STUDY OF CONSTITUENTS OF ALLOYS

Introduction

An alloy(through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine), is a partial or

complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete

solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial

solutions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution

depending on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different

properties from those of the component elements. Alloying one metal with other

metal(s) or non metal(s) often enhances its properties. For instance, steel is

stronger than iron, its primary element. The physical properties, such as density,

reactivity, Young's modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy

may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties,

such as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from

those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the

atoms in the alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring

atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the

alloy resist deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior

even when small amounts of one element occur. For example, impurities in

semi-conducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first

predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are

made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Brass is an alloy made from

copper and zinc. Bronze, used for bearings, statues, ornaments and church bells,
is an alloy of copper and tin. Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a

single melting point. Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is

a mixture of solid and liquid phases. The temperature at which melting begins is

called the solidus and the temperature when melting is complete is called the

liquidus. However, for most alloys there is a particular proportion of

constituents (in rare cases two) which has a single melting point. This is called

the alloy's eutectic mixture.

Some Common Alloys And Their Uses

AmalgamAny alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are soluble

in mercury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are commonly used in

dental fillings because they have been relatively cheap, easy to use, and durable.

In addition, until recently, they have been regarded as safe. They are made by

mixing mercury with silver, copper, tin, and other metals. The mercury content

of dental fillings has recently stirred controversy, based on the potentially

harmful effects of mercury. Mercury amalgams have also been used in the

process of mining gold and silver, because of the ease with which mercury

amalgamates with them. In addition, thallium amalgam is used as the liquid

material in thermometers, because it freezes at 58°C, whereas pure mercury

freezes at -38°C. BrassA decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc

and copper samples. Brass is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a

solid solution. It has a yellow color, somewhat similar to gold. It was produced

in prehistoric times, long before zinc was discovered, by melting copper with

calamine, a zinc ore. The amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45 percent,

creating a range of brasses, each with unique properties. By comparison, bronze

is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Despite this distinction, some types of

brasses are called bronzes. Brass is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often

used for decorative purposes. Its malleability and acoustic properties have made

it the metal of choice for musical instruments such as the trombone, tuba,
trumpet, and euphonium. Although saxophones and harmonicas are made out of

brass, the saxophone is a woodwind instrument, and the harmonica, a free reed

aerophone. In organ pipes designed as "reed" pipes, brass strips are used as the

"reed." Aluminum makes brass stronger and more corrosion resistant. It forms a

transparent, self-healing, protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on the

surface. Tin has a similar effect and

finds its use especially in seawater applications (naval brasses). Combinations

of iron, aluminum, silicon, and manganese make brass resistant to wear and

tear.
Bronze-

Bronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin as the main

additive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese,

aluminum, or silicon. Typically, bronze is about 60 percent copper and 40

percent tin. The use of bronze was particularly significant for early civilizations,

leading to the name "Bronze Age." Tools, weapons, armor, and building

materials such as decorative tiles were made of bronze, as they were found to be

harder and more durable than their stone and copper predecessors. In early use,

the natural impurity arsenic sometimes created a superior natural alloy, called

"arsenical bronze." Though not as strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in

nearly every application. Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on the

exposed surface), but it does not oxidize beyond the surface. It is considerably

less brittle than iron and has a lower casting temperature. Several bronze alloys

resist corrosion (especially by seawater) and metal fatigue better than steel; they

also conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. Bronze has myriad uses

in industry. It is widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, and similar

fittings, and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. It is

also widely used for cast metal sculpture and is the most popular metal for top-

quality bells and cymbals. Commercial bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90

percent copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin.

Pewter-

Pewter plate:Pewter is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with the

remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a hardener. Lead is added to

lower grades of pewter, giving a bluish tint. Traditionally, there were three

grades of pewter: fine, for eatingware, with 96 to 99 percent tin and 1 to 4

percent copper; trifle, also for eating and drinking utensils but duller in

appearance, with 92 percent tin, 1 to 4 percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead;

and lay or ley metal, not for eating or drinking utensils, which could contain up

to 15 percent lead. Modern pewter mixes the tin with copper, antimony, and/or

bismuth rather than lead. Physically, pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is

similar in appearance to silver. Like silver, it oxidizes to a dull gray over time if

left untreated. It is a very malleable alloy, beingsoft enough to carve with hand

tools. It also takes good impressions from punches or presses. Given this

inherent softness and malleability, pewter cannot be used to make tools. Some

types of pewter pieces, such as candlesticks, were turned on a metal lathe, and

these items are sometimes referred to as "holloware." Pewter has a low melting

point (around 225 to 240°C), depending on the exact mixture of metals.

Duplication by casting gives excellent results. The use of pewter was common

from the Middle Ages up until the various developments in glass-making during

the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Pewter was the chief tableware until the

making of china. With the mass production of glass products, glass has
Nickel silver (German silver)Nickel silver is an alloy of copper, nickel, and

often (but not always) zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance and contains

no elemental silver. Other common names for this alloy are German silver,

paktong, new silver, and alpacca (or alpaca). Many different formulations of

alloys fall in the general category of "nickel silver." Besides containing copper,

nickel, and zinc, some formulations may include antimony, tin, lead, or

cadmium. A representative industrial formulation (Alloy No.752) is 65 percent

copper, 18 percent nickel, and 17 percent zinc. In metallurgical science, such

alloys would be more properly termed nickel bronze. Some nickel silver alloys,

especially those containing high proportions of zinc, are stainless. The earliest

use of nickel silver appears to have been in China. It became known to the West

from imported wares called Paktong or Pakfong, where the silvery metal color

was used to imitate sterling silver. It was discovered to be an alloy composed of

copper, nickel, and zinc in the eighteenth century. Nickel silver first became

popular as a base metal for silverplated cutlery and other silverware, notably the

electroplated wares called "E.P.N.S." (electro-plated nickel silver). It is used in

zippers, costume jewelry, and musical instruments (such as cymbals). After

about 1920, its use became widespread for pocketknife bolsters, due to its

machinability and corrosion resistance. In some countries, it is used in the

production of coins. Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and

plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high

electrical resistance.
Steel Steel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with carbon content between

0.02 and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most costeffective alloying

material for iron, but many other alloying elements are also used. Carbon and

other elements act as hardening agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal

lattice from sliding past one another. By varying the amount of alloying

elements and their distribution in the steel, one can control its qualities such as

hardness, elasticity, ductility, and tensile strength. Steel with increased carbon

content can be made harder and stronger than iron, but it is also more brittle.

The maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 1.7 percent by weight, occurring at

1130 °C. Higher concentrations of carbon or lower temperatures produce

cementite, which reduces the material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon

content than this are known as cast iron because of their lower melting point.

Steel should also be distinguished from wrought iron, with little or no carbon

(usually less than 0.035 percent). Currently, there are several classes of steels in

which carbon is replaced with other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is

undesired. More recently, steels have been defined as iron-based alloys that can

be plastically formed—pounded, rolled, and so forth.

Experiment - 1

Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively. Requirements : China dish,

test-tube funnel, filter paper and common laboratory reagents. Theory : Brass is
an alloy of copper and zinc. with the following. Composition : Cu = 60-90%
and Zn. = 10-40%. Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both
these metals dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to formation of nitrates which
are soluble. 3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O or Cu + 8H+ +
2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO + 4H2O 4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O +
5H2O 4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5H2O The solution is boiled to expel
the oxides of nitrogen and the resulting solution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2
ions. Procedure : 1. Place a small piece of brass in a china dish and heat this
with minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dissolve the piece completely. 2.
Continue heating the solution till a dry solid residue is obtained. 3. Dissolve the
solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add distilled water to the filtrate. 4. Pass
H2S gas through the filtrate. A black precipitate of copper sulphide is obtained.
Separate the black ppt. and keep the filtrate for the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve
black ppt. by heating them with 50% HNO3. To this solution add ammonium
hydroxide solution. Appearance of deep blue colouration in the solution shows
the presence of copper ions in the solution. 5. To test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate
to remove H2S gas, then add solid NH4Cl to this and heat to dissolve NH4Cl.
Add excess of NH4OH so that a solution is ammoniacal. Now pass H2S gas
through this ammoniacal solution. Separate the precipitates and dissolve it in
minimum amount of dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add potassium Ferro
cyanide solution, white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions in the solution.
Result : The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. metals as the main
constituents.
Experiment - 2

Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.

laboratory reagents.

Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common Theory :

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following. Composition :

Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%. Thus copper and zinc. form the main

constituents of bronze. Both these metals dissolved in nitric acid. 3 Cu + 8H+ +

2NO3 3 Cu2+ + 2NO + 4H2O 4Sn + NO3– + 10 H 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O

(Cold and Dil. Acid) Sn + 4NO3– + 4H H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O (Conc. acid)

(Metastannic Acid) Excess of nitric acid is removed by heating the solution.

The resulting solution now would contain Cu+2 ions and metastannic acid. This

solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas is passed when the sulphides of

copper and tin are formed. Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black ppt.) H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2

(Black ppt.) + 3H2O The sulphides are separated by boiling the ppt. with yellow

ammonium sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thiostannate where as

CuS is not affected. SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble) Ammonium

thiostannate. CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected) Black ppt. The soluble black

ppt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is tested for Sn2+ ions as in

elementary qualitative analysis.

Procedure :

1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add to it 5-10 ml.

of dil. HNO3.

2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin completely and then boil

the contents to a paste to remove excess of HNO3. All this is carried out in cup

board.

3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing HCl (1:1) to get a clear

solution.

4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till the

precipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate. 5. Take the black ppt. in a

test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter the

contents. Black residue is tested for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for Sn+2

ions. 6. Analysis of black residue : Transfer a little of the black ppt. into a test

tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of 50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube. A light

blue or green sol. indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. Into two parts.

(a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration confirms the

presence of Cu+2 ions. (b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and add K4

[Fe (CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish brown ppt. confirms

the presence of Cu+2 ions. 7. Analysis of filtrate : Boil the filtrate with 1 ml. of

dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained. Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To this solution

add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and boil it for 2-3 minutes. Filter and to filtrate add 1-2
ml. of mercuric chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey on standing

confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions. Result : The given sample of bronze

contains - Cu and Sn as the main constituents.

 Bibliography

Comprehensive Chemistry Practical ClassXII.

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