A new device for measuring local axial strains

on triaxial specimens

C. R. I. CLAYTON* and S. A. KHATRUSH*

INTRODUCTION flow, the charge carriers will be deflected so that a

Conventional measurements of axial deformation voltage is produced across the plate in a direction
of triaxial specimens, made outside the triaxial normal to the current flow. This voltage is known
cell, introduce significant errors in the computa- as the Hall voltage, after E. H. Hall, who dis-
tion of strains. This is due mainly to two effects. covered the effect in 1879. Hall effect semicon-
Firstly, the apparatus itself is compliant; the load ductors are used widely to measure magnetic flux
cell, porous stones, lubricated end platens and density; linear Hall effect sensors are typically
filter-papers will all compress under increasing direct current (DC) energized and deliver a DC
axial load. Secondly, since contacts between the output which varies linearly with magnetic flux
specimen ends and the surrounding apparatus are density over a specified range. Various types are
not perfectly smooth and aligned, bedding errors freely available commercially, and linear Hall
will occur (Daramola, 1978; Burland & Symes, effect semiconductors have been successfully used
1982; Costa Filho, 1985). Although the first type in the soil mechanics laboratory at the University
of error can be evaluated with reasonable cer- of Surrey for about five years to control lateral
tainty by careful calibration, or modifications can strain during K, consolidation testing. The semi-
be made to the apparatus to increase its stiffness conductor chip at present in use (Fig. 1) is very
(Atkinson & Evans, 1985), the second type of light (0.35 g), remarkably small and is compen-
error can be very difficult to assess since its mag- sated against changes in ambient temperature
nitude depends on the way in which the ends of and DC voltage supply. It features a single DC
the specimen are prepared. Thus the only way to output which varies linearly with magnetic flux
obtain accurate determinations of axial strain is density over the range f400 G and requires a
to carry out the measurement remotely from the DC voltage supply of between 8 V and 16 V.
ends of the specimen, and preferably on its middle Output changes of the order of several volts can
third. Previous researchers have suggested several be obtained by simply moving one or a com-
methods for the determination of local strains bination of permanent magnets either parallel or
(Daramola, 1978; Brown, Austin & Overy, 1980; normally to the face of the sensor. A relationship
Burland & Symes, 1982), but the apparatus has between output voltage and relative movement
been either expensive or difficult to implement. can then be established by calibration, e.g. using a
micrometer. In June 1986 the semiconductor cost
HALL EFFECT about E8 in the UK.
This Technical Note presents for the first time In most soil mechanics instrumentation it is
a device for local strain measurement which is convenient to use devices which .are both DC
accurate, temperature and voltage stabilized, energized and which give a DC output which is
simple to construct and cheap. The device, which linear with respect to the variable to be measured.
is readily capable of measuring strains to 0.002%, The problem then is to configure a Hall effect
can be built for far less than the cost of a single sensor-magnet system to give an output which is
non-submersible linear variable differential trans- linear with respect to the displacement between
ducer. No special signal processing equipment, its ends. Fig. 2(a) shows a convenient method of
such as modulator-demodulators, is required. producing a magnetic field whose flux density
The local strain measuring device makes use of varies linearly with displacement. Two small bar
the Hall effect. If a metallic or semiconductor magnets are used, one with its north pole and the
plate, through which current is flowing, is placed other with its south pole facing the semicon-
in a magnetic field where flux lines are directed ductor. Fig. 2(b) shows the influence of varying
perpendicularly to both the plate and the current the gap between the two magnets (G) and the
distance between the magnets and the face of the
semiconductor (8). It can be seen that the output
Discussion on this Technical Note closes on 1 April
1987. For further details see inside back cover.
has a linear portion which can be increased by
* University of Surrey. widening the space between the magnets. The

593
 TECHNICAL NOTES 595

However, since the precise track of the magnets

has been found to have little effect on the output
of the system, these should be a loose fit. The two
parts of the gauge should ideally be placed on the
specimen in perfect alignment, after marking the
membrane to give the required position, but cali-
brations carried out with the two parts deliber-
ately misaligned have shown that a 5
misalignment between the two parts of the gauge
leads to a change in the sensitivity of only 1.25%
of the aligned value.
Vertical adlustmenl screvr It is important that cabling exiting from the
semiconductor is not only sealed to prevent the
ingress of cell water but also that the cable is
Bar magnets flexible and does not compress or collapse under
PTFE separator
increasing cell pressure. The only problem that
the Authors have had with this device has arisen
PTFE self-adhesive strip from rotation of the lower pad, when carrying out
Electrical cable
isotropic consolidation stress paths at very low
stress levels on loose or medium dense sand speci-
Fig. 4. Design of the Hall effect local strain gauge
mens. The current devices use three thin single-
strand insulated copper wires within a
heat-shrink outer casing. In general, the problem
This is an important feature of the design, ensur- of pad rotation can be minimized by reducing the
ing that there can be no slack in the measuring distance between the semiconductor and the
system, since the gauge is currently being used at surface of the specimen, by using flexible,
the University of Surrey to measure strains collapse-free cabling, and by using pads which are
during unload-reload cycles in the triaxial appar- longer than for more routine purposes.
atus. The spring also has the function of gently The fixing pads have two pins, each of which is
pushing the magnets against the face of the semi- driven through the membrane into the specimen
conductor element of the gauge. The pendulum during mounting. Although not an essential
arm is bent so that two of these local strain feature of the system, the pins allow an accurate
devices can be fitted on a 102 mm dia. specimen determination of the gauge length, which is
beneath a conventional Bishop lateral strain calli- approximately 70 mm. They also provide a
per (Bishop & Henkel, 1962), with the entire stronger contact between the gauge and the speci-
system of instrumentation fitting within a conven- men. Each pad is coated with impact adhesive
tional triaxial cell for a 102 mm specimen. At the immediately before mounting and is sealed with
base of the pendulum the two magnets are latex rubber afterwards.
separated by a small polytetrafluoroethylene Figure 5 shows typical results of calibration of
(PTFE) block which performs the dual functions the device, obtained from the use of a micrometer
of allowing the magnets to be mounted with their (0.002 54 mm minimum resolution) mounted in a
correct alignment and separation and of provid-
ing one half of the sliding contact between the
4or
two parts of the system which controls the
separation (about 1 mm) of the semiconductor
from the magnets.
The second (lower) part of the gauge consists of
the Hall effect semiconductor encapsulated in
epoxy resin within a brass container; this is
mounted on the specimen by means of the lower
fixing pad. Thin PTFE self-adhesive strip (with a
thickness of about 0.5 mm) is mounted over the
surface of the semiconductor, partly for protec-
tion and partly to ensure minimal sliding friction
between the two elements of the system. Wings 0.01
are provided (Fig. 3) to ensure that the magnets 0 2 4
R&we displacement of gauge ends. mm
approximately maintain their alignment as they
pass across the face of the Hall effect sensor. Fig. 5. Typical calibration characteristics
 596 TECHNICAL NOTES

c? - Local strain
+ External -sIran

0
00 0.2 0.4 0.6
Axial stran: $6

Fig. 6. Comparison of local and external strains

specially built calibration jig. It can be seen that
the relationship between the output voltage and
the relative displacement between the two ends of
the device is linear over a range of about 2.5 mm.
Within this range the output voltage varies by
about 2.3 V DC. Very little amplification is there-
fore required before the signal can be offered to
an analog-digital converter and input to a com-
puter. With relatively simple equipment, such as
might be found in any well-equipped modern soil
mechanics laboratory, the gauge can resolve to
better than 1 pm, which is equivalent to an axial
strain of less than 0.002%. The sensor is light, so
that it imposes negligible loads on the sides of the
soil specimen, and it works equally well in air or
in pressurized water. The sensor has proved to be
very reliable and accurate. It is evident, after the
production of several of these gauges, that their
precise geometry is not critical.
Figure 6 shows stress-strain data obtained
from a drained triaxial test on a 102 mm dia.
specimen of fine Leighton Buzzard sand. The
axial strain measured locally over the central 70
mm portion of the specimen is compared with an
overall measurement of strain obtained from a
displacement transducer positioned on
loading ram outside the cell. The response as
measured by the two local strain gauges is stiffer
than that obtained from external measurement,
would be expected, during the early stages of first
loading. However, the unloading-reloading
response measured locally is still somewhat stiffer
than when measured outside the cell, indicating
that the errors do not completely disappear even
in this case. It can be seen that this gauge is
capable of measuring very small strains and
unloading-reloading behaviour with accuracy,
and that the results are in broad agreement with
previous observations (Daramola, 1978; Jardine,
Symes & Burland, 1984).
OTHER APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT
SENSORS
The same principle has been used, in conjunc-
tion with the Bishop lateral strain calliper, to
measure lateral deformations of triaxial speci-
mens. There is no reason why the designs present-
ed here could not be adapted for use on smaller
specimens if required.
Current research at the University of Surrey is
considering the possibility of using the same semi-
conductor as the basis of a low cost, small dia-
meter, boundary total pressure cell.
CONCLUSIONS
This Technical Note has presented the design
for an accurate, temperature and voltage stabil-
ized, robust, small, light, cheap DC device for the
measurement of local strains on triaxial speci-
mens. Bearing in mind the low cost and simplicity
of the device, and the extreme importance of mea-
suring strains locally if realistic modulus measure-
the
ments are to be obtained from laboratory testing,
it is concluded that the Hall effect local strain
device should find much application not only in
as
research laboratories but also in the commercial
soil mechanics environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Authors gratefully acknowledge the assist-
ance of Mr P. Cheesman, who first alerted them
to the possibility of using Hall effect semicon-
ductors for triaxial instrumentation.
 TECHNICAL
REFERENCES
Atkinson, J. H. & Evans, J. S. (1985). Discussion on The
measurement of soil stiffness in the triaxial appar-
atus. Gbotechnique 35, No. 3, 378-380.
Bishop, A. W. & Henkel, D. J. (1962). The measurement
of soil properties in the triaxial test, 2nd edn.
London: Arnold.
Brown, S. F., Austin, G. & Overy, R. (1980). An instru-
mented triaxial cell for cyclic loading of clay. ASTM
Geotech. Test. .I. 3, No. 4, 145-152.
Burland, J. B. & Symes, M. (1982). A simple axial dis-
NOTES 597
placement gauge for use in the triaxial apparatus.
Gtotechnique 32, No. 1, 62-65.
Costa Filho, L. de M. (1985). Measurement of axial
strains in triaxial tests on London Clay. ASTM
Geotech. Test. J. 8, No. 1, 3313.
Daramola, 0. (1978). The influence of stress history on
the deformations of sand. PhD thesis, University of
London.
Jardine, R. J., Symes, M. J. & Burland, J. B. (1984). The
measurement of soil stiffness in the triaxial appar-
atus. Gtotechnique 34, No. 3,323-340.