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ECOENG-4447; No. of Pages 11 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Ecological Engineering xxx (2016) xxxxxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Review

Constructed wetlands for saline wastewater treatment: A review

Yinxiu Liang a,b , Hui Zhu a, , Gary Banuelos c , Baixing Yan a , Qingwei Zhou a,b ,
Xiangfei Yu a,b , Xianwei Cheng a,b
a
Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Environment, Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun
130012, PR China
b
University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, PR China
c
USDA, Agricultural Research Service, San Joaquin Valley Agricultural Science Center, 9611 South Riverbend Avenue, Parlier, CA, 93648-9757, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Saline wastewater originating from sources such as agriculture, aquaculture, and many industrial sectors
Received 22 June 2016 usually contains high salts and other contaminants, which adversely affect both aquatic and terres-
Received in revised form trial ecosystems. Therefore, the treatment of saline wastewater, for both salts and specic contaminant
24 September 2016
removal, has become a necessary task in many countries. Conventional methods (e.g., using physico-
Accepted 9 November 2016
chemical equipment, biological reactors, or a combination thereof) are feasible for treating most saline
Available online xxx
wastewaters (sometimes only for the removal of contaminants rather than the salts, e.g., biological
reactors). However, the high cost of these techniques limits their application in many areas, especially
Keywords:
Constructed wetlands
in developing countries. For this reason, constructed wetlands (CWs) have been successfully used for
Saline wastewater treating a wide variety of wastewaters, and are eco-friendly and cost effective, and provide a potential
Salinization alternative technology for saline wastewater treatment. The current review illustrates the latest knowl-
Halophytes edge on the use of CWs for treating saline wastewater. Though the function of plants and microorganisms
Halophilic microorganisms in CWs is sometimes inhibited by salts, acceptable treatment effectiveness can still be achieved by screen-
Substrates ing halophyte, optimizing wetland structure and operation parameters, and by exploring the application
of halophilic microorganisms. Factors inuencing the effectiveness of CWs for saline wastewater treat-
ment include; wetland structures, operation parameters, water pH, and temperature. Future studies are
recommended on the removal of different types of target contaminants, strategies for strengthening the
purication process, and on conducting large-scale eld experiments under real-world conditions.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Source of saline wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Environmental issues related to saline wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Treatment technologies for saline wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5. Use of CWs for saline wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.1. Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.2. Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.3. Substrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
5.4. Other factors inuencing the efciency of CWs for saline wastewater treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
6. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: zhuhui@iga.ac.cn (H. Zhu).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.11.005
0925-8574/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Liang, Y., et al., Constructed wetlands for saline wastewater treatment: A review. Ecol. Eng. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.11.005
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1. Introduction
With the development of industry, agriculture, and aquacul-
ture, various types and large amounts of salts are consequently
produced, and/or are naturally occurring. These salts (referred to
cations and anions, but heavy metals are not included) are dis-
charged together with other contaminants (e.g., organic matter and
heavy metals) as saline wastewater (Lefebvre and Moletta, 2006).
The continuously increasing discharge of saline wastewater with-
out any treatment has been threatening aquatic, terrestrial, and
wetland ecosystems. The treatment of saline wastewater, for both
salts and specic contaminants removal, is therefore an urgent
task in many countries. Conventional treatment plants offer fea-
sible methods for treating saline wastewater. However, most of
these methods use sophisticated equipment, which require large
economic investments and consume vast amounts of energy. More-
over, these conventional methods are ineffective in controlling
diffuse pollution (usually refers to non-point source pollution)
(Wu et al., 2013a,b). For the treatment of saline wastewater, con-
structed wetlands (CWs) outperform many other processes. They
have received increasing attention in recent years, especially in
developing countries, because of their minimal costs, convenient
operation, eco-friendly characteristics, and aesthetic value (Zhi and
Ji, 2012; Li et al., 2007; Katsenovich et al., 2009; Zhang et al., 2009).
There are a few documented cases where CWs have been
successfully used for treating saline wastewater originating from
multiple sources such as industrial sectors and mariculture
(Vymazal, 2014). However, a comprehensive assessment regard-
ing the feasibility of using CWs for treating saline wastewater is not
available. In addition, the key purication mechanisms of CWs for
specic contaminants under saline conditions, and the interaction
among salts, target contaminants, and wetlands remains unclear.
Therefore, the objectives of this review are: (1) list the major
sources of saline wastewaters and their environmental impacts;
(2) summarize the function and mechanisms of plants, microor-
ganisms, and substrates in CWs for saline wastewater treatment;
and (3) discuss the factors that can potentially inuence the ef-
ciency of CWs. This review paper offers guidance for subsequent
studies on the treatment of various saline wastewaters by CWs.
2. Source of saline wastewater
The composition and concentration of saline wastewaters
depend on their sources. The major sources of saline wastewater
include; agricultural drainage in regions exhibiting soil salinization
problems, aquaculture in coastal zones, various industrial sectors,
and other secondary sources such as concentrated efuent orig-
inating from membrane or electrodialysis equipment (Xiao and
Roberts, 2010; Vymazal, 2014).
Soil salinization enhanced by high rates of evapotranspiration is
a prominent problem in arid and semi-arid regions (Williams, 1999;
Jayawardane et al., 2001; Freedman et al., 2014). Currently, about
7% of the worlds land surface and over 20% of the worlds agri-
cultural land are threatened by salinization (Li et al., 2014; Zhang
et al., 2015). Saline farmland becomes a source of saline wastewater
when excessive irrigation or rainfall occurs. For example, agricul-
ture activities were shown to contribute to saline inland water in
Australia (Williams, 2001). The drainage water originating from
saline farmland carries not only salts (carbonates, sulfates, chlo-
rides, nitrates, and borates), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) from
chemical fertilizers, but also organics (e.g., non-degradable pes-
ticides or herbicides, and degradable humus) (Jiang et al., 2006;
Wauchope, 1978; Beltrn, 1999; Ghobadi Nia et al., 2010; Sun
et al., 2012). Generally, the total level of soluble salts is charac-
terized or measured as an electrical conductivity (EC) value or total
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, Y., et al., Constructed wetlands for saline wastewater treatment: A review. Ecol. Eng. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.11.005
dissolved solids (TDS) concentration. In the Arys Turkestan Canal
area of southern Kazakhstan, a TDS value exceeding 1200 mg L1
was observed for drainage water from irrigated agriculture with
sodium (Na+ ) and bicarbonate(HCO3 ) ions as dominant salt con-
stituents (Karimov et al., 2009). A TDS of above 700 mg L1 with
Na+ , CO3 2 ,and HCO3 ions as the major salt during different
growth periods of rice in a year was reported in an agricultural
drainage channel surrounding Chagan Lake, located in the west-
ern Jilin Province of China (Yang et al., 2015). A high salinity level
(EC) of 15.2 mS cm1 caused by sulfate-dominated salts, with val-
ues of 14.5 mg L1 for boron and 1.18 mg L1 for selenium, was
found in drainage waters originating in the western San Joaquin
Valley of Central California (Banuelos and Lin, 2006). An average
TDS of 1800 mg L1 and three pesticides (diazinon, methomyl, and
acephate) with maximal values of 0.1, 1.5, and 1.7 g L1 , respec-
tively, were detected in an inlet of a wetland in the Salinas Valley,
CA, USA (Krone-Davis et al., 2013).
Aquacultural activities have been thriving during the last decade
with increasing demand for sh, shell sh, crustaceans, and other
shery products. China is one of the top nsh (e.g., Cyprinus carpio)
and shellsh (e.g., Mytilus edulis and Brachyura) producing coun-
tries in the world (Cao et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2013; Cao et al., 2015).
The size of Chinas mariculture as a sub-sector of aquaculture has
an upward trend although less than that for freshwater aquaculture
(Cao et al., 2007). Fish farming remains a highly diverse industry in
China and mariculture systems usually operate in coastal waters
at depths of less than 15 m in intertidal mudats, shallow seas,
and bays. In China, offshore mariculture has expanded to depths
of up to 50 m and an area of more than 1,286,000 ha (Feng et al.,
2005). Coastal mariculture requires sea water and also produces
large volumes of wastewater containing salts and various contam-
inants (Brown et al., 1999). Organics, suspended solids (SS), N, P,
and salts are generally considered to be the major contaminants,
although the types and concentrations of contaminants in mari-
cultural wastewater depend on breeding species, culture methods,
feed quantity, and sanitary control (McIntosh and Fitzsimmons,
2003). It is noteworthy that antibiotics such as umequine, oxyte-
tracycline, and thiamphenicol, which are applied for preventing
bacterial infection, are typical organic pollutants also found in mar-
icultural wastewater (Dosdat et al., 1995; Davidson et al., 2008). In
addition to coastal mariculture, seafood processing industries such
as canning also use large amounts of saline wastewater. High lev-
els of organics (protein and lipids), phosphates, nitrates, and solids,
with salinities ranging from 15 to 45 mS cm1 , were observed in
this type of wastewater (Zhao et al., 2010; Chowdhury et al., 2010).
For example, high concentrations of sea salts (Cl : 819 g L1 ; Na+ :
512 g L1 ; SO4 2 : 0.62.7 g L1 ) in wastewater from some sh-
canning factories were reported by Mendez et al. (1995).
Many industrial sectors (e.g., tanning, textile-dyeing, pulp and
paper production, and mining) are likely to generate highly
saline wastewater that contains more complex contaminants than
agricultural or aquacultural sources. Tannery activities, includ-
ing soaking, pickling, and tanning processes (Sundarapandiyan
et al., 2010), usually generate efuent containing organics, SS,
dissolved solids (mainly Cr and acidic ions), ammonia, organic
nitrogen, and other specic pollutants (e.g., sulde) (Ros and
Gantar, 1998; Song et al., 2004). Among those contaminants, about
40% of the applied total Cr salts remain in the liquid wastes
after the tanning processes (Fabiani et al., 1997). Chromium con-
centrations of 1.02 0.13 to 1.56 0.06 mg L1 and TDS values
of 65.4 13.87 to 1281.1 0.96 mg L1 were reported by Akan
et al. (2007) in ve tanneries in the Kano metropolis, Nigeria.
Sundarapandiyanet al. (2010) summarized values of TDS, Cl ,
and BOD in soaking wastewater as 22,00033000, 15,00030,000,
and 30006000 mg L1 , respectively. The corresponding values
in pickling wastewater were 29,00070,000, 20,00030,000, and
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Y. Liang et al. / Ecological Engineering xxx (2016) xxxxxx
10003000 mg L1 , respectively. The textile dyeing industry, which
consumes large amounts of water, also generates large amounts
of wastes during the process of slashing, bleaching, merceriz-
ing, and dyeing (Munnaf et al., 2014). The mixed textile dyeing
wastewater contains strong chroma, large amounts of SS (mainly
refers to ber), COD (some non-degradable chemicals such as azo,
diazo, and reactive dyes), and other inorganic contaminants such
as chloride, heavy metals, sulfate, sulde, and nitrogen. Thus, tex-
tile dyeing wastewater is characterized as chemically complex and
non-biodegradable (Lin and Peng, 1994, 1996; Nigam et al., 1996;
Ren, 2000; Ciardelli et al., 2001; Dantas et al., 2006). For example,
monitoring of the dyeing efuent in Bangladesh during a 10-year
period (20052014) revealed temperature values of 2565 C, pH
values of 3.914, TDS values of 90.75980 mg L1 , dissolved oxy-
gen (DO) values of 07 mg L1 , COD values of 412430 mg L1 , BOD
values of 10786 mg L1 , TSS values of 24.93950 mg L1 , and EC
values of 0.2563.75 mS cm1 (Shuchismita and Ashraful, 2015).
The petrochemical industry discharges toxic-organic chemicals
(e.g., polyaromatic hydrocarbons, halogenated hydrocarbons, aro-
matic amines, nitrosamines) and inorganic contaminants (e.g., Cr,
mercury (Hg), Mn, lead (Pb), and vanadium (V)) (Nadal et al., 2004).
The pulp-paper industry discharges a large amount of sodium and
phenol (Pokhrel and Viraraghavan, 2004; Choudhary et al., 2013),
and mine factories discharge mineral cations (Wiseman et al.,
2004).
In addition to the above-mentioned sources, some treatment
plants use reverse membrane (RO) reactors, ion-exchange packing,
and electro-dialysis equipment, which also discharge water high
in salts. Seawater substitutes and treated wastewater irrigation,
which occasionally discharge sea salts, heavy metals, and organ-
ics, also generate saline efuent (Kortekaas et al., 1998; Sponza,
2003; Hallberg and Johnson, 2005; Cui et al., 2005; Riffat and
Krongthamchat, 2007; Ma et al., 2015).
3. Environmental issues related to saline wastewater
Saline efuents pose serious direct or indirect threats to aquatic,
terrestrial, and wetland ecosystems. The salts in efuents can neg-
atively impact a variety of aquatic organisms including; microbes,
invertebrates, vertebrates and plants. Salts can interfere with the
cellular internal ionic pressure, inhibit the germination of plants,
and diminish seedling survival, growth, and yield. These effects
will further change the communities of plants, microbial, and
aquatic animals in the ecosystem through decreasing species diver-
sity or replacing halo-sensitive species with halophilic species
(Marshall and Bailey, 2004). Saline efuents as additional water
yield would elevate the water levels of receiving water bodies
and enhance evaporation. For example, the elevation of the water
level of the Hunter River in Australia proved to be partially asso-
ciated with the discharge of coal-mine de-watering, power plants,
and drainage, leading to greater salinity levels and potential dam-
age to the aquatic ecosystem (Muschal, 2006). In water-decient
regions, especially in arid and semi-arid areas, efuent with or
without pretreatment of containing salts can be an important irri-
gation resource. Discharging saline efuent into receiving water
bodies, and using saline efuent for irrigation can contribute to
secondary salinization as a result of evaporation leaving residual
salts in soils (Marshall and Bailey, 2004). Saline wastewater con-
taining heavy metal salts is more harmful to ecosystems, because
heavy metals are not biodegradable and tend to accumulate in liv-
ing organisms through the food chain. Some of the heavy metals
are toxic and can be carcinogenic when they exceed the threshold
value (Fu and Wang, 2011). The overuse of antibiotics in coastal
aquaculture and the discharging of saline wastewater contain-
ing antibiotics is also a serious issue around the world, especially
Please cite this article in press as: Liang, Y., et al., Constructed wetlands for saline wastewater treatment: A review. Ecol. Eng. (2016),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.11.005
3
in China (Su et al., 2013). Some antibiotics (e.g. quinolone and
umequine) used in mariculture can pose signicant problems to
eco-environment and human health. Antibiotics residing in efu-
ents can lead to an increase in both antibiotic-resistant bacteria in
aquatic environments and the transfer of resistance characteristics
(e.g., Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium DT104, a commonly
found antibiotic-resistance) to bacteria of land animals or human
pathogens (Cabello, 2006; Cao et al., 2007). In addition to the above-
mentioned contaminants, other components in saline wastewaters
(e.g., N, P, and pesticides) could result in the eutrophication of
waters and pesticide ecotoxicity in living organisms. Consequently,
there is a signicant and urgent need for the treatment of saline
wastewater for both salts and other specic organic contaminants.
4. Treatment technologies for saline wastewater
The treatment of saline wastewater, for both salts and other
specic contaminants is necessary, because of their numerous
harmful effects exerted on aquatic, terrestrial, and wetland ecosys-
tems (Lefebvre and Moletta, 2006). The most commonly reported
methods for treating saline wastewater are biological reactors,
physicochemical technologies, or a combination of incorporating
ecological engineering. Some examples of these methods are listed
in Table 1. Biological reactors contain aerobic sludge plants (e.g.,
the activated sludge method, sequencing batch reactor, biolm,
and biolter), and anaerobic plants (e.g., upow anaerobic sludge
blanket and upow anaerobic lter). Physicochemical technologies
include mainly the thermal technique, coagulation-occulation,
the advanced oxidation process, membranes such as RO and for-
ward osmosis (FO), ion exchange, and electrochemical techniques
(Lefebvre et al., 2005; Kobya et al., 2006; Yun et al., 2006; Lin
et al., 1998; Gharsallah et al., 2002; Stottmeister et al., 2003; Maine
et al., 2006; Vymazal and Brezinov, 2014). These technologies
are widely employed in saline wastewater treatment and exhibit
acceptable effectiveness. However, these technologies have some
disadvantages: for example, the large economic investment in the
construction and operation of the physicochemical equipment, the
vulnerable behavior of the biological reactors, and the generation of
by-products. In contrast, ecological engineering involving stabiliza-
tion ponds and CWs usually requires lower investments and allows
for easier management. Ecological engineering has advantages
when treating diffuse form pollution (non-point source pollution),
which has unstable loads and concentrations. Although it has not
gained as much attention as the other methods, the successful
use of ecological engineering, especially CWs, provides a promis-
ing extension to saline wastewater technology. More research is
needed regarding the design, operation, and optimization of CWs
for the treatment of various saline wastewaters.
5. Use of CWs for saline wastewater treatment
CWs have been used or tested in limited cases at different scales
(e.g., microcosm, mesocosm, pilot, and eld) for saline wastewater
treatment. We listed some examples of using CWs to treat saline
wastewater in Table 2. The saline wastewater referred to in this
review, containing various salts and contaminants, is complex and
more complicated than wastewater containing only one or a few
contaminants. Therefore, it is difcult to simply and meaningfully
give an overall range of removal percentages because what is being
removed varies from case to case. However, available case stud-
ies have shown promising results for the potential use of CWs for
saline wastewater treatment. For example, Calheiros et al. (2007)
reported a removal percentage of 4173% and 4158% for COD and
BOD, respectively, in a pilot unit for tannery wastewater. A removal
percentage of 70% and 60% for nitrate and nitrite, 86% for Cr, and 67%
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Table 1
Saline wastewater treatment using various technologies.

Techniques Type of wastewater Major Effectiveness Comments References

contaminants

Biological UASB Tannery soak liquor COD,TDS,SS,VSS COD:78% Higher OLR and salinity Lefebvre et al. (2005)
Technologies result in a
destabilization.
SBR Pulp and paper COD, BOD, SS, COD:70.379.8% Microbial diversity is Zhan et al. (2010)
alkalinity ample, but utilization
rate is low.
A2 /O Fish process COD, BOD, TN, Inhibition process Aloui et al. (2009)
NH4 + -N, NaCl occurred when NaCl is
more than 4%.
BAF Oil eld COD, Oil, EC(Na+ , Optimal Zhao et al. (2006)
CO3 2 , K+ ), SS microorganisms should
be selected to improve
behavior.
BFB Synthetic seawater NaCl, KCl, CaCl, Best removal: from Surrounding Sudarno et al. (2010)
MgCl, SO4 2 3.5% to 0.5% environments affect
reactors behavior
signicantly.

Physico-chemical Electro-oxidation Picking in tannery TKN, COD, NaCl Current density is Sundarapandiyan et al.
Technologies difcult to control. (2010)
Ozonation Textile COD, BOD, salinity, COD: the best is COD removal efciency Somensi et al. (2010)
color 25.5% is low, but B/C is
improved.
UV/H2 O2 -BAC RO concentrate TDS, DOC, TN DOC and TN: about It could withstand high Pradhan et al. (2015)
60% salinity, but high
energy consumption is
required.
Ion-exchange Olive mill COD, BOD, EC:80%-90% High cost is needed for Vctor-Ortage et al.
EC(Na+ ,Cl ),TSS column regeneration. (2015)

Ecological CW Metallurgic COD, BOD, EC(Fe, The best is Cr:86%, It behaves eco-friendly Maine et al. (2006)
Technologies Ni, Zn, Cr), TN, TP Ni:67%, Fe:95% and efcient, but
optimal water level is
difcult to get.
Hybrid CW Tannery COD, BOD, TSS, COD:98%, Take advantage of all Saeed et al. (2012)
NO2 , NO3 , NH4 + , BOD:98%, CW with low cost and
PO4 3 NH4 + :86%, high removal efciency
NO3 :50%,
PO4 3 :87%,
TSS:50%
Oxidation ponds Pulp and paper mill Na+ , K+ , Ca2+ , Mg2+ It has low removal Achoka (2002)
efciency and needs
more safeguard

Combination MBR Pulp-paper mill DOC, Color, Na+ , It is signicantly Khosravi et al. (2011)
Cl , SO4 2 affected by pH and ion
form and requires high
cost
RO CW Brackish oil eld TDS (B, K+ , Ca2+ , TDS:94% Offer a viable Murray-Gulde et al.
Mn2+ , Mg2+ , Na+ ), alternative for treating (2003)
TOC saline wastewater.

Note: A2 /OAnaerobic-Anoxic-Aerobic Process (activated sludge process); BAFBiological Aerated Filter; BFBBiological Fixed Bed; MBRMembrane Bio-reactor;
SBRSequencing Batch Reactor; OLROrganic Loading Rate, BACBasic Aluminum Chloride; TOCTotal Organic Carbon; VSSVolatile Suspended Solid; TDSTotal Dissolved
Solid; TSSTotal Suspended Solid, TKNTotal Kjeldahl Nitrogen; ECElectrical Conductivity.

for nickel (Ni) were reported by Maine et al. (2006) in both a small
and a large CW for purifying saline wastewater from metallurgic
industries. Nevertheless, the presence of salts in saline wastewater
usually negatively impacts the performance of CWs by inhibit-
ing the function of plants, microorganisms, and even substrates,
resulting in weaker purication performance than for the non-
saline wastewater. Therefore, we reviewed the function of plants,
microorganisms, and substrates, as well as their comprehensive
purication mechanisms in CWs under salt stress. Additionally, the
surrounding factors affecting performance of CWs treatment were
also summarized for saline wastewater.
5.1. Plants
Wetland plants are essential components of CWs for con-
taminant removal. They can directly assimilate nutrients and
accumulate heavy metals into their tissues, moderate hydrologi-
cal conductivity, transport O2 through leaves and stems into the
rooting zone, secrete chemicals as catalysts in the rhizosphere,
additionally they can provide adsorption sites for microorganisms,
indirectly contributing to the removal of contaminants and main-
taining the integrity of the structure and function of CWs (Reddy
et al., 1990; Tanner, 1996; Hadad et al., 2006). A large selection of
plants can be used in CWs for saline wastewater treatment. How-
ever, specic plants (e.g., halophytes or salt-tolerant plants) possess
characteristics that are more adapted to salinity (Hassan and El
Shaer, 2010).
The resistance and tolerance mechanisms of plants to salt stress
are complex. The major physiological and biochemical mechanisms
can be briey summarized as follows: (1) Maintain the balance of
osmotic pressure of the plant cell. Most halophytes cannot with-
stand high salt stress in their cytoplasm. Therefore, they transport

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Table 2
Use of CWs for saline wastewater treatment.
Wastewater Types of CWs Vegetation
Tannery Pilot-scale HSSCW Phragmites australis, Typha
latifolia
Tool factory Large-scale FSCW Eichhornia crassipes, Typha
domingensis, and Panicum
elephantipes
Textile Lab-scale hybrid CW Phragmites australis, Dracaena
sanderiana, and Asplenium
platyneuron
Pulp and paper Pilot-scale VFCW Phragmites australis, Typha
angustifolia, and Eichhornia
crassipes
Aquaculture ponds Medium-scale VFCW Canna indica, Typha latifolia,
Acrorus calamus, and Agrave
sisalana
Hydroponicdischarge Lab-scale HSSCWs Iris pseudacorus
Note: HRTHydraulic Retention Time; HLRHydraulic Loading Rate; FSCWfree water surface constructed wetland; VFCWvertical ow constructed wetland;
HSSCWhorizontal subsurface constructed wetland.
excessive salt ions into vacuole or older tissues, or biosynthe-
size compatible solutes to reduce pressure difference (Lee et al.,
2008); (2) Activate antioxidant enzymes and synthesize antiox-
idant compounds. Under high salt stress, antioxidant enzymes
such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase,
ascorbate peroxidase, and glutathione reductase appear to prevent
injury from reactive oxygen species, which can accelerate the oxi-
dation of the cell (Kumari et al., 2015); (3) Regulate hormones.
When plants are exposed to stress, abscisic acid, an important phy-
tohormone to ameliorate the effects of stress, increases in shoots
and roots to inhibit cell growth and mitigate the inhibitory effect
of salts (Deinlein et al., 2014; Gupta and Huang, 2014).
According to the transport and accumulation mode of salts,
halophytes are divided into three categories: recretohalophytes,
euhalophytes, and pseudohalophytes. Recretohalophytes are sub-
divided into exo-recretohalophytes that secrete salts out of the
body through the salt gland (e.g., Limonium Mill.) and endo-
recretohalophytes that store salts in vesicles (e.g., Atriplex Linn.).
Euhalophytes (i.e., leaf succulent and stem succulent euhalophytes)
take up salts into the vacuole of the leaf or stem (e.g., Suaeda Forsk.
ex Scop.), while pseudohalophytes take up salts into the vacuole
of the thinwall or parenchyma of the xylem in roots (e.g., Phrag-
mites Adans) (Robinson et al., 1997; Zhao et al., 1999, 2002; Deinlein
et al., 2014). Halophytes can also be classied as emergent, oat-
ing, and submerged plants according to their relative position in
the water body (Zhou and Xiang, 2013; Sun et al., 2013). Usually,
halophytes applied in CWs are emergent, such as Typha orientalis
(T. orientalis), Phragmites australis (P. australis), and Scirpus validu,
as listed in Table 3.
The effectiveness of halophytes in CWs has been evaluated
in some studies. For example, Lymberyet al. (2006) tested the
performance of Juncus kraussii in a pilot-scale subsurface wet-
land for treating aquacultural wastewater high in N, P, and NaCl
(690024,500 mg L1 ). They obtained a high removal percentage
of 69% for TN and 85.5% for TKlomjek and Nitisoravut (2005) eval-
uated eight halophyte species in CWs treating simulated saline
water with an EC of 1416 mS cm1 . Their results demonstrated
that T. angustifolia possessed the most satisfactory performance for
growth and nutrient assimilation, while Digitaria bicornis showed a
superior 5-day bio-chemical oxygen demand (BOD5 ) and a removal
ability (removal percentage of 78.9%). Moreover, both species sur-
vived in CWs with salt-rich water and facilitated the treatment
process. Gao et al. (2015) found Canna indica, P. australis, and Scirpus
validus had great potential for removing COD (removal percentage
of 61.570.5%), NH4 + -N (removal percentage of 59.368.4%), TN
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5
Operation parameters Removal efciency References
HLR: 3 and 6 cm d1 COD: 4173%; BOD5 : 4158% Calheiros et al. (2007)
HRT: 712 days Nitrate: 70%; Nitrite: 60%; Cr: Maine et al. (2006)
86%; Ni: 67%;
VFs HRT: 0.2-1.8 days; BOD5 : 7479%; Ammonia: Saeed and Sun (2013)
HFs HRT: 0.7-7.1 days 5966%;
Continuous ow with a Fe: 74%; Cu: 80%; Mn:60%; Zn: Arivoli et al. (2015)
retention time of 24 h 70%; Ni: 71%; Cd: 70%
HRT: 0.58-1.44 days BOD5 : 70.5%; Chloropjyll : Li et al. (2007)
91.9%
Phosphate: 20%; Ammonium:
61.5%
HRT: 3.2days; Nitrate: 42.983.4% Park et al. (2015)
HLR: 0.1 m3 d1
(removal percentage of 61.970.4%), and TP (removal percentage
of 40.447.3%) when the inuent salt content was lower than 2.0%.
Some halophyte species in CWs also showed promising characteris-
tics for heavy metals removal. For example, indigenous halophytes
such as T. latifolia and P. australis in the Gadoon Amazai Industrial
Estates removed heavy metals from saline industrial wastewater,
with a high removal percentage of 50% for Pb, 91.9% for Cd, 74.1%
for Fe, 40.9% for Ni, 89% for Cr, and 48.3% for Cu (Khan et al., 2009).
Hadad et al. (2006) transplanted several indigenous macrophytes
(e.g., T. domingensis, Cyperus alternifolius) to a pilot-scale CW to treat
saline wastewater from a tool industry with high EC, pH, and high
Cr, Ni, Zn, and nutrient content. Of the macrophytes, T. domingensis
was recommended for treating the wastewater.
Although there are many successful studies showing that CWs
vegetated with halophytes can improve saline wastewater treat-
ment, their removal efciency for highly saline wastewater is weak
and labile compared with non-saline or low saline wastewater.
For example, Qiu et al. (2009) found COD removal percent-
ages decreased signicantly when fed with a mixture containing
increasing ratios of seawater and domestic sewage (when the
ratio is to be 3040% (v/v)), in CWs planted with P. australis and
Suaeda salsa. Furthermore, the coexistence of salts (e.g., NaCl and/or
Na2 SO4 dominated salts) and heavy metals or nonmetallic ions
usually leads to a complicated interaction among those elements
related to their plant absorption in some types of wastewater.
For example, Liu and Liu, 2008 demonstrated that salts in marine
water can inhibit the halophytes absorption of metals and nutri-
ents. Fritioffet al. (2005) found that increasing salinity reduced the
metal accumulation in both Elodea Canadensis and Potamogeton
natans. Hu and Schmidhalter (2005) reported that salinity caused
nutrient deciencies or imbalance in plants because of the competi-
tion of Na+ and Cl with nutrients such as K+ , Ca2+ , and NO3 . These
antagonistic effects might result from the competition for uptake
into ion channels or the alteration of the ion carrier type (Kumari
et al., 2015). However, Patil et al. (2012) illustrated that combi-
nations of boron (B) and NaCl effectively mitigated the adverse
effects of NaCl on soybean germination. In conclusion, although the
interactive mechanisms are not yet clear, the interactions among
salts, nutrients, and metals/metalloids seem to depend on elements
present and the plant species. Future research should pay attention
to the halophyte selection for a specic wastewater based on the
interactive reaction of salts and specic contaminants (Calheiros
et al., 2008).
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Table 3
Commonly used halophytes in CWs.
Type Latin name
Emergent Typha angustifolia Linn.
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin.
Lythrum salicaria Linn.
Iris pseudacorus Linn.
Vetiveria zizanioides Linn.
Spartina alterniora Lois.
Submerged Canna indica Linn.
Ruppia maritima Linn.
Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.
Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle
Potamogeton crispus Linn.
Myriophyllum verticillatum Linn.
Floating Eichhornia crassipes(Mart.)
Pistia stratiotes Linn.
Lemna minor Linn.
5.2. Microorganisms
Numerous studies have indicated that microorganisms in CWs
play the most important role in the removal process of many
contaminants. Although there are few attempts to inoculate
halophilic microorganisms into CWs for saline wastewater treat-
ment, Margesin and Schinner (2001) suggested that halophilic or
halo-tolerant microorganisms offer a multitude of actual or poten-
tial applications in various elds of CW remediation. We reviewed
the application of halophilic microorganisms in biological treat-
ment plants to provide information for future CW investigations.
Saline water originating from sources such as industrial and
aquacultural activities is frequently contaminated with organics.
Microorganisms are particularly vital for COD removal. The poor
removal efciency of biological technologies resulting from salt
stress to microorganisms has limited their widespread applica-
tion for saline wastewater treatment (Abou-Elela et al., 2010).
Yang et al. (2013) demonstrated the inhibiting effect of salts on
microbiological mechanisms related to organics removal as fol-
lows: (1) Inorganic ions can decrease the solubility of non-polar
or weakly polar organic molecules (organics are generally non-
polar or weakly polar) that are a food source for microorganisms;
(2) Dissolved ions can decrease solubility of gases, which causes
respiratory difculty for oxic biological processes; (3) High levels
of salinity can induce eucaryons to lose water, which causes fur-
ther recessing or even disintegrating of microbial cells. Because of
above mechanisms, soluble organic molecules cannot be decom-
posed and used efciently by microorganisms. Aloui et al. (2009)
reported that pollution abatement rates decreased with increas-
ing salt content and also that the inhibition process was signicant
when salt concentration was greater than 4% (w/v) NaCl in an acti-
vated sludge process. Wu et al. (2008) found that salinity could
signicantly decrease the removal efciency of CWs for contam-
inants in municipal wastewater, especially organics and N. Their
results showed that when salinity increased from 0 to 30 ng L1 ,
the percentages of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), ammonia-N,
and inorganic-N removed decreased from 91% to 71%, from 98% to
83%, and from 78% to 56%, respectively.
Although the presence of salts inhibits the function of
many microorganisms, halophilic (or salt-tolerant) microorgan-
isms make it feasible to treat saline wastewater by using biological
and/or ecological methods. Halophilic microorganisms are salt-
loving and ourish in saline or hypersaline environments. Based
on their tolerance threshold of NaCl, halophilic microorganisms
were classied into slightly (0.20.5 M), moderately (0.52.5 M),
and extremely tolerant (2.55.5 M) communities (Larsen, 1986).
Halophilic microorganisms are abundant in areas such as pick-
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Locality
China, Philippines, Japan, the previous Soviet Union, etc
Around the world
Asia, Europe, Algeria, North America and Australia, etc
Europe and China
Southeast Asia, India and Africa, etc
Southeast coast of America, coastal cities of China except Hainan
India, tropical America, etc
Temperate and subtropical waters of the world
Mongolia, North Korea, Japan, Malaysia,China, Europe, etc
Europe, Asia, Africa and Oceania, etc
Around the world
Around the world
Around the world
Tropical and subtropical regions, some regions of China, etc
Around the world
led food factory sites. They can be further classied into archaea,
bacteria, and eukaryotes, of which archaea and bacteria are the
main groups. Halophilic microorganisms can survive in saline and
hypersaline environments mainly as a result of their ability to
maintain an osmotic balance under external stress. Three major
theories established as follows to account for the mechanisms of
salt-tolerance in halophilic microorganisms (Lanyi, 1974; Russell,
1989; DasSarma and DasSarma, 2001; Zhuang et al., 2010): (1)
Cell membrane changes for salt stress adaption. Compared with
non-halophilic groups, moderately halophilic groups produce more
anions, while extremely halophilic groups possess typical archae-
bacterial ether lipids, unlike proteins produced by non-halophilic
groups. The halophilic groups thus aremade more soluble and
exible in saline conditions; (2) Halophilic microorganisms have
different heterogeneous physiological structures with respect to
general microorganisms. They can actively extrude Na+ to main-
tain their internal ion concentration through Na+ /H+ antiporters;
and (3) Halophilic microorganisms can biosynthesize compatible
solutes (such as amino acids, sugars) taken up from the external
environment or from their own body under salt stress.
Many halophilic microorganisms have been employed in bio-
logical processes. For example, halophilic bacteria isolated from
Romanian salt lakes were reported to have the ability to decontam-
inate dichlorvos, which is useful on using these bacteria as agents
for degrading compounds that are considered non-biodegradable
under normal environmental conditions (Oncescu et al., 2007).
Ahalophilic strain (Staphylococcus xylosus), isolated from a veg-
etable pickling plant that contained about 7.2% salt, was reported
to exhibit better effectiveness for COD removal when the NaCl
concentration was greater than 2%, as compared with a single
activated sludge or a mixture of S. xylosus and activated sludge
(Abou-Elela et al., 2010). Halobacter halobium, a halophilic bacteria
used in the activated sludge reactor for treating saline wastew-
ater (15% salt), can clearly improve the removal percentage of
COD, especially when the salinity was greater than 2% (w/v) (Kargi,
2002). Wu et al. (2013a,b) used a Bacillus sp. SCUN strain in an
aerobic process to treat highly saline wastewater from pretreated
ethyl chloride production with a COD of 20,000 mg L1 and 4% salt
(w/v), and achieved a COD removal percentage of 58.3%. These
effects were much greater than that achieved fromcommonly used
anaerobic processes. There are also a few CWs employing inoc-
ulated halophilic microorganisms, which may yield meaningful
information for conducting future studies. For example, Karajic
et al. (2010) inoculated halophilic microorganisms (isolated from
a saltern) into the substrate of a pilot-scale subsurface CW, these
halophilic microorganisms were effective for promoting nutri-
ent removal with the greatest removal percentage being 83.6%
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and 31.8% for COD and ammonium, respectively, when the NaCl
percentage was 1.5% (w/v). These observations demonstrate that
CWs inoculated with specic halophilic microorganisms provide a
promising method for treating saline wastewater.
Based on these successful experiments in biological processes,
as well as in CWs, we conclude that the inoculation of halophilic
microorganisms into CWs offers signicant opportunities in the
treating of saline wastewater. Research on the isolation and
identication of specic halophilic microorganisms for different
contaminant removal is recommended for future studies.
5.3. Substrates
Substrates in CWs are one of the main contributors to the
removal of certain contaminants (e.g., P and heavy metals). Nitro-
gen and P are generally considered to be the dominant nutrients
causing eutrophication, of which P has been shown to be more
signicant using Liebigs law of the minimum (Wang et al., 2013).
The removal of P in CWs is achieved by substrate adsorption (Hill
et al., 2000; Xu et al., 2006), chemical precipitation, microbial
action (mainly by poly-P bacteria), plant uptake, and incorporation
into organic matter. Similarly, heavy metals in CWs are removed
and/or immobilized through precipitation, adsorption, complexa-
tion, plant uptake, and microbially mediated reactions, including
oxidation and reduction. The adsorption process is related to a
series of routes such as precipitation and complexation. Metal
cations are adsorbed on the surface of the substrate through
physical mechanisms or into the internal face through chemical
mechanisms or ligand exchange with lattice ions (Dunbabin and
Bowmer, 1992; Lee and Scholz, 2006; Xu et al., 2006; Haynes, 2015).
Machemer and Wildeman (1992) stated that dissolved metals (e.g.,
Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn) in acid mine drainage were mainly and initially
adsorbed onto organic sites in substrate materials over a short time,
although the sulde precipitation may be the dominant step for
some metals (e.g., Cu and Zn) over a long time in CWs. Allendeet
al. (2012) have hypothesized on the removal mechanisms for As,
B, and Fe in planted column reactors applying different substrate
media. Their results indicated that As was removed by coprecip-
itation with Fe, often involving the alkaline substrate, while the
removal of B was mainly related to the organic constituents of the
substrate. Although the substrate reaction mechanisms varied with
different metals, the removal of heavy metals was closely related to
the type of substrate, and the selection of the substrate was of great
importance for ensuring the efcient removals of P and metals in
CWs.
Many researchers have shown that the removal efciency of
CWs could be signicantly improved by optimizing the substrates,
especially for P and heavy metals. For example, wollastonite (a
calcium metasilicate mineral mined in upstate New York) was
reported to be very effective for soluble P removal (with a max-
imum removal percentage of 96% when the hydraulic residence
time (HRT) was 40 h) in CWs (Brooks et al., 2000).Hydrated oil-
shale ash sediment is also considered to be a potential substrate in
CWs for P removal with percentages of 6785% (loading 5300 mg
L1 of PO4 3 per 1 and 5 g of sediment) (Kaasik et al., 2008). Fur-
thermore, different target contaminants might require their own
optimal substrate. Allendeet al. (2012) has studied the effective-
ness of four substrates (gravel, cocopeat, zeolite, and limestone) in
vertical ow CWs for the removal of As, Fe, and B in acidic mine
wastewater. On average, limestone exhibited the greatest removal
percentage for As (99%) and Fe (98%), followed by the zeolite unit
(92% and 86% for As and Fe, respectively). Cocopeat seemed to be the
only potential substrate for B removal, with a removal percentage
of about 6.3%. Gravek was ineffective for the removal of any of the
elements as compared with the other substrates tested. These stud-
ies provide evidence that the removal of certain contaminants in
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7
wastewater by CWs could be enhanced by screening and applying
optimal substrates.
A few studies have focused on the function and/or inuences
of substrate in CWs on saline wastewater treatment. Mitchell and
Karathanasis (1995) examined the function of two amended lime-
stones (with mixed mushroom compost, leaf litter, and topsoil) in
surface ow and subsurface ow simulated wetlands to remove
Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn from NaCl-enriched wastewater.
They concluded that the types of substrate inuenced the nature of
heavy metal removal in CWs. Some industrial wastes such as fur-
nace slag, steel slag, alum water treatment sludge, and coal y ash
were tested by Haynes (2015) in CWs for treating complex saline
water containing phosphates and metals. The results indicated that
all these industrial wastes could be chosen as an active lter media
for increasing P and metal retention and avoiding the problem
of only short-time adsorption because of the Fe/Al hydrous oxide
and CaCO3 adsorption surfaces. The selection of the substrate also
requires the comprehensive consideration of other components
such as N and organics in different types of wastewater. Gener-
ally, the criteria for selecting substrate in CWs includes; low cost,
locally accessible, high removal efciency for a specic wastewa-
ter, good support for plant growth, non-toxic to microorganisms,
sturdiness under washing, and consistent hydraulic conductivity. In
previous experiments and in practical applications, the substrates
in CWs included; traditional sand, gravel, zeolite, clay, activated
carbon biological ceramsite and recent oil palm shells, iron car-
bon alloy (Fe-C alloy), tourmaline, and industrial wastes such as
blast furnace slag, steel slag, and alum water treatment sludge
(Delkash et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2014; Haynes, 2015). Studies on
the performance of these substrates for multiple saline wastewa-
ter treatment in CWs have produced meaningful results that should
be used for future research. Furthermore, the interaction on com-
petition between e.g., P and metal removal, remains unclear and
should also be a topic for future research.
Importantly, substrate clogging might occur in CWs after a long
period of operation, causing poor performance and decreasing the
service life of the CWs. Various strategies such as gravel wash-
ing, chemical treatment, and the introduction of earthworms have
been developed to alleviate substrate clogging problems (Nivala
et al., 2012). For saline wastewater, substrate clogging problems
are inevitable just as it is with non-saline wastewater. Attention
should also be paid to the reversibility of adsorption and clogging
rather than simply focusing on the contaminant removal efciency.
5.4. Other factors inuencing the efciency of CWs for saline
wastewater treatment
In addition to plants, microorganisms, substrates, and the
wastewater types, there are many other factors such as the ambient
temperature, humidity, pH, structure, and operation parameters
that can also inuence the performance of CWs, irrespective of
whether they treat saline or non-saline wastewater. For example,
the total kjeldahl nitrogen and ammonium removal efciencies in
pilot-scale horizontal subsurface ow CWs were 73.9% and 69.1%,
respectively, when temperature was above 15 C, while, they were
only 58.5% and 37.9%, respectively, when the temperature was
below 15 C (Akratos and Tsihrintzis, 2007). Garca et al. (2005)
reported an average COD removal rate of 60% in horizontal sub-
surface ow CWs with a water depth of 0.27 m, while it was 75%
when the water depth was at 0.5 m. To extend the HRT from 3.5 d
to 7 d could increase the removal percentages of TN, NH3 -N, and
TP by about 10%, tested by Vera et al. (2016) in a mesocosm CW for
treating municipal wastewater.
It has been shown that some biochemical and/or physical
processes regulating nutrient removal in CWs can be affected
by temperature. Temperature associated with humidity is an
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especially important factor in saline wastewater treatment. The
combination of temperature and humidity can change the evap-
oration rates in CWs, and physically impact their performance. For
example, because of temperature and humidity enhanced evap-
otranspiration, greater salt concentrations were observed in the
efuent than in the inuent of a horizontal subsurface ow CW in
an arid environment (Freedman et al., 2014). In addition, many bio-
chemical processes in CWs, such as the mineralization, nitrication,
and denitrication processes of N, could be biologically inuenced
by the microbial enzyme activities and quantity. These effects can
be affected by temperature because most of the biochemical pro-
cesses involving microorganisms require an optimal temperature
rangea temperature of 2040 C that is considered to be optimal
for denitrication (Warneke et al., 2011; Song et al., 2014; Park
et al., 2015). In addition to affecting these mechanisms, tempera-
ture also physiologically inuences the growth and development
of halophytes in CWs, and further inuences their catalytic power
by way of controlling, inter alia, photosynthetic reaction and respi-
ration (Kadlec and Reddy, 2001; Bezbaruah and Zhang, 2004; Lee
et al., 2009).
The pH impacts many processes such as biological reactions in
CWs and thus inuences their contaminant removal ability. The pH
is of great importance during the nitrication process because the
reaction can cause a deep pH reduction, dropping to less than 7.0,
while a pH around 8.0 is optimal for the denitrication process
(Lee et al., 2009). Moreover, pH is the dominant factor control-
ling the fractions of heavy metals and their adsorption abilities.
Therere studies concluded that the adsorption of aqueous Pb, Cd,
and Zn onto mineral apatite was related to a wide range of pH
values. For example, zincite (ZnO) was formed under alkaline con-
ditions, while hopeite [Zn3 (PO4 )2 4H2 O] was formed under acidic
conditions (Chen et al., 1997). In addition to its inuence on the sub-
strates adsorption of heavy metals, pH changes signicantly when
some metals are removed through, biosorption processes (Fourest
and Roux, 1992). In conclusion, in integrated CWs, pH signicantly
affects the removal efciency of saline wastewater, especially for
CWs containing heavy metals.
Structure is another major factor inuencing the performance
of CWs for both saline and non-saline wastewater treatment. CWs
are commonly hydrologically categorized into free water surface
ow CWs (FWSCW) and sub-surface ow CWs (SSFCW). SSFCW
could be further classied into horizontal ow CW (HFCW) and
vertical ow CW (VFCW). In addition, a combination of HFCW and
VFCW CW is possible and was referred to as hybrid CWs (Vymazal,
2005). A FWSCW is a sealed basin with a relatively shallow depth
of water (usually about 2040 cm) through the unit and thus is eas-
ily affected by climate, but has good re-aeration ability because of
atmospheric diffusion (Vymazal, 2014). A HFCW consists of gravel
or other media, where wastewater ows through porous media
under the surface of the bed in a horizontal pathway. This type of
CW has a low DO concentration, but greater removal efciency of
SS and ions. A VFCW is far more aerobic than HFCW because the
water is fed in large batches and then percolates down through the
medium carrying more oxygen with it. For saline wastewater, we
do not recommend a FWSCW because the greater evaporation rate
might cause increasing salinity levels in the wastewater.
Operation patterns and parameters including HRT, hydraulic
loading rate, continuous or intermittent ow, and water table depth
are also important factors inuencing the performance of CWs.
Water table depth can impact the redox potential of CWs and
further inuence many processes relating to oxidation-reduction
reactions (Garca et al., 2005). For saline water, water table depth
also impacts the evaporation rates of wastewater in CWs. Contin-
uous or intermittent ow cause different redox potential and DO
concentration by affecting re-aeration process.HRT is an important
parameter that dominates the reaction time of all the processes in
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CWs and directly inuences the removal efciency of CWs (Kotti
et al., 2010).
All these factors are connected and interactive with one
another. For example, high temperatures enhance evapotranspi-
ration, resulting in higher salt concentrations, which could be
adjusted by reducing HRT and altering the water table depth. There-
fore, it is necessary that these factors be comprehensively and
holistically considered when designing and operating CWs.
6. Summary
CWs are cost-effective systems that have been widely employed
in different types of wastewater treatments. Saline wastewater
originating from multiple sources usually contains complex pol-
lutants including rich salts such as NaCl or heavy metals associated
with organics and nutrients. These compounds can cause serious
problems to aquatic, terrestrial, and even wetland environments.
This paper reviewed the potential use of CWs for treating saline
wastewater. Although existing salts in saline wastewater might
pose some negative inuence on the performance of CWs, past
research suggests that the halophytes and halophilic microorgan-
isms that exist in natural saline or hypersaline environments can be
introduced into CWs to improve the treatment of saline wastew-
ater. For some contaminants that are closely related to substrate
adsorption such as P and heavy metals, an optimal substrate needs
to be selected. An acceptable removal efciency can be achieved in
CWs by using a combination of halophytes, halophilic microorgan-
isms, and optimal substrates. In addition to the main design criteria
of CWs, external factors such as temperature, pH, ow structure,
and operational parameters also inuence the performance of CWs.
Most saline wastewater contains both high levels of various salts
and other contaminants in varying concentrations. Therefore, stud-
ies with regard to different types of target contaminants, and the
interaction among salts and specic contaminants in plant uptake
and substrate adsorption, require more research. In addition, puri-
cation enhancement strategies, and large-scale eld experiments
under real-world conditions are recommended for future research.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the National Key Basic Research
Program of China (973 Program) (No. 2013CB430401), the Open
Fund of the State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of
Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration in Northeast Nor-
mal U-niveristy (No. 130026515), and the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 41471406).
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Further reading
Webb, M., Quinta, R., Papadimitriou, S., Norman, L., Rigby, M.,
Thomas, D.N., Le Vay, L., 2012. Halophyte lter beds for treatment
of saline wastewater from aquaculture. Water Res. 46, 5102-5114.