SOLAR ARC METHOD FOR THE ANALYSIS OF BURIAL PLACES

IN ENEOLITHIC

IHARKA SZUCS-CSILLIK1 , ALEXANDRA COMSA2

1
Astronomical Institute of Romanian Academy
Astronomical Observatory Cluj-Napoca
400487 Cluj-Napoca, Ciresilor 19
Email: iharka@academia-cj.ro
2
Romanian Academy. Center of Thracology
Institute of Archaeology Vasile Parvan
010667 Bucharest, Calea 13 Septembrie no. 13, sector 5
Email: alexcomsa63@yahoo.com

Abstract. In this study is presented the solar arc method used in the Neolithic-
Eneolithic of central Europe to analyse and compare three sites of the Gumelnita cul-
ture: Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor, Dridu and Durankulak. The scope of this paper is to
find the possible responses by alignment difference through the same culture to under-
stand better the Eneolithic period.

Key words: solar arc, alignment, archaeoastronomy, Eneolithic culture.

1. INTRODUCTION

This paper is focused upon the study of several Gumelnita necropoli from Ro-
mania and Bulgaria. Two solstices and two equinoxes regulate and define sights and
cultures at Romanian latitude. The astronomy has an important role and significance
in the Neolithic time, as well as in other historical periods. The geographical position
of Romania (latitude: 44 -48 N, longitudes: 20 -29 E), its topography, determines
the starry sky what we can see. We should mention that Romania has a geographic
position in the temperate zone, with four seasons a year. Due to those four seasons
and to the favorable geographic conditions, occupations like agriculture, fishing, an-
imal breeding etc. could be practiced. Besides, other populations could safely get
settled and live here, having enough natural shelters and food.
The Neolithic sky must have been so fascinating, that the ancient man made a
lot of cults related to the sky observation. Ancient people had also introduced into
their live the rituals connected with the sky (in constructions, in burials, in fecun-
dity practices, in every day concerns, etc.). As it could be observed by previous
research, during the Neo-Eneolithic time, within Romanian territory, the orientations
were very important to everyday life of the people. In the period mentioned, the
plant cultivation (various species of wheat, barley, millet, lentil, flax, etc.), animal

Romanian Astron. J. , Vol. , No. , p. 111, Bucharest,

2 Iharka SZUCS-CSILLIK, Alexandra COMSA 2

husbandry (bovines, ovicaprines, pigs, dogs, etc.), hunting, fishing, gathering, crafts
etc. were practiced. All of these were important activities to be studied.
Besides that, we were interested in the spirituality of the communities, and most
of what we can mostly infer about it can be traced by the study of their necropolis.
In many cultures of that time, the dead were most frequently placed in the
burial in a flexed position, on their right, or left side, with, or without grave goods.
The position mentioned has been usually associated with two interpretations:

in some cases, it was compared with the sleep and resurrection in another life,
an argument with this sense being also the skeletons with their hands placed
underneath their head;

in other ones, it was interpreted by comparisons with a foetus, which might have
meant the return into the womb of the Mother Earth (Comsa, 1995a,b)

As a matter of fact, every element of the funerary ritual had its own significance and
reveals to us parts from the ancient way of thinking. For instance, the community
mentality determined the orientation of the deceased. The research showed that, in
the Romanian Neolithic-Eneolithic, the orientation relied upon the cardinal points, or
upon the movement of the Sun in the sky. The people, whose basic occupation was
agriculture (Cauvin et al., 2000), mostly followed a solar cult and orientated things
based on the Sun (in an east-west alignment).
The beginning and ending of a season was connected with the solar movement
(or, in some cases, with the heliacal rise of some particularly bright stars). The people
had to regularly notice the equinoxes (when the days were equal with the nights) and
the solstices (when a day or night is the longest in that year). This is how they could
establish what we call the solar arcs (the area described by the rise, or set of the Sun
during the year on the horizon).
If a certain population would have used the annual movement of the Sun then,
the measured directions would have fallen within the solar arc. The lunar arc is
similar to the solar one. The investigation of the Neolithic-Eneolithic period shows
that the lunar cult was also important in that period, in addition to that of the solar
cult (Szucs-Csillik et al., 2015).
If most of the skeletons in an Eneolithic necropolis are oriented between the
solstice points, namely that they were placed on the so called solar arcs then, we
can say that, in that cemetery, the burials were arranged towards the Sun direction
(Szucs-Csillik et al., 2010b). Therefore, in that community a solar cult was followed.
Besides east and west, the Neo-Eneolithic communities may have also used
other cardinal points (Boyadzhiev, 2010). Sometimes, we find a north-south orienta-
tion, like in the case of the Durankulak necropolis, or partly in the one from Dridu
(Szucs-Csillik et al., 2012). During the Neolithic-Eneolithic, the north point could
3 Solar arc method for the analysis of burial places in Eneolithic 3

be determined during the day, as the movement of the Sun and the shadows at the
equinoxes could be followed. During the night, the spot around which the stars ap-
pear to spin (the so-called world pillar) could be observed (Leeming, 2014).
Many Neolithic-Eneolithic communities who relied upon the concept of world
pillar as a major belief were probably shamanistic ones. The north point should
represent a spot where the living people could communicate with the dead by the
facilities created by a specialized person (Lewis-Williams et al., 1998; Hoppal, 2005;
Hultkrantz, 1996). This individual assisted the dead in their journey to the after world
and had the knowledge which facilitated the communication with that realm.
In fact, in the conception of most of those populations, the world comprised
three realms (or even more): the upper world (in/above the sky); the underworld
(beneath the ground), both with numerous spirits and inhuman creatures; the inter-
mediate world, where the living beings existed, the humans being part of it (Chevalier
et al., 1996). The first two of these worlds used to interfere in different manners with
the intermediate world (Kvcstad, 2010) and one of the roles of the up mentioned per-
son was to keep the balance amongst all three, by performing all kinds of magical
religious rituals.

2. THE METHODOLOGY

The Earth has several poles, it has geographic north and south poles, which are
the points that mark the Earths axis of rotation; it also has magnetic north and south
poles, based on the planets magnetic field. When we use a compass, it points to the
magnetic north pole, not the geographic North Pole.
A motion of Earth called precession causes our axis to trace out an imaginary
circle on the celestial sphere every 26000 years. In recent times, the North point
is situated in the direction of the Polaris star, of the Ursa Minor constellation. The
North Star, also known as Polaris, is known to stay fixed in our sky. It marks the
location of the skys north pole, the point around which the whole sky turns. That
is why we can always use Polaris to find the direction north. But, Polaris star does
move and it has not been the only North Star.
Yet, in ancient times, other stars were used for North direction. For instance, in
the year of 4800 BC the polar star was Edasich (iota Draconis), while in the year of
3000 BC the polar star was Thuban, from the Dragon constellation (Ridpath, 2004).
During the Neolithic-Eneolithic period, in most of the cultures, many necrop-
oli, burials, settlements and dwellings had an orientation (Dietrich et al., 2011; Dowd
et al., 2015; Ruggles, 2014; Schlosser et al., 1982; Singh, 2009; McKim, 2008). Ar-
chaeoastronomically speaking, their azimuths distribution shows the features specific
to each culture, settlement, or community from that time (Maxim et al., 2002; Comsa,
4 Iharka SZUCS-CSILLIK, Alexandra COMSA 4

2006). There were also necropoli with a different arrangement of the deceased, ac-
cording to their rank, age, or sex, showing the existence of a strict hierarchy. Some-
times, for instance, men were buried in a flexed position, on their left side, with a
west-east orientation, while women were on their right side, along an east-west ori-
entation (Hausler, 1994). In some other cases, within the necropoli, the deceased
could be arranged according to some social criteria, one possibility being when chil-
dren were placed in a central position, the same as the women and the old individuals,
while the men were placed towards the margin of the cemetery (Csillik et al., 2004).
There were also cases when the deceased of Mediterranean type were inside the solar
arc, while those of Protoeuropean, or Nordic types were outside of it, those people
probably being considered foreign to that community (Csillik et al., 2004).
By studying the orientation of a necropolis we can better infer the mentality
of that population (Szucs-Csillik et al., 2010a). Therefore, by using such a research
for the burials belonging to the Gumelnita culture we could obtain more information
about their way of thinking.
We present shortly the methodology for the study of the skeletons orientation.
By determining the northern axis and the long axis of the skeleton (head-spin-legs),
we can calculate the azimuth angle measured from North in a counter clockwise
direction. These measurements, along with other important information about the
skeletons and graves (for example: age, positions of the skeleton, head, hands and
legs, inventories, other data), had been collected in a database of the given ceme-
tery. Next step was the data processing, where we calculated the distribution of the
skeletons for our orientation study. Accurate measurements of the horizon (using the
theodolite), the North direction and the skeletons long axis are important to determin-
ing the accurate solar arc, and the exact position of the skeletons around the solar arc.
The points of sunrise (sunset) describe a solar arc during a year on a horizon, which
is limited by the points observable at winter and summer solstice. We calculate the
azimuth of the Sun (the angles are measured from the North to East) at the latitude of
Durankulak, Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor and Dridu for the summer and winter solstice
for 4000 BC. For the calculus we used the formula:

sin
cos A = , (1)
cos

where is the Suns declination, is the geographical latitude of Durankulak/Varasti-

Gradistea Ulmilor/Dridu, A is the azimuth. During one year changes between the
limits of + and , where is the angle enclosed by the Equator and the Ecliptic.
Using Wittmanns theory (Wittmann, 1979) and following the next algorithm, we
5 Solar arc method for the analysis of burial places in Eneolithic 5

will obtain the limits of the solar arc. Let us calculate the angle :
= 0 + 1 sin 2 (T + 3 ), (2)
0 = 23.496932, (3)
1 = 0.860, (4)
2 = 0.01532 rad/century, (5)
3 = 3.4 century. (6)
Let us alculate T for the epoch of 1900.0, measured in Julian Centuries. JD =
260424 Julian Days (Jan. 1, 4000 BC).
JD 2415020
T= = 58.989. (7)
36525
The substitution of = = 24.14 give us:

The azimuth of sunrise for summer solstice is 55 ,

The azimuth of sunrise for winter solstice is 124 ,

The azimuth of sunset for winter solstice is 235 ,

The azimuth of sunset for summer solstice is 304 .

This mathematical algorithm is developed in a numerical program written in Maple

programming language. In Fig. 1b, Fig. 2b and Fig. 3b we present the solar arc at
the given geographical latitude of Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor, Dridu and Durankulak.
Using the solar arc methodology one can establish if the population in a given
cemetery had practiced the solar cult.

3. CASE STUDIES

This material culture belongs to the Eneolithic period and is dated from the sec-
ond half of the 5th millennium BC. Its distribution range had encompassed Muntenia
(in the area of the previous Boian culture), Dobrogea (within the territory previously
occupied by the Hamangia culture), as well as the southern part of Bessarabia. To the
south, it covered the east-north-eastern part of Bulgaria, both north and south of the
Balkan Mountains, reaching up to the Aegean Sea. Its specific funerary expression
is the necropolis, but there are also stray burials, or human bones depositions, inside
the settlements (Lazar et al., 2005, 2013; Lazar, 2001). The necropoli are situated
outside the habitation area, and therefore being separated from the settlement, a fact
which shows the existence of a world of the dead which was distinct from that of
the living.
6 Iharka SZUCS-CSILLIK, Alexandra COMSA 6

At Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor (Calarasi County) (geographical latitude 44 .23

N and geographical longitude 26 .25 E) one of the biggest necropoli (126 burials)
belonging to the Gumelnita culture (4600-3900 BC) in Romania was discovered.
This was identified on an island of the former Boian lake. North of the necropo-
lis, the bank was eroded by the waters of the lake, while south of it the area was
cultivated, and thus not investigated. Therefore, the dimensions of this cemetery
could not be clearly established. The funerary rite and ritual of the Gumelnita pop-
ulation resemble those of the last phase belonging to the Boian culture: inhumation
in a moderately, or stressed flexed position, usually on the left side, some offerings
(usually scarce) being present. In most cases, the arms of the skeletons were bent
at the elbows and laid with the palms opposite their faces. Their grave goods com-
prised vessels, adornments (beads made of stone, or shells, bracelets and belt buckles
made of Spondylus, or Dentalium, different pendants), several golden items, animal
bones, etc. When we use the keys of the encrypted archaeoastronomical language
of the ancient people, we can find that in the Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor necropo-
lis the majority of skeletons were orientated between 70 and 114 degrees (measured
from North). This corresponds to the eastern solar arc. In the normal distribution,
we can see that many skeletons were grouped between the sunrise-solstice points.
The east-west astronomical orientation is obvious in this cemetery, showing that a
form of solar cult was practiced: Thus, the sunrise and sunset was observed within
the limits of a burial ritual (Szucs-Csillik et al., 2012). From the aligned skeletons,
about 92% were also comprised within the annual oscillation of the Sun in the az-
imuth (Fig. 1). Another group, of 9 burials (8 adults and 1 child) of the Gumelnita

Fig. 1 a. - Two skeletons from the Eneolithic necropolis at Varasti - Gradistea Ulmilor (photo from
the personal archive of E. Comsa); b. - Distribution of the individuals and solar arc in the Varasti -
Gradistea Ulmilor Eneolithic necropolis.
7 Solar arc method for the analysis of burial places in Eneolithic 7

culture were archaeologically investigated at Dridu (geographical latitude 44 .70 N

and geographical longitude 26 .45 E). All skeletons were discovered in a flexed po-
sition, some of them on their right and some others on their left side (Fig. 2). Those
flexed on the left side had been orientated between 23 and 67 degrees (measured from
North), and those flexed on their right were orientated between 100 and 246 degrees
(also measured from North). None of these burials had grave goods and, most likely,
they were probably part of a larger cemetery. From the astronomical point of view,
the small Dridu necropolis is orientated east-west (3 skeletons) and north-south (6
skeletons). It appears to be a mixed orientation but, considering the small amount of
data and taking into account the fact that only a part of the cemetery is seen, very
little can be concluded, due to the irrelevant data that we have (Szucs-Csillik et al.,
2012). The cemetery of Durankulak (geographical latitude 43 .67 N and geographi-

Fig. 2 a. - One of the skeletons from the necropolis at Dridu; b. - Distribution of the skeletons and
solar arc in the Dridu, Gumelnita necropolis.

cal longitude 28 .54 E) is the largest in the Black Sea region of Bulgaria, with 1204
burials, of which the majority are dated into two main chronological periods Ene-
olithic and Copper Age (5200-4000 BC). The cemetery spans over about 1000 years,
and it is characterized by the abundance of burials and their rich furnishings. The
settlement itself has not been completely excavated, and thus its accurate boundaries
could not be established. The dead were laid in a supine, or flexed position, on their
left, or right side (Tododrova, 2002; Yordanov, 1978) The main orientation of the
dead persons in the Durankulak cemetery is N-S (80%), with a deviation from the
main direction of no more than 30 (Fig. 3). The direction of orientation ranges
between 330 NNE and 17 NNW.
Ancient skeletons are a precious resource, and like anything else of value, they
have become an object of rivaling aims and conflicting wishes. The science of bone
8 Iharka SZUCS-CSILLIK, Alexandra COMSA 8

Fig. 3 a. - A burial from the Durankulak necropolis; b. - Distribution of the skeletons and solar arc in
the Durankulak necropolis.

analysis evolves quickly, never know what further information may be extracted by
future technology.

4. CONCLUSIONS

What resulted from this investigation was that, amongst the cemeteries of this
culture, a diversity of religious beliefs had existed, possibly determined by various
factors, the important ones being the geographic position, as well as the main occu-
pation practiced by that population. Thus, we found the solar cult in most of the Ro-
manian funerary finds, in communities of agriculturalists and cattle breeders, while
in Bulgaria, at Durankulak, where trade seems to have been an important activity, it
was noticed that the cult was related to the world pillar. We based our study on the
archaeoastronomical analysis of the orientation in general, and that of the burials in
particular.
The topic regarding the Axis Mundi, or world pillar is an extremely complex
and extended one, and thus it opens large avenues of study. In this paper we have
offered just a glimpse into its symbolism. As we had mainly referred to the Eneolithic
necropolis, we will pinpoint here some of our ideas about them: In the case of the
cemetery from Varasti-Gradistea Ulmilor and Dridu we are facing populations for
which agriculture was their main occupation. Therefore, they depended upon the
seasons, as well as upon the movement of the Sun in the sky. In this situation, the
observation of the sky was very important, as it could provide the forecast signs for
the beginning, or ending of certain stages in the agriculture, or animal breeding. The
solar cult, in the spirituality of these populations was mirrored by the orientation
of the dead towards the sunrise, in its direction. The orientation of the skeletons
in a certain culture could be changed from one community to another, depending
upon the mentality, customs, occupations and other factors which had influenced the
9 Solar arc method for the analysis of burial places in Eneolithic 9

respective population. At Durankulak (Bulgaria), the main occupation of the people

seem to have been the trade. On the contrary, their society could have a spirituality
based upon the cult of the column, the world pillar, or Axis Mundi. Even if not
very obvious, this type of community relied upon a revered and initiated person that
assured the connection between the Earth and the Sky, the living and the dead.
For the Cucuteni Culture, not much is known about the funerary rituals em-
ployed by its communities, as most of their dead have been found in unusual con-
texts, in the settlements, without having proper burials. Still, the real example, that
of the sanctuary facade from Trusesti can provide us with a hint about the spiritual
life of these people. They might have largely practiced the cult of the column but,
more likely, as we are inclined to believe, they utilized it in some specific spiritual
centres. The same happened in the Gumelnita culture, where the solar cult is usually
found and seldom, under certain circumstances, the mentioned cult of the column, or
Axis Mundi, as has been seen at Durankulak.
Beyond all of these observations we must understand that funerary rituals are
an important source of information for researchers.
It is certain that, if a study of the Neolithic-Eneolithic cultures is continued
from an archaeoastronomical point of view, new and interesting correlations can be
found, which would contribute to a better understanding of these cultures.

Acknowledgements. We are very grateful to Prof. dr. Barbara Voytek from the Berkeley
University of California - United States of America, Prof. dr. Otis Norman Crandell from
the Universidade Federal do Parana - Brazil, and Prof. dr. Marco Merlini from the Institute
of Archaeomythology Sebastopol, California - United States of America, for their valuable
comments and observations concerning this paper. Moreover, we highly appreciate the efforts
of Prof. dr. Barbara Voytek and Prof. dr. Otis Normal Crandell, who had also spent some of
her valuable time to proof our English language.

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