parallel

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 7 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 8 / 13

Much simpler - although none of the original currents I1 , , I5 are now

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 9 / 13

Important: The equivalent resistance of parallel resistors is always less than

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 10 / 13

Series: 2.1 k + 1.2 k = 3.3 k

Sadly this method does not always

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 11 / 13

The equivalent resistance for a battery

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 12 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2014-5236) Resistor Circuits: 2 13 / 13

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 1 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 2 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 3 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 4 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 5 / 12

(4) Solve the equations: X = 4

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 6 / 12

(X V1 )G1 + (X V2 )G2 + (X V3 )G3 = 0

Voltage X is the average of V1 , V2 , V3 weighted by the conductances.

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 7 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 8 / 12

(5) Solve all three equations to find X, Y and IS in terms of U :

(5) Solve the two equations: X = 1 and VS = 2

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 10 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 11 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7020) Nodal Analysis: 3 12 / 12

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7087) Linearity and Superposition: 4 1 / 10

E1.1 Analysis of Circuits (2015-7087) Linearity and Superposition: 4 2 / 10