From Saints To Superherb

FROM SAINTS TO SUPERHEROES: THE WALI SONGO MYTH IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA'S
POPULAR GENRES
Author(s): Ermita Soenarto
Source: Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 78, No. 2 (289) (2005),
pp. 33-82
Published by: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
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Vol.78,PART
JMBRAS, 2 (2005),
pp.33-82
FROM SAINTS TO SUPERHEROES: THE WALI SONGO MYTH

IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA'S POPULAR GENRES
by
Ermita Soenarto
Thisfinal-yearundergraduate essay bySingaporean

history Ermita Soenartoof
the NationalUniversityof Singapore(pictured above) wonthesociety'sMubin
SheppardMemorial Prizefor2005.Although thegeographicalareaofthearticle's
subjectfallsoutsideofMalaysia, andBrunei,
Singapore, coveredin
areas usually
thejournal,thesubjectmatter is highly
original,
compelling,and relevanttothese
areas initsstudyoftheuses ofmyth, andhistory
tradition, whichhavebeenadopt-
ed bythepopularstorytellers ofIndonesia'spresentIslamicdakwah(missionary)
movement. The study,whichis focusedonthestoriesinfilms, comicbooks,and
cartoons, analyses
critically the textual
and visual ofthemyth
interpretations ofthe
WaliSongo(NineSaintsofJava)and highlights thechanging perceptionsamong
theJavanesemasses oftherelations betweenthesharia(Islamic
and conflict
laws)andtheadat(traditional customs).
Introduction*
My interest in undertaking thisstudybeganwhenI discoveredthatin Singaporethereare
actually 'Wali SongoHolyTour'packagesoffered to Muslimpilgrims interestedin visit-
ingthe kramats (magicallyempoweredgraves) of the Nine Saints. I had nearlybooked
myself into one of these tours but due to time constraints,I had to rely on theInternet for
furtherinformation. the was
Although experience certainly not the same,readingup on
thesepilgrimages helped me understand the grip that the Wali Songo had on popular
Javaneseimagination. Since theNineSaintsconstituted a fascinating subjectfora thesis,
my friend Hendri Adriadi's fatherkindly lentme his collection ofWali Songocomicsfor
Dr P.
inspiration. Timothy Barnard,mysupervisor, confirmed the possibilityof studying
popularportrayals of the Wali Songomyth in Indonesia. Followingthis, with thehelpof
relativesand friends, I trackeddownmorefilms,storybooks, and comicsfromJakarta,
Surabaya,andBatam.
* I would liketoexpressmyheartfelt toAssociate
gratitude Professor
Timothy P.Barnard,mysupervisor;Dr
JanVanDerPutten, forshowing mehisfascinating ofIndonesian
collection comic books; Professor
Associate
IanGordon, HeadoftheHistory DrMaitrii
Department; Aung Thwin;DrStephen LeeKeck;andDrMichael J.
Montesano. Specialthanks alsogo toCelineOon,Huang Nickmatul,Hendri Adriadi,DeniseChan,and
ChristopherTanfortheirmeticulous ofmythesis
proofreading andtheir wordsofencouragement.
33
PART
2,2005
It is indeed perplexingthatin these popularworks,the Wali Songo embody

modern, rationalistic,and legalistickindsof Islamcomparedto traditional, superstitious,
andmysticalSufitypes.Sometimesthesetwoformswouldmergebuttheformer tendsto
identifyitselfas beingmoresignificant. The Wali Songo have also become pragmatic
heroesrather thanmysticalwhirling dervishesas perceivedpreviously. Duringtheinitial
stagesof research,myquestionsintothereasonsforthese'conservative' interpretations
of the Nine Saints formedthe basis of my thesis.Much more difficult to attempt,
however,was to fitthiscase studywithina broaderframework of mythsin Javanese
storytellingpractice,a traditionthathas a verylonghistory in Java.
WhileI was pursuing theanswerstomyquestions, Internet forums, chatrooms,and
websiteswerehavingintensedebatesaboutwhether scholarSlametmuljana's claimsthat
thesaintswereChinesehadbeentrue.DuringthemonthofRamadan(theMuslimfasting
month)in 2004, newspaperarticlesin Indonesiawerealso activelychurning outreports
on mass Muslimpilgrimages to thekramats.ApartfromthepopulargenresthatI had
analysed,thereweresome affirmations of thecontinuing relevanceand attraction of the
Wali Songo to theJavanese ummat (Islamiccommunity). My study of the popularinter-
pretationsoftheNineSaintsis particularly pertinentto thiscontemporary periodbecause
ofthegreatchangesthatareoccurring within theJavanese religiouscommunity as a result
ofintensive Islamizingactivities.TheWaliSongomythology is also part parcelofthis
and
tidalwave of changeand it is in theretelling of theirmythsin populargenresthatone
observesshifting popularperceptions oftheNineSaints.
Of all MuslimsaintsandheroesinJavanesehistory, theWaliSongoor 'NineSaints
of Java'are themost revered for pioneering theintroduction and dissemination of Islam
to Java betweenthe fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.1 Widely believed to be semi-
historicalSufisaintsendowedwithmagicalprowess,theirentryinbabad literature (court
chronicles)signalledJava'stransition froman eraofHindu-Buddhist kingdoms to an era
ofIslamicsultanates.2 Manyindividual talesfromthebabadsclaimthatitwas chieflydue
to theWali Songo's efficacious supernatural powersthatled theJavanesekingsandtheir
followers to convertto Islam.
The idea of thismomentous religioustransition beingmetwithopposition,hard-
ships, and obstacles forms the basis for retellingmythological accountsof the Wali
adventures that have been described as 4dakwah' in
Songo's missionary contemporary
populargenres.3Literaryand artisticpopulargenressuchas comics,films,and cartoon
storybooksportraythe Wali Songo as pious warrior-preachers who advocate strict
of the sharia to the Javanese.4 the term 4dakwahwarrior'to this
practice Assigning
1 Th.G.Pigeaud, Islamic inJava,
States 1500-1700: Eight DutchBooks andArticlesbyH.J.deGraaf, The
Hague: Nijhoff,1976.
2 D. A. Ringkes, TheNineSaints ofJava,trans. H. M. Froger anded.AlijahGordon, KualaLumpur:
MalaysianSociological Research 1996,
Institute, p.xxxii.Sufismisa typeofmysticalIslamthat on
focuses
theinnerspiritualdevelopmentrather
thantheouter(likepractising lawsofthesharia
religious ). Toachieve
Sufis
this, endorse (dhikr
prayer
repetitive ),longperiods offasting,
meditation,andabstinencefrom sexual
activity.
3 Dakwah refers tothreeintertwining
processesinIndonesia,allofwhich areviewed itmeans
First,
together.
Second,
proselytizing. itmeans adat
replacing , orcustomary practices,witha strict ofthe
interpretation
sharia.
Third, itisa calltostrictly
followthesharia.
4 Shariaisa setofIslamic lawspassed
religious down from theProphet anddocumented intheKoran where-
byMuslims areobligated tofollow
certainpractices suchasfasting
strictly duringthemonth ofRamadan,
prayingfivetimes daily,anddonating
money (zakat). SomeJavanese havebeencriticized
as 'bad'Muslims
becauseoftheir preferenceformysticism, andtheir
superstition, laxpracticeofthesharia.
34
VOL.78
JMBRAS
overarchingheroicthemetherefore quiteaptlydescribestheNine Saintsin thesepopular

It
reproductions. is an image thatcertainlyresonatesstronglywithpresent-day Javanese
Muslimswhotypically associatedakwaJi withongoingIslamizingprocessestoencourage
obedience,submission, and stringentpracticeofthesharia. Yet,changein thisperceived
of
identity the Wali Songo as sharia-mmàtà dakwahwarriorsratherthanSufi saints
wouldhavebeenloston JavaneseMuslimslivinga fewcenturies earlier.Reasonsforthe
in
gap generalimpressions of the Nine Saintscan be accountedforin thediffering
under-
of
standing the Wali Songo in earlier
contexts of Javanese traditions.
storytelling
Historical Overview: From Babad to Comic Book

Priorto itsrepackaging intopopulargenres,thecorpusofmythslinkedto theWaliSongo
was accessed throughlocal storytellers well versed in babad literature. Long-term
developments in the typesof storytelling (both writingand reading)methodshave
necessitated changinginterpretations oftheNineSaintsso thattheyand theirstorieswill
remainculturally relevantto theJavanese.This is actuallymuchmorecomplexthanit
soundslargelybecauseof theinfluence of shiftingreligiouscontextson mythsand local
storytellingpractices.
The initialappearanceof theWali Songo mythology can be foundin numerous
babad literature such as the Babad TanahJawi, Babad Majapahit, and Babad Jaka
Tingkir.Since written and oraltraditions go handin hand,itwas fromthesewritten texts
thatoralformsofstorytelling derivedtheirpoeticstyleandmaterial.5 Although they were
writtentexts,the mythswere meantto be read aloud by local storytellers, who were
educatedin the readingand writingpracticesof babad literature, to large groupsof
in
people gathered clearingspaces outside mosques palaces.6 These storytelling
or
sessionsencompasseda wide varietyof topicsrangingfromhorse-keeping to ritual
instruction.History in babad in
writing, particular,
literary is concerned with the pastonly
inasmuch as itservedas a spiritualandprophetic guideforpresentandfuture needs.7This
uniquetextualformexplainsboththemythological dimension ofhistoricalfigureslikethe
Wali Songo and the need to use religiousexpressionsto enhancethe legitimacyand
prophecy ofthewriting or historical
figurein question.8
WiththeIslamization ofJavanesekratons(courts),thereligiouslanguageemployed
by babad writersand storytellers was increasingly influencedby Sufi mysticism, a
'typifying category in Indonesian social life left
[that] clear evidence of itselfin [babad
betweenthethirteenth
literature] and eighteenth centuries'.9Sufismand itsemphasison
developingmysticalknowledgeinvoked'magicalpowerof thewritten word'.10In turn,
5 S. Margana, Pujangga JawadanBayang-Bayang Kolonial

,Yogyakarta:Penerbit
Pustaka 2004,
Pelajar, pp.
8-9.
6 Nancy K.Florida, WritingthePast,Inscribing
theFuture: as Prophecy
History inColonial
Java, Durham:
DukeUniversity Press,1995,p. 12.
7 A. H. Johns, 'Sufismas a Category inIndonesian
Literature Journal
andHistory', ofSoutheast Asian
History, 2/2(1961):12.
8 J.J.Ras,'TheBabad Tanah JawiandItsReliability: ofContent,
Questions andFunction',
Structure inC.D.
Grijns andS. O. Robson (eds.),Cultural
Contact
andTextual : Papers
Interpretation from theFourth
European Colloquium onMalay andIndonesian HeldinLeiden
Studies in1983 Cinnaminson,
,Holland, NJ:
Foris
Publication,1986),p.269.
9 Johns,'Sufism asa Category',
p. 13.
10 Ibid.,
p. 12.
35
PART
2,2005
theWaliSongoacquiredtextualimagesofsupernatural Sufiteacherswhosanctioned Sufi

precepts and rituals.These mythic featuresaugmented by Sufism and found in babad
literature,as theywerebeingorallytransmitted, attractedtheJavaneseto thepotencyof
theWali Songo's spiritual and
prowess prophecies.11
As theseage-oldsupernatural mythsadaptto contemporary Javanesesociety,they
have undergonedramatictransformations. Whilestoriesof theWali Songo continueto
enthral local audiencesinoralandwayang(shadow- theatre) traditions,12
storytelling they
are also conveyedthrough othercontemporary populargenres.Withtheirobviousmass
appeal,populargenreshave revampedthemysticalSufiiconography of theNine Saints
in a waythatcan engagecontemporary readerswhoaregrowingup in a periodof intense
dakwah activities.In theirmodernmakeover,the Wali Songo resurfaceas dakwah
warriors witha missiontoprotect andsavetheJavanesefromtyrannical HinduMajapahit
rule by encouragingthemto convertto Islam.13The strength, magical prowess,and
religious doctrines of the Nine Saints thatwere revealed
initially in babad literature are
now geared towards upholding and defending the sharia, an innovation undoubtedly
influenced by thepresentongoingdakwahmovement in Indonesia.
The dakwahmovementis a vastfieldand can onlybe discussedin briefforthis
paper.It is a reformist projectthatbeganin theArabworldand had spreadto Southeast
Asia in theeighteenth century.14In thissecondwave of Islamizationin Indonesiathatis
currently ongoing,theobjectiveof religiouscampaignis notconversion.Instead,it is a
call to existingabangan JavaneseMuslimsto be morepious and obedientespeciallyin
theirfulfilment of shariaobligations.15 Controversialtopicssuchas theincorporation of
adat intothesharia, Sufimysticism, and local superstitiouspracticesare also tackled.16
At first,local Javanesefoundthesereformsunnecessary because theywere seen as
'un-Javanese' and too orthodoxfortheirliking.17 Onlyrecently did themovement make
successfulinroadsamongtheabangan, especiallytheyoungergeneration, forvarious
reasons.These includestatesupportand financialaid, improvement in the qualityof
religiouseducation,and tighter information-network infrastructuresthatlinkthousands
ofpreviously independent pesantrens (Islamicboarding schools)tothestate'sDepartment
of Religion and IAIN (InstituteAgama Islam Negeri or State Institutefor Islamic
' from[these]departments havebeenespeciallyactive
Studies).18Dakwahrepresentatives
11 Henri 'Saints
Chambert-Loir, andAncestors:TheCultofMuslim inJava',
Saints inHenri Chambert-Loir
andAnthony Reid(eds.),ThePotent Dead:Ancestors, SaintsandHeroes inContemporary Indonesia
,
Honolulu: ofHawaii
University 2002,p. 132.
Press,
12James J.Fox,'Ziarah
Visits totheTomb oftheWali:TheFounders ofIslamonJava', in M.C. Ricklefs
(ed.),IslamintheIndonesian Context
, Clayton,Vic.:Monash 1991,
University, p.22.
13 Maiapahit isperceivedasthereigning Javanesekingdom infifteenth-
andsixteenth-century
Java.
14 M.C.Ricklefs, AHistory ofModern Indonesia,c.1200 tothePresent,3rdedn.,
Hampshire: 2001,
Palgrave,
p. 160.
15 Ibid., 4 ' isa tonominal ornon-practising
JavaneseMuslims.Itisincon-
p.343.Abangan category
applied
tolSantrV
trast whoareconsidered orthodox Muslims. While these arenotnecessarily
categorizations real,
theywillbeusedinthisthesis tomake senseofpopular beliefs intheJavanese
ofsuchdifferentiations
Islamic communityandtherefore willbeputinsingle quotationmarks.
16Adat arelocalcustoms andbeliefs thatprecedetheIslamizationofJava.TheyhavebeensubjectedtoIslamic
reformism, from
particularly theeighteenth onwards.
century
17 Ricklefs,AHistoryofModern Indonesia
,p.354.
1° Ibid.,pp.378-9.Pesantrens arereligious where
schools young boysandgirlsreceive education.
religious
Theyarealsoplaceswhere traditional
Sufimysticism hasflourished.Today,however,withtighter
36
JMBRAS
VOL.78
incertain"target"areaswhere,becauseofpoliticalorculturalhistory, Islamis thought to

be weak.'19It is particularly noteworthy that contentiousissues in themovement areonce
againraisedin modernre-interpretations of theWaliSongo.
Although the dakwah warrior images of the Nine Saints have been heavily
influenced by the social and moral context of revitalized dakwahprocesses,theyshould
notbe mistaken as thehandiwork ofreligiousadeptsforIslamizingpurposes.Oftentimes,
the contemporary popularrepresentations of the Wali Songo mythare engineeredby
unknownauthorsand independent art studios.Theirnon-involvement in the dakwah
processitself was clearly echoed by a komikus Ena
(comicartist), Supriatna, whoencour-
his readers to read his comics on Sunan for this 4
aged Gunungjati purpose: Ingatlahpada
'
sejarah, sebagai cermintingkahlaku kita ('Rememberhistoryas a mirrorof our
actions').20This sentiment revealedby Ena is one thatis also sharedby othercreative
producers oftheWaliSongo myth.It goes to showthattheintentions behindthepresent-
day retelling of theWali Songo storiesare notalwaysintendedto achievethereligious
aims of the dakwah movement.Instead,theycould be historical,cultural,or even
non-dakwah issuesthatarebeingviewedthrough thereligiouslensesof theNineSaints.
The pointto be made hereis thatliterary genresevaluatedforthisthesisare certainly
worksaffected by Islamicreformism, butnotcreatedto meetitsends.
Giventhisperspective, throughanalysingcurrent adaptationsof theWali Songo
mythintocomic,film,and cartoonstorybook forms,thisessay seeks to examinethe
textualtransformation of theNine SaintsfromSufi saintsintodakwahwarriorsin this
periodof renewedappeals to deepenIslamicpietyamongthe abangan masses. It is
largelyan investigation into popularre-interpretations of the Wali Songo thatwill
effectivelyshedlighton historically specificreligiousvaluesand idealsheldby contem-
poraryJavaneseMuslims.This is particularly so withregardto capturingchanging
publicsentiment towardstherelationship betweenadat (local custom)andtheshariathat
clearlyand subtlymanifests itselfin thedakwahwarrior personaof theNine Saints.By
drawinginspiration fromJavanesemythology andsubsequently reshaping itaccordingto
populartaste,theWali Songo in thesepopulargenreshave filledthe vacuumleftby
disappearing traditional storytellers whohadusedmyths teach,andlinknew
to entertain,
generations of Javaneseto theirculturalpast.21
LiteraryReview and Methodological Essay

Ithastobe notedthattheterm'WaliSongo'is a newtextualtraditionfromwhichtheWali
Songo mythology in populargenresemerged.Althoughscholarsapplytheterm'Wali
theyare actuallyanalysingindividualsaintsto represent
Songo' looselyin theirwriting,
theimageoftheentiregroup.
SunanKalijaga is one suchsaint.Mythscentring on hispersonality have launched
debatesaboutthenatureofIslamization Geertz'sTheReligion
processesinJava. Clifford
governmentcontroloverreligion,
theyareincreasingly
linked bodies
togovernment todak-
andsubjected
wahreformism.
W.Hefner,
Robert Java?
'Islamizing andPolitics
Religion inRural
EastJava ofAsian
' Journal Studies
,46/3
(1987):546.
20 EnaSupriatna(writer)andAdhaSugandi (illustrator), Komik
Kompilasi Islam:PembebasTanahSunda,
Bandune:Next Studio.2002.d.84.
21 Martin
VanBruinessen, 'Shaykh'AbdAlQadir Al-Jilani inIndonesia',
andtheQadiriyya JournalofHistory
sm,1/2(2000):373
ofSufi
37
PART
2,2005
ofJavaleads in thisdiscussionbysinglinghimoutas a culturalherowhowas willingto

adapt Islam to pre-IslamicJavanesebeliefs.To him, 'the syncreticIslam of Sunan
Kalijaga' is celebratedby theJavanesebecauseof his accommodation of priorHindu,
Buddhist, and animistic practices.22
MarkWoodward'sIslam in Java: Normative Pietyand Mysticism in theSultanate
ofYogyakarta has,however, criticized
Geertz for notnoticing the Sufi influences inthese
He
myths. argues that the supernaturalstories of Sunan Kalijaga instead illustrate the
extentto whichpre-Islamictextualand ritualtradition 'has beenthoroughly islamicized
[by Sufism]'.23JavaneseIslam is thussyncretic not because of mixingold and new
religiouspractices, butbecause of theabsorption old JavanesebeliefsintoIslam.
of
Thisfocuson individualsaintshas also beenrepeatedin otherscholarlyarticleson
theWaliSongo.RatherthanSunanKalijaga,othershaveanalysedSunanGresikorSunan
Giri,who are believedby some to be moreinfluential thantheothersaints.Also, they
disagree on the exact ninesaints who comprise the Wali Songo.In thisinstance, itis more
appropriate toclassifythesepreviousacademic literaturesas discussions revolving around
myths ofJavanesesaintsrather thantheWaliSongo.Thisdistinction is necessary because
theauthorswhoreproducethestoriesoftheNineSaintsin populargenreshaveconcrete
perceptions of whichsaintsmadeup theWali Songo,givingequal significance to each
saint'scontributions to JavaneseIslam.
JamesJ.Fox has,infact,accredited SolichinSalam'sSekitarWaliSanga [Aboutthe
WaliSongo] for'consolidating thecontemporary traditionof theNineWali'.24Here,we
getan idea of whichsaintsweretheWaliSongoandlinearnarratives ofthehistory ofthe
saints.25Besides identifying thesame saintswho appearin popularworks,he paintsa
similaridea ofthemas dakwahadvocates.Sincehisworkis frequently quotedas a source
in thecomicand storybook genres,thereis amplereasonto believethatSolichinhas set
thefoundation forwidespreadrecognition of thenew textualtradition portraying these
particularsaintsas theonespropelling theWaliSongomythinpopulargenres.Apartfrom
all these,thisthesishas utilizedothersecondarysourceswhichincludescholarship on
Islamizationin Java, the role of mythsin Javanesehistoriography, and studiesin
Indonesianlanguageand popularculture.These secondarysourcesare helpfulin con-
textualizing popularversionsof theWaliSongoto Javanesesociety.
Primary sourcesforthisthesisarereformulations oftheWaliSongomythincomics,
film,and cartoonstorybooks, cateringto bothchildrenand adults,thatwill undergo
textualanalysis.These populargenreswere createdby artistswho belong to local
publishingor filmcompanies.Whatis significant is thatunlikebabad literature, these
literarygenresarenotstorytelling mediaindigenous to Java.Instead,theyaregenresthat
haveemergedgloballyas a resultoftechnological advancesin printandthemassmedia.
In turn,thishas contributed to thelargeimportof foreignartisticstylesthathave been
enthusiastically acceptedbythecreatorsandconsumers of local populargenres.26
22 Clifford
Geertz,TheReligion
ofJava,Glencoe,111.:
FreePress,
1960, p. 123.
23 Mark Woodward,IslaminJava:NormativePietyandMysticismintheSultanateofYogyakarta, Tucson:
ofArizona
University Press,
1989,p. 17.
24 JamesJ.Fox,'Wali:TheFirstPreachersofIslaminJava',
inJames J.Fox(ed.).Religion andRitual
,
Singapore:
ArchipelagoPress, p. 18.
1998,
25 Solichin
Salam, Sekitar
Wali
Sansa,Yogyakarta:Penerbit
Menara Kudus, 1960.
26 LaineBerman,'ComicsasSocialCommentary inJava, inJohn
Indonesia', A.Lent(ed.),Illustrating
Asia:
Humor
Comics, andPicture
Magazines Books, Richmond, Curzon
Surrey: 2001,p.22.
Press,
38
JMBRAS
VOL.78
The analysisof theseprimary sourcesis facilitated

by theirinformal and intimate
portrayalsof the Wali Songo. Such literary are
genres prevalent precisely because oftheir
in
success reflecting andcapturing dominant ideologiesoftheir time. Thus,by restructur-
ingthesaintsin thelightof dakwahprocessesandrepackaging theirstoriesintopopular
forms, thereligiousand social concernsofthepublicpertaining to contemporary Islamic
revivalism are simultaneously beingaddressed.
Althoughdiffering in form,theseprimarysourceshave been groupedtogether
largely because Indonesian comics,films,and cartoonstendto influenceeach otherin
styleand content.27 More crucially,theysharedakwahwarriorimageryand storylines.
Since thesesourceshave yetto be consideredby scholars,therehas yetto be an appro-
to characterizetheWaliSongo in thesepopularworks.Initially, 'silat
priateterminology
(martialarts)warrior'or 'epic legend',takenfromLaine Berman'sanalysisofIndonesian
comicsdrawingon Javanesemythology, cameto mind.28 However,thesesourcesdo not
fitneatlyintosuchcategoriesdue to theirdidacticuse of dakwahthemes.Thus,I have
coinedmy own term,4dakwahwarrior'to correspond to theoverarching motifof the
saintsas fighting, sharia-preachingwarriors whichPartI will explorein greaterdetail.
Anothercommonthreadlinkingthesegenresis theinclusionof Seh Siti Jenar,a Sufi
mysticwho was inductedthensubsequently eliminatedfromthe Wali Songo forhis
disobedience. Alongsidechanges to theWali Songo,transformations ofhis 'deviance'will
be discussedin PartII. Giventhiscomprehensive study on the similar waysthatpopular
genresdepart from traditionalviews of theWali Songo, it is hoped thatthisthesiswill
sketchout a valuableframework thatcan launchotherdiscussionson otherIndonesian
mythsthathavemadetheirwayintocontemporary popularculture.
The thesiswillhenceforth referto thecomics,films,andcartoonstorybooks ofthe
Wali Songo as an entityof 'populargenres','popularworks',and 'populartexts'.The
exactninesaints,includingthetenthone,Seh SitiJenar, whosestoriesare encapsulated
in theseworksare SunanMaulanaMalikIbrahimor SunanGresik,SunanAmpel,Sunan
Bonang,Sunan Giri,Sunan Drajat,Sunan Kalijaga, Sunan Kudus, Sunan Muria,and
SunanGunungjati. Althoughtheyshouldbe termed'tensaints',thereis a popularbelief
that the number nine holds a special symbolic significancefor the Javanese.
Consequently, 'Wali Songo' remains,today,theacceptedmannerof referring to these
saintsin Javanesesociety.
27 Marcel Komik
Bonneff, Indonesia
, trans.
RahayuS. Hidayat,
Jakarta:
KPG/Forum
Jakarta-Paris,
1998,
p. 120.
28 Berman, 'Comics
asSocialCommentary',
p.20.
39
PART
2,2005
WALISONGOIN FILM
Sembilan Wali[NineSaints].Thisfilmwasdirected
byGuruhSoekarnoPutraandK. H.Yusuf
Hasyim
in 1985.(SehSitiJenaris often
leftoutofgroupphotos
becauseofhis'deviant' See Part
reputation.
И.)
40
JMBRAS
VOL.78
WALISONGOIN COMICBOOKS (COMICSA)
Thesethree andSunanGiriarebythree
comicsonSunanKalijaga,SunanGunungjat, different
art
studios
whichcombined
themintoonebookandentitled
it'Compilation
ofIslamicComics'.
WALISONGOIN COMICBOOKS (COMICSB)
comicbooks,entitled
Thesethree the'WaliSongoComicSeries',arebyM. B. Rahimsyah.The
yearofpublication butitis postulated
is uncertain tobeprobably
aroundthelate1970sto 1980s.
41
PART
2,2005
WALISONGOIN CARTOONSTORYBOOKS(CARTOONSC)
Thissetofcartoon
storybooksbyArman hasbeenreprinted
Arroisi timessince1993.Thetitle
eight
hisdakwah
giventoeachsaintaptlydescribes warrior
personality.
42
JMBRAS
VOL.78
WALISONGOIN CARTOONSTORYBOOKS(CARTOONSD)
called'OriginalStoriesof
in a collection
Thisis themostrecentset of cartoonstorybooks
created
Indonesia', byH. Syamsul Arifin in2000.Owingtoa shortage
andpublished I was
ofstock,
unabletofindcopiesoftheSunanMuriaandSunanBonangcomics.
43
PART
2,2005
WALISONGOIN CARTOONSTORYBOOKS(CARTOONSE)
Thislastset,entitled
the'WaliSongoSeries',wascreated
byAbdulRosyadShiddiq
andpublished
in 1997.
44
JMBRAS
VOL.78
Part I: The Wali Songo as Dakwah Warriors

PopulargenresdepictingtheWali Songo illustrate that'withinthe visual and verbal,
[thereis] an intertextual
qualitythatlinks[the]storyworldswithrealworlds.It is thislink
betweensupposedfantasyand real experiencethatmakes [it] a significant sourcefor
understanding modernpopulistperspectives.'29 This sectionintendsto put forththese
'modernpopulistperspectives' and theissuestheyraisein relationto thedakwahmove-
mentthatare clearlydifferent frompreviousassessments of theWali Songo whenthey
wereidentified as clairvoyantSufis.One oftheseissuesis theall-importantdebateabout
replacingJavaneseadat withstrictinterpretations of thesharia. InvestigatingtheWali
Songofroma dakwahwarrior standpointprovidesus withinsightsintopublicopinionsof
theidealrelations betweenadat andshariathattheupdatedimagesoftheNineSaintsare
now shownto personify. To understand how theseperceptions are explicated,an intro-
ductionto theform,context, and languageofthepopulargenresis firstrequired.
Form, Context, and Language of Popular Genres

FromtheBabad TanahJawi, we getan idea oftheWaliSongo caughtin websof aristo-
craticgenealogies,student-pupilrelations,and politicalintrigues.30
As theytransform
intodakwahwarriors, conventionalideas of themsurvivealongsiderecentinnovations.
These innovationsare modelledaftermodernIndonesianhistoryand a contemporary
Indonesianpopularculturewhichindigenizesforeigninfluences and are gearedtowards
mass audiences.An analysisof theform,context, and languageof thesepopulargenres
willhelpto explaintheco-existence of theaforementioned traditional
ideas and innova-
tionsthatarecrucialin textually
morphing theNine Saints intodakwah warriors.
FORM
The illustrationof theWali Songo as dakwahwarriors in populartextsis a consequence
of long-term in
hybridization foreign and local and
filming cartooning techniques. While
filmandcartooning are twoseparatecreativeindustries, in Indonesiatheirartisticdevel-
opmentsand influences generallyparalleleach other.
In the1960sand 1970s,indigenous artformsdepicting ancientwarrior silatstories
hadflourished. Theselocal legends,whichweretakenfromthebabads andJavaneseoral
werelaterputintofilmsandcartoonsthatwereheavilyinfluenced
traditions, bythestyles
of Chineseand Hong Kong kungfufilmsand cartoons.Lateron, stringent government
censorship, coupledwiththeinfluxof Americansuperhero and Japanesemangafilms,
comics, and cartoons,affectedlocal artisticexpressionand productionnegatively.
Indonesiansstillappearto prefertheseforeignimports, whichare cheaperand of better
quality than local which
productions have become expensiveand repetitive
increasingly
in content.To be competitive, local filmdirectorsand cartoonistshave resortedto
mimicking thestylesof foreignimports to a largeextent.31
Whilea detailedhistory of developments in theIndonesianfilmingand cartooning
industriescannotbe dealt withsufficiently in this shortessay, it is significantthat
29 Berman,
'Comics asSocialCommentary',
p.14.
30 M.Ramlan(ed.),BabadTanah Jawa.KualaLumpur:DewanBahasa
danPustaka.
1975.
31 Berman,
'Comics as SocialCommentary',
p. 22;andJohn
A. Lent,TheAsianFilmIndustry
, Austin:
ofTexasPress,
University 1990,p.211.
45
PART
2,2005
ofthedakwahwarriors,
visuallyengagingillustrations whichdrawattention to superhero
featuresof the saints,are a productof localizingforeignfilmand cartoonstylesin
Indonesia.The WaliSongohavebecomemorethanjustsupernatural saints;theyarealso
superheroeswho defend the masses
innocent and upholduniversal
justice.Remnants of
these Chinese,Hong Kong, American,and Japanesestylisticinfluencesare easily
observedin thepopulargenresanalysedforthisessay.
ina SunanKalijagacomic(ComicsA).
mangainfluences
Japanese
ina SunanAmpelcomic(ComicsB).
Kungfuinfluences
46
JMBRAS
VOL.78
CONTEXT
WhiletheformoftheWaliSongopopularnarratives is inflatedto superheroproportions,
thecharacterand spiritualpowersof theWali Songo remainJavanese.Indeed,thisis
wheretherecognition of greatmenin Javanesehistory comesintoplay.
In Javaitis popularly recognizedthatheroesemergebecausetheyhavebeenproph-
esizedto perform greatactsin theirlifetime. The WaliSongo had,in fact,receivedtheir
callingfromAllahfroman earlyage tobe thefirstninesaintsto spreadtheIslamicfaith.
As a meansofjustifying thiscalling,theirchildhoodnarratives arenowaddedtothemyth
inthesepopulartextsto showthatfromyoung,theyhavedisplayedremarkable abilityand
motivation to preachandhelppeople.Long listsofgenealogieslinkingthesesaintstothe
ProphetMuhammadfurther reinforcethisprophecy. For instance,SunanGresik,a des-
cendantof ProphetMuhammad,is the fatherof Sunan Ampel fromChampa,who
proceedsto fathertwo sons,SunanBonangand SunanDrajat.Throughcomplexinter-
marriages(since Muslimmenare allowedto have fourwives) betweenrelativesof the
WaliSongo,Javanese,Chinese,andArabroyalfamilies, thesaintsare actuallyrelatedto
one another.32
Divine inspiration fromAllah also accountsfortheirwahyu,a radiantlightthat
emanatesfromtheirface.This is a portentous signindicating thattheyare theChosen
Ones andcircumstances arealwaysexpectedtofavourthem.33 Theireminencealso stems
fromtheirinnerstrength to adopta halus(controlling one's feelings)attitude,
one which
theJavanesegreatlyvalue. This is in contrast to thekasar (expressingfeelingssuchas
revengeor hatred)mannersof theirenemiesand aggressors.34 Despite being treated
unfairly or angeredintentionally, theNine Saintsonlyresortto combatingas a defence
mechanism. Theirkasar opponents, in contrast,wouldfightto seek revengeor to take
advantage of individuals in weaker positions. , whichis used as a commondefence
Silat
technique by the Wali Songo and other Javanesefilmandcartoonheroes,is a widelyrec-
ognized form of local martial artsthatis cultivated through developingthebatin(inner
of
self) throughlong periods fasting,meditation, and abstinence fromsexual activity.
These asceticpracticesare thereasonsforthe saints'fortitude in maintaining 4halus-
ness'35
32 AbdulRosyad
Shiddiq,
SyeikhMaulana MalikIbrahim PTGunara
,Jakarta: pp.7-8.
Kata,1997,
33 Benedict
R.O'G.Anderson,
Language andPower: Political
Exploring inIndonesia
Cultures NY:
, Ithaca,
Cornell 1990,
Press,
University p.31.
34 LaineBerman,
Speaking
Through theSilence
: Narratives,
SocialConventions,
andPower inJava , New
York:
Oxford Press,
University p. 15.
1998,
3^ Bonneff.
Komik p. 113.
Indonesia,
47
PART
2,2005
WĚSÉS^'
narratives
Additional Froma youngage,SunanDrajatandSunanKudushavebeen
tothemyth:
known humanitarian
fortheir actions
(Cartoons
C).
SunanGiri'swahyu
(Cartoons
C).
48
JMBRAS
VOL.78
SunanDrajat'sandSunanBonang'swahyu
(Film).
areamazedbySunanAmpel'ssilatskills(ComicsB).
Aggressors
49
PART
2,2005
LANGUAGE
Although thestoriesoftheWaliSongoaresetin fifteenth- andsixteenth-century Java,the
language thathas been employed in the is
populargenres mostly modern. This is attrib-
utedto theformof thesepictorialnarratives, as well as to shiftsin Indonesia'slanguage
policy.Ratherthanhavingto relyon local storytellers to makesenseof theformaland
archaiclanguageofbabad literature, thepopulargenresuse a simpleandcomprehensible
languageto permit personalconsumption ofthesemythsacrossthecountry.36
In the populargenres,the speech of the Wali Songo adoptsa combination of
vernacularBahasa, Javanese,andEnglish.Bahasa is mostlypredominant given that it is
the nationallanguageand is widelyunderstoodby Indonesiansof all ethnicgroups.
However,to make the charactersappear informaland realistic,vernacularformsof
Bahasa are used, particularlyas the language for dialogues and self-reflection.
Furthermore, Javaneseslang like Gawatl (danger!)or wong cilik (small people) and
Englishterms suchas 'Stop!' or 'Hey!' areaddedforemphasisandexclamation in speech.
TheseparticularEnglish terms are chosen because of their to
familiarity local audiences
through contemporary American films and comics.37
mixedwithBahasa(ComicsA).
English
The exaltationofpoliticalheroesfromtheIndonesianRevolutionhas also affected

thelanguagein thesepopularreproductions to a largeextent.38WhiletheWali Songo
intendto converttheJavaneseto Islam and subsequently encouragethemto be sharia-
abidingMuslims, they are confronted withobstacles as a result
oftheignoranceandnar-
row-mindedness oftheJavanesepeople.Giventhissituation, theyhaveto firstenlighten
theJavanesemassesto theirexploitation by the Hindu Majapahitrulingelitebeforethe
saintscan achievetheirgoal. To attaintherighteffectin describingthisendeavour, their
dakwahactivities,in the populargenres,are couchedin populistand 'political-heroic
connotations'made famousby theIndonesianRevolution.39 Termssuchas perjuangan
and
(struggle) rakyat(masses) areconstantlyused to stressthe on thepartofthe
difficulty
36 Bonneff,
Komik p. 134.
Indonesia,
37 Ibid.
38 'Indonesian isthename
Revolution' giventotheIndonesian
independence
struggle theDutch.
against
39 Anderson, andPower
Language , p. 140.
50
VOL.78
JMBRAS
NineSaintsin getting themassesto understand thattheyarebeingoppressed.Theseter-

minologies are, in fact,keywords that are currently beingemployedby thePresident,
armygenerals, the mass media, and history textbooks to reconstructtheemotionsof the
rakyatin theirachievement of Independence from colonial rule.40
FrommysticSufiswhoselives revolvearoundkingsand courts,theWali Songo
have re-emerged as revolutionary warrior-likesuperheroes witha halusdemeanour, liv-
ing and preachingamongstordinary people whom they intend to save This
spiritually.
withthemassescreatedby theform,Javanesecontext,and informal
identification lan-
guage is an important factor in thetextual change of the Nine Saints in popularworks.
Such new featuresin themythology includeviewingtheirpersonalities in themidstof
teachingyoungdisciples in the pesantrens, as well as seeing them working alongsidethe
rice-planting and
peasantry speaking to them in their vernacular speech.These novel
allow theWali Songo,as superheroic
characteristics dakwahwarriors, to appearmore
down-to-earth at thesametime.
SunanAmpelina pesantren
(Film).
SunanGresiklendsa handtotherice-planting ina pesantren

SunanGunungjati E).
(Cartoons
by teaching
peasantry them how to improve
their yields(Cartoons
agricultural C).
40 Ibid.,
p. 143.
51
PerjuanganDakwah Wali Songo
Perjuanganin its simplesttermindicates'struggle'or Tight',althoughin Indonesiaits
associationwiththestruggle againsttheDutchcolonialistsin theIndonesianRevolution
has giventheworda positivenuance.The wordoftengoes hand-in-hand withtheterm
raky at. Today in Java,almostanything thatrefersto removingtheexploitation of the
rakyatis describedas a perjuangan41Despitethepeace-loving natureoftheWaliSongo,
thedescription of theirdakwahactivitiesas a perjuanganbefitsthepoliticalclimate.It
emphasizestheheroicstruggleof thedakwahwarriors to liberatetherakyatfromtheir
'backward','oppressive'Hindu-Buddhist, and animisticculturethroughconversionto
Islam.Contemporaneously, thepositivemeaningofperjuangan , as used in thesepopular
texts,can be understood as jihad, whichoriginally meansthe 'endeavour'of practising
one's faith.This 'endeavour'refers totheneedfortheJavaneseto abandonadat andheed
thesharia as it was outlinedin theKoranand hadith(traditions of theProphet).Such
multiplere-adaptations of perjuanganand rakyat , whichare sculptedaftermodern
politicaland religiousmovements, enhancethe meaningof theWali Songo's dakwah
adventures. Notcoincidentally, italso indicatesthemainconcernsoftheJavaneseummat
inreference to thechangesbeingmadeto theirculturethatMuslimreformists areaggres-
sivelyadvocatingin thedakwahmovement.
The Wali Songo dakwahwarriorsfirmly believein voluntary ratherthanforced
conversion toIslam.However,becausetheHindu-Buddhist Javanesewereunawareofthe
fundamental reasonsbehindtheiroppression, theydo notsee theapparent needtoconvert
to Islam.Accordingto populartexts,guidingtheunenlightened and subjugatedJavanese
rakyatgraduallyand peacefullyto thenew faithbecomesthe underlying basis of the
perjuanganof theNine Saints.In makingthisfeasible,cleverstrategies are deployedto
exposetherakyattotheirbackwardness. Thesetacticsareoftensaidto havebeeninspired
bytheexampleoftheProphetMuhammadwhohadusedthemin hisowndakwahunder-
taking.42
One of theapproachesused by theWali Songo to winoverconvertsis theutiliza-
tionoftheirGod-giventalentsto attract theHindu-Buddhist Javaneseto Islamicculture.
Themostfamousinthisaspectwouldbe SunanKalijagawhois considered a culturalhero
forhis contribution towardsIslamizingJavanesewayang, gamelan (music),tembang
(poetry),and slametan(ritualfeasts).Unlikeothersaintswho wereclad in Arabicgarb,
SunanKalijaga and his follower, SunanMuria,areconsistently shownwearingJavanese
clothesand headgearto reflecttheirclose identification with the ordinarymasses.
Nonetheless, othersaints,too,appealtotheJavanese, whether itbe through increasing the
standardsof agriculture as in thecase of SunanGresik,disseminating popularIslamic
literatureas narrated in a storyofSunanKudus'slife,orcreatinggamesforchildren as in
SunanGiri'simaginative method.Another tacticrepeatedly employedby the Wali Songo
is theexerciseof simplecreativity, intellect,and witas demonstrated in a storyabout
SunanKudus's experiencein a Hindu-Buddhist village.In thenarrative, he successfully
convincestheHindu-Buddhist peasantry to convert voluntarilybyhighlighting thata cow
(an animal of sacred value to both Hindus and Buddhists) also a
has special symbolic
significance in theKoran.However,thesepeacefulstrategies do notalwaysachievetheir
41 Ibid.
42 Arman Sunan
Arroisi, Berdakwah
Kalijaga: Seni
Dengan PTRemaja
, Bandung: 2000,p.21.
Rosdakarya,
52
JMBRAS
VOL.78
intendedimpact.In onlyrarecircumstancesdo theWaliSongoresortto supernatural acts

toencouragevoluntary In one oftheseexceptional
conversion. incidents, SunanGiriused
his powersto transforma pen-brushintoa weaponas an act of defenceagainstbelliger-
entMajapahitsoldiers.Uponhearingof thismagicalincident, theMajapahitking,Prabu
BrawijayaV, was so impressedthathe decidedto convert
secretly to Islam.
's perjuanganSunanKalijaga in Javanesegarb

ImageofSunanKudus
(Cartoons
C). (Cartoons
C).
Sunan Kalijaga and the Javanesewayang SunanKudusconvincing thata cow

villagers
C).
(Cartoons has special significance
in the Korantoo
(Cartoons
D).
53
PART
2,2005
SunanGiriandhismagical Majapahit
frightening
pen-brush (Cartoons
aggressors C).
The dakwahwarriors appearto emergetriumphant in usingall thesepeacefulbut

effectiveperjuangan tactics.This is because they adoptgradualist meansby,first,
getting
to know the Javaneseand theirculture,and thenusingthisknowledgeto guide the
Javanesepatiently towardsIslam.Afterthebloodyeventsof the 1965 coup resulting in
the perceived transitionfrom Old Order to New Order Indonesia, approaching
Islamizationthrough non-violent strategies as outlinedabove is a sensitivemodern-day
interpretationof dakwah. The aftermath of widespread manslaughter againstcommunist
abangan Muslimsled some Javaneseto rejectIslam and to convertto Christianity,
Hinduism, andBuddhism.43 Therewas also resurgence in mysticalsectswhichfora long
timehavebeendissatisfied withthe'un-Javanese' practicesof reformistMuslims.More
thananything else,JavaneseMuslimsbecame'IslamKTP' (IslamKad TandaPengenalan
or Islamidentity cardholders),a post-1966 description fornon-practising Muslims.44 In
view of thispoliticallychargedcontext,violentaspectsof theWali Songo's missionary
adventures frombabad and oral narratives have been omittedin populartextsbecause
they do not correspond to general Javanese Muslimsentiments towardsreligioustoler-
ance.Instead,their perjuanganimagery todepictresilienceinguidingthe
is re-textualized
JavaneserakyattowardsIslam.45Sincetoday'sreneweddakwahactivities aretargeted at
theabanganmasses,thesepopularnarratives, on thewhole,illustrate thata moresubtle
approachtoIslamas exemplified bythedakwahwarriors, rather andpolit-
thana forceful
icallyoriented dakwahapproach,is preferred bytheJavanese.
Perjuanganas a daily'endeavour'(jihad)ofcorrectly practisingone'sfaithhas also
beenfrequently expressedin thepopulargenres.In thelightof thepresumption thatthe
43 RobertW.Hefner,'IslamintheEraofNation-States: andReligious
Politics RenewalinMuslimSoutheast
Asia',inRobert
W.Hefner andPatriciaHorvatich Politics
(eds.),IslaminanEraofNation-States: and
ReligiousRenewal
inMuslim SoutheastAsia,Honolulu: ofHawaii
University p.28.
1979,
Press,
44 NielsMulder, inJava
Mysticism inIndonesia,
: Ideology Amsterdam: Pepin
Press,
1998,pp.22-3.
45 Images oftheWaliSongoengaging inHolywarfare
canbefound oftheNineSaints
intheinterpretation in
Pigeaud,Islamic
StatesinJava,1500-1700.
54
VOL.78
JMBRAS
Javaneseare 'bad' or 'weak' Muslims,mostofthemythsthathavebeenreproduced tend

to revolvearoundstorieswithmoralendingsthatenforcetheidea thatJavaneseMuslims
needto be moreactiveand steadfast in practisingthesharia.A commonepisodethathas
been re-adaptedintopopulartextsis the storyaboutAdipatiPandhanarang, a wealthy
Muslimlandlord.In thestory, he is tricked by Sunan Kalijaga intobelieving thereis
that
gold beneath thegrass thatwas delivered by Sunan Kalijaga,disguisedas a grass-seller.
When Sunan Kalijaga requestsAdipatiPandhanarang forzakat (donation),the latter
becomesreluctant topartwithhismoneyuntilmuchlaterwhenitis revealedthatthegold
he discoversis actuallymade of ordinary stones.It is thenthatrealizationhitAdipati
Pandhanarang that Sunan Kalijaga teachinghim a lesson on greedand selfishness.
is
Subsequently, repents reaffirms
he and his faith,and beginsto periodicallycontribute
zakat to thepoorertenant-peasants of his village.It mustbe emphasizedthatAdipati
Pandhanarang was alreadya Muslimpriorto theincidentbutone who failedto practise
his religionaccordingto thetenetsof thesharia.In similarfashion,otherepisodespor-
trayedin thesepopulargenresepitomizehow the dakwahwarriorsserve to remind
Muslimreadersto prayfivetimesdaily,contribute zakat, or fastduringthemonthof
Ramadan.Thesearea fewexamplesofimperative shariaexpectations imposeduponthe
Javaneseummat.
realizeshehasbeenfooled(Film).
Pandhanarang
Adipati
AdipatiPandhanarang lessonabouttheuselessness
learnsa sobering of wealthfromSunan
who
Kalijaga, is as a (ComicsB).
disguised grass-seller
55
PART
2,2005
It needsto be stressedthatthedakwahendeavoursof theWali Songo as portrayed

by the populargenresactuallydisplayfewersupernatural occurrencesthanin babad
literature.Instead,emphasison sharia doctrineis more evident.Althoughsilat and
supernatural powersare relatedto Sufimysticism, theNine Saintsdo notrequirethese
extraordinary because
capabilities of theirspiritualclosenessto Allah who bestowson
themtheirpowerswhenin need.46Besides,whenthesepowersareexercised,theyimme-
diatelydirectattentiontowards¿/шпя-centred moralmessages.For instance,in his
encounter witha groupof animisticvillagerswhoare in themidstof performing sacrifi-
cial ritualsto a raingod to plead fortheendingof a longdrought, SunanGresikreveals
how thepowerof Islamicprayercould miraculously producea heavyrainfall.He does
thisby advisingthe villagersto perform the 4Salat Sunah lstiqď ('PrayerforRain'),
whichspeciallyrequestsforrainfromAllah.The sharia lesson to be learntfromthis
supernatural incidentthathas been retoldin popularworksis not to worshipanyone
exceptAllahbecauseHe is theone and onlyGod. Thesereminders to followthesharia
seriouslyare repeatedlyshownin othermagicaloccurrencesin thepopulargenres.A
probablereasonforthisreverberation is theconsideration thattheperjuanganefforts of
thedakwahwarriors to tonedownJavaneseattraction towardsthesupernatural represent
a morechallengingeffort. Additionally,followingtheprinciplesof thesharia requires
greater on thepartoftheJavanese,who,forvariousreasons,areunaccus-
self-discipline
tomedto followingthesharia.
Fromtheabove,itis clearthatinthesepopulargenres,theWaliSongodakwahwar-
riorshavemergedthepositivemeaningofperjuanganwithpeacefulIslamizingstrategies
toencouragepracticeofthesharia.SunanGresik,theheadoftheWaliSongo,hadpassed
downthissayingfromtheProphetfortherestof thesaintsto emulate:' Sekiranyaкати
bersikapkeras lagi berhatikasar,tentulahmerekamenjauhkandiri dari sekilingmu .'
(Forcefuland hardenedattitude will onlycause [yourfollowers]to distancethemselves
fromyou.)47More thanever,thisquotereflectspopularnotionsof how contemporary
dakwahreformists shouldideallyapproachtheJavanesein moderatewaysthatfirstand
foremost respecttheirculture.Accordingto thepopularnarratives, onlyaftertheaccom-
plishment of thisfirststepin theperjuanganeffort can theyproceedto propagateand
encouragedisciplinedobservanceofshariadoctrines amongtheabangan.
46 Woodward.
IslaminJava
. d.5.
47 Abdul, p.31.
Maulana,
Syeikh
56
JMBRAS
VOL.78
On de-emphasizing power:Ki AgengAduwantsto challenge

supernatural SunanKudusto a
kesaktian showdown.
knowledge)
(supernatural SunanKudus refuses
to andreplies
participate that
whatever
kesaktian topossessactually
hemayhavebeenperceived toAllah(ComicsB).
belongs
is showing
SunanGresik thepowerofIslamicprayer
theanimists (Cartoons
D).
Majapahit
The HinduJavanesekingdomofMajapahitis usuallydistinguished as one ofthegreatest
empiresin Indonesianhistory. in thepopulargenres,Majapahitrulersandtheir
Ironically,
retinueare portrayed 'heathen',and 'exploitative'.Such descriptions
as 'tyrannical', in
wordsand imageryrepresent themas thefactionopposed to thesharia-centredIslamic
values of theWali Songo. The purposeof presenting Majapahitin populartextsthen
servesto demarcateIslamicbeliefsandpractices,separatingtheshariafromun-Islamic,
Hindu-Buddhist, and animisticcustomsknownas adat. Whilethistaskmaybe a simple
57
PART
2,2005
undertaking for a typicalMuslim observer,it represents a more complexeffortfor

JavaneseMuslimswho have been incorporating adat intoIslamic law and ritualsfor
centuries.48Today,in fact,dakwahprocessesinJavaarepropagating reforms topurgethe
shariaof adat customs,lestmixingshariaand adat willlead to committing shirk(poly-
theistic
deviations) or bid' a (unacceptable innovations) which aresome of themostunfor-
givable sins a Muslim could commit.49 Hence, the poorpresentation Majapahitas a
of
for
signpost unacceptable adat customs is intentionallyerectedto accentuate calls bythe
dakwahwarriorsto the rakyat,and incidentally thereader,thatthepresenttimeis an
opportunity to convertto and embracea 'purer'formof Islam to freethemselves from
theirhardships andtherepressive ideological chains that bind them.
The background settings thatperpetuate clashesbetweenMajapahitsoldiersandthe
WaliSongoaretypicalin thesepopularreproductions. The plotbeginswitha weakening
Majapahitempireundergoing succession disputes,leadingto warring betweendifferent
rulingfamilies linked to the Majapahit kraton. Amidst these politicalproblemsare long
of and
periods drought periodicpillaging villagesby of hordes of half-naked, kasar
banditsand unrulyMajapahitretinues.As a resultof being weigheddown by these
variousproblems, therakyatsuffer. Theirburdenis worsenedby increasing taxationsto
financethe warringbetweendifferent elite rulingfamilies.To enlighten and save the
rakyatfromfurther exploitation anddifficulties,theWaliSongodakwahwarriors protect
themfromtheevil-doings ofMajapahitantagonists, hopingthattheiractwouldconstitute
thefirststeptowardsinitiating therakyatintoIslam.Thisrivalry betweenMajapahitand
theWali Songo accountsforskirmishes of powerbetweentherakyat , who aredefended
by the dakwah warriors, and Majapahit, in most of the fighting scenes in thesepopular
genres. Since power is considered amoral in Java,50the motivation of the Nine Saintsin
defending the innocent ensures their
success. Thisis in starkcontrastto Majapahitwhose
intentis in seekingrevengeand causingmassdestruction to property,trade,and agricul-
ture.
Barbaric soldiers
Majapahit (Film). Majapahit
pillagers therakyat
treating poorly
(Cartoons
D).
48 Woodward,
IslaminJava
,d.5.
49 Ibid.,
p.235.
50 Anderson,
LanguageandPower ,p.24.
58
JMBRAS
VOL.78
rl
Majapahit causingmassdestruction
pillagers (left)andMajapahit as 'evil' (right)
represented
D).
(Cartoons
Followingthesestruggles forpower,thedakwahwarriorstakeadvantageof the

to
opportunitypreach Islam to therakyat.One ofthemorecentralsermonsis to promote
self-awareness among the rakyatof their'backward'Hindu-Buddhist and animistic
religion,which theirtyrannical rulers
espouse as a means to ideologicallyenchainthem
to theiroppressedposition.The imposition oftheHinducastesystembyMajapahitis one
feature thatis castigated bytheWaliSongobecauseitputssocietyintohierarchies. This,
theysay, is the exactoppositeofwhatIslampreaches - theequalityofall men.Sinfulacts
suchas idolworship, corruption, gambling,anddrinking, whichHinduismandBuddhism
are
supposedlypermit, similarly condemned. Reminders to avoidthesetaboosaredrawn
out in a famousJavaneseepithet,'MOLIMO', popularizedby SunanAmpel.It is a
Javaneseacronymthat standsfor five acts- drinking, gambling,consumingdrugs,
robbery, andcheating - thatone shouldresistat all costs.
SunanAmpel's'MOLIMO'(Cartoons
D).
59
PART
2,2005
с
•a
&
<L>
2
ей
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60
JMBRAS
VOL.78
To decipherthesereligiousmessages,Majapahitstandsoutas the'heathen'precon-
ditionthatbooststhevalourof theWali Songo's dakwahpursuits.In all theexamples,
anythingviewed as Hindu, Buddhist,animistic,bad, or un-Islamicare brandedas
Javaneseadat and subsequently linkedto Majapahitin directand indirectways. Such
tenuousassociationofJavaneseadat withMajapahitis theperfect foilfortheWaliSongo
and thesharia-centredIslamtheychampionas itbringsoutsuperbly thevirtuesof both
thereligionand theNine Saints.Apartfromenforcing theperennialthemeof good and
evil,thepoorimageof Majapahitalso conforms to contemporary Islamicwriting which
displaysdisdaintowardsIndonesianhistory forpayingtribute tothememory ofMajapahit
ratherthanpastIslamicsultanates. BintoroDemak is a pertinent exampleof a forgotten
Islamicsultanatein whichtheWali Songo playedan activerole in helpingto establish
Islam.51
It has tobe notedthattheillustrationofMajapahitanditslinkagestoJavaneseadat
havebeengrosslyexaggerated andhavetherefore beendebunkedby scholars.52 Yet,itis
precisely these exaggerationsand inflations thatare found in the populargenresthat
provide us with into
insights the perpetualpopular notions thatthe Javanese are 'weak'
Muslimsbecauseof theirtendency to clingon to adat customsbelievedto dateback to
thetimeofHinduMajapahit.53 Moreinsidious,perhaps,is theinsinuation thataspectsof
Javaneseadat thatIslamhad previously needreplacingwitha puritanical
tolerated inter-
pretation of thesharia.
idols
and SunanGresikdestroying
Majapahitand Javaneseadat: Hinduidol worshippers
C).
(Cartoons
51 S. Supomo, 'TheImageofMajapahit
inLater andIndonesian
Javanese ,inAnthony
Writing' ReidandDavid
Marr ofthePastinSoutheast
(eds.),Perceptions Heinemann
Asia,Singapore: Educational
Books, 1979,
pp.183-4.
52 Scholars W.Hefner
likeRobert andMarkWoodward that
haveattested adatpractices
arenottheresult
of
Majapahit orpre-Islamic butofearlier
beliefs processesofIslamization.
53 Hefner,'Islam p. 14.
intheEraofNation-States',
61
PART
2,2005
bythe'heathen'
SunanAmpeltroubled С andD).
(Cartoons
rakyat
Majapahit
Thissectionhas shownhowtheinfluences ofmodernhistorical andreligiousmove-

mentshaveimpingeduponthereformulation oftheWali Songoandtheirtransformation
intodakwahwarriors. In cateringand descendingto thelevel of themasses,theNine
Saints'superhero andperjuanganimageryhas beeninterwoven witha new appreciation
forJavanesegrass-roots values.Picturesque portrayals of themsurrounded by Javanese
commoners assistin forgingan ideologicallinkbetweenordinary contemporary Javanese
audiencesand theWali Songo so thattheformer mayidentify withtheNine Saintsand
graspwithease the religiousmessagesthatshinethroughthesepopularworks.For
example,theinterpretation of thedifferences betweenadat and sharia is simplifiedfor
local audiencesbyjuxtaposingthevillainousimageof Majapahitwiththeheroicimage
of theWali Songo.These populargenresdidactically endorsetheabandonment of adat
because it is regardedas 'backward','oppressive',and 'wasteful'whilstfollowingthe
shariais akintofollowing inthefootstepsoftheNineSaintsandtheProphet himself.Part
II, on theotherhand,will showthatpromoting such ideal relationsbetweenadat and
sharia is easiersaid thandone.The followingcase studyon Seh Siti Jenarwill reveal
problemsand hiddencomplexitieswhenmythscontainingdeep ethicalmeaningsare
takenfrombabad literature, and subsequently reproduced in popularformswithinthe
framework ofthe dakwahmovement.
Part II: The Controversy of Seh Siti Jenar
According to scholarly oftheWaliSongomythinbabad literature,

interpretations Seh Siti
Jenaris a Sufi'hereticalmystic'whois theWaliPenutup(ConcludingSaint)fortheWali
Songo.On theotherhand,he was also thefirstsaintto be punishedbyRadenPatah,the
rulerofBintoroDemak.RadenPatahwas persuadedbyothersaintsto executeSitiJenar
becauseofhisblasphemous claimtobe Allah.Although
SitiJenaris technically
thetenth
saint,hisnarrativeis stillconsidered
bySolichinandthepopulargenresas partofthenew
textualtraditionoftheNineSaints.Clearlya controversial hisparticular
personality, entry
62
VOL.78
JMBRAS
intoWaliSongo history can be tracedto theBabad TanahJawiandBabad JakaTingkir.

SitiJenaris upheldas a bastionofthetasawwuf : theesotericor mysticalbranchof Islam
andtheintellectual aspect of Sufi teachings.54 certaintraditional
In Javaneseliterature, he
is viewedas an anti-hero because of his unwavering standon revealingthe wahdatul
wujud(SecretDoctrineof UnitywithGod) to his disciples,a doctrinethatexposesthe
meansto achieveonenesswithAllah.55It is fromthisanglethathis character is incorp-
oratedandreshapedaccordingly in popularreproductions oftheWali Songo myth.
As discussedintheprevioussection,a case studyofthetransfiguration ofanyother
saintin thecomics,films, or cartoon stories would typically conform to dakwah warrior
schémas.In Siti Jenar'scase, he remains a Sufi mystic in his in
appearances popular
narratives.By continually beingportrayed as a Sufi,his anti-hero reputation has takena
different The
turnin today'sdakwahcontext. portrayals of his doctrinesand practicesare
nowconsidered'deviations'becausehe is presumedto have committed bid' a by mixing
thepracticeoftheshariawithpre-Islamic mystical Javaneseadat. turn, meansthat
In this
he has reversedtheperjuanganefforts oftheWaliSongoin theirendeavoursto inculcate
strongsharia-œvûxzà valuesintotherakyat.
I intendto arguethatthesimplistic rendering of SitiJenar'sstoryin popularworks
comesfroma misunderstanding ofcomplexSufidoctrines andbeliefsas pre-Islamic and
deviant.Whilethisnegativemoralimposition on SitiJenaris theresultofcontrasting him
withthedakwahwarriors, it is also attributedto theinfluence of theformof thepopular
genreson his storyandthatofthedakwahmovement forwhichtheseworksarepopular-
ized.Presenting SitiJenaras 'deviant'allowspopulartextsto establisha straightforward
exampleabouttheobstinacyof theJavaneseummatin holdingon to their'backward'
mystical beliefsandsuperstitious rituals.An apparent dilemmaarisesofhowto depictthe
Sufiessenceofthemythas outlinedinbabad literature, andthenre-interpreting itaccord-
ingto theexistingreligiousenvironment. This is a predicament avoidedin thepopular
Wali Songo narrative transformation of themintodakwahwarriors. Yet,it remainsvery
muchan issue forpopularrepresentations of Siti Jenar.In an attempt to comprehend
broaderimplications oftheNineSaints'transition intocontemporary popularculture, we
need to look at the changingperceptionsof Siti Jenarand the issue of simplifying
'profound[babad] textswiththeirdeep ethicaland religiousmessagesinto [popular
forms]'.56
Leading theRakyatAstray
SitiJenar'scomplexcharacter canbe betterunderstoodintermsofviewinghimas an alter
ego of theNine Saints.In otherwords,he representsa side of themwhichdrawsgreater
attentionto mysticalSufidoctrinesthatideallycomplement thesharia idealsof theWali
Songo.In babad literature,thiscomplementary withempha-
featurethathe is identified
sizes thedevelopment of thebatin(inwardaspects)via mysticalrituals(such as asceti-
cismandmeditation). Conversely,theWaliSongoemphasizestheexpressionofthelahir
54 ZamakhsyariDhofier,ThePesantrenTradition: ofTraditional
TheRoleoftheKyaiintheMaintenance
Islam
, Program AsianStudies,
forSoutheast MonographSeries,
Tempe: StateUniversity
Arizona Press,
1999),p. 137.
55 Ringkes,TheNineSaints
ofJava,p.30.
56 Berman, 'Comics p.20.
asSocialCommentary',
63
PART
2,2005
(outwardaspects)through regularandconsistent practiceofthesharia, hadith , salat,and

reading the Koran.57 In a dakwah context,whilst praising the lahir emphasis theNine
of
Saints,thepopulargenreshave,however, portrayed Siti Jenar's espousalof batindevel-
opment in terms of mastering ilmu sihir(blackmagic). This is negatively presented first,
byshowing SitiJenar using ilmu sihirforselfish purposes and second, byinterpreting the
ilmusihirhe cultivates as originating frompre-Islamic adat,namely, Hindumysticism. As
renderedin the populargenres,by teachingwhatappearsto be an ilmusihirthatis
'sinister','confusing',and 'misleading'to therakyat , Siti Jenarinevitablyleads them
astray.
In thepopulargenres,thebackground to SitiJenar'slifepriorto his conversion to
Islamtestifies tothereasonforhisearlyfascination withilmusihir.The storybeginsfrom
theperspectiveof Siti Jenar'sfather, a Hindupriest-king who is famousforteaching
powerful kesaktian (supernatural powers). He had previously taughtkesaktianthatwas
Hindu in orientation to Siti Jenarbut was increasingly disappointedwithhis son for
wasting his talents on refining ilmu sihirfor self-seeking intentions. Afterhavinghis
warning fall on deaf ears, Siti Jenar's father transforms Siti Jenar into a wormand
to
proceeds place a curse on him which willonly allow him to return to human formifhe
succeedsin findinga spiritualmasterwithgreaterskilland deepermagicalknowledge
thanhisownfather.Eventually, SitiJenarmanagesto reversethecursebyconverting to
Islam underthediscipleshipof SunanBonang,who had discoveredhimwhilehe was a
worm.Yet,Siti Jenarcontinuesto be stubborn and self-centred becausehe takesadvan-
tageof thekindnessof theWaliSongoto further improvehispotencyin ilmusihir- this
timeby combiningHindumysticism withthesharia-centredIslam thattheWali Songo
hadtaughthim.Despiterepeatedwarnings fromhisfather andtheNineSaints,he persists
in practising ilmusihir, forcingSunanGirito dismisshimfromthepesantrenwhereSiti
Jenarhas beenstudying Islam.The dismissalonlyspursSitiJenarto openhisownschool
to spreadhis brandof Islamicknowledgethatfocusesprimarily on ilmusihir.
As depictedin thepopulargenres,themainaggravating issue in Siti Jenar'sper-
sonaldevelopment is thathe teachesto therakyatthis'impure'formof Islamwhichthe
Wali Songo have firmly declaredas menyesatkan (misleading).Far frombeingrejected
andcriticized, SitiJenarsuccessfully attractsthrongs ofJavaneseMuslimsandMajapahit
princesto acceptconversionunderhis guidance,mainlybecause theybelievethatSiti
Jenar'sIslam is an effective combination to achievepower.By teachingtherakyatthe
ilmusihir, Siti Jenarinadvertently confusesthem.To theNine Saints,kesaktianshould
onlybe taughttospiritually advancedpupilswhohavecultivated a steadfasthabitofprac-
tisingthesharia.By teachingilmusihirto anyone,SitiJenaris confusing unenlightened
individuals by makingthemthinkof thenewreligionof Islamas a magicallyempower-
ingfaiththatstresseson thesupernatural.
57 Woodward,
IslaminJava
, p. 104.
64
JMBRAS
VOL.78
SitiJenar's
father Hindupriest
is a powerful withextraordinary
kesaktian (ComicsB).
capabilities
SitiJenar's is upsetwithhimforfocusing
father solelyonilmusihir.
65
PART
2,2005
SitiJenar's
father
transforms
himintoa worm.
SitiJenar
is accepted
as SunanBonang'sdisciple
andenters
theWaliSongo.
66
JMBRAS
VOL.78
SunanBonangwarns nottopractise
SitiJenar ilmusihirbuttonoavail.
Whiletheidea ofthebatinis a neutraltermin babad literature, itis representedas

in
darkanddangerous itsmanifestation as ilmusihirin the storyabove. The reasonforits
menacingoutlookis attributed to theapparentconfusion thatitcauseswhenitis taught to
commoners wholackIslamicknowledge.Thisis also theunderlying reasonthattheWali
Songo are not shown teachingkesaktianin these popularreproductions. The main
function in
of theNine Saints'appearances SitiJenar'snarrative is oftento revealto the
audiencethatSitiJenar'spracticeof ilmusihiris deceptive.For instance,in a particular
episode,Siti Jenaris picturedconjuringwaterfroma rockforSunanKalijaga,who is
lookingforwaterto cleansehimselfbeforeprayer.SunanKalijaga,however,cannotsee
thewaterspurting fromtherockand tellsSitiJenarthathe is pullinghis leg. This inci-
dentdemonstrates to the audiencethattheWali Songo discouragethe applicationof
kesaktian if it is ilmusihir.Additionally,
, particularly it suggeststhatMuslimswho are
stillimmature and shallowin theirknowledgeof Islamshouldnotpractisemysticism as
it will naturally If
lead to disorientation. anything, it is sufficientfora Muslimto be
consideredfaithful by simplyobeyingthesharia.The shariashouldalso notbe 'tainted'
withilmusihirorotherformsofmystical practicesoriginating frompre-Islamic Javanese
adat.
67
PART
2,2005
SunanKalijaga(in white)is unableto see thespurting

whichSitiJenar
water conjured (Film).
To Live is to Die, to Die is to Live

The interpretation of Sufi mysticaldoctrinesfundamental to Siti Jenar'sbeliefsand
actionshas also been stereotyped as Hinduin originin thepopulargenres.For instance,
the Sufi mysticaldoctrinewahdatulwujudis understoodto be influencedby Hindu
monismwhichSitiJenarhad learntfromhis father. Historicallyspeaking,whilstwahda-
tul wujudsharessimilarities withHindu monism,it is morelikelya philosophythat
emergedfromearlierprocessesofIslamization led bySufimissionaries ratherthana con-
sequence of Javanese Muslims intentionally piecing togethera hodge-podge of Hinduand
Islamicbeliefsandpractices.58 Nonetheless, thestereotypethattheIslampractised bythe
Javaneseis a mixture of Islam,Hinduism,Buddhism,and animismremainsprevalent in
popularimagination.
As thestoryof SitiJenarprogresses in theBabad JakaTingkir , he becomesbolder
and beginsadvocatingthatthesharia ( lahir) aspectsof Islam shouldbe dispensedwith
altogether. His beliefin wahdatulwujudleads himto encouragehispupilsto focustheir
energieson solelydevelopingtheirbatin.Babad literature revealsthatone of thetech-
niquestoachievewahdatulwujudis through fana,anArabictermforthepracticeofrepet-
itiveprayerto 'pass away'.59Sufimysticsbelieveit is a state'to neutralize thepassions
and to annihilatethe awarenessof self' so thatone can mergespiritually withAllah
himself.60 In doingso, one sees 'thisworld[as] deathand thehereafter [as] life'.61In
popularreproductions, thiscomplexdoctrine on merging withGod thatSitiJenarsupports
is viewedas a remnant ofHindumonismthatis 'irrational'. The idea is communicated as
'to live is to die,to die is to live'. In otherwords,dualismsin theworld - evil andgood,
sicknessand health,happinessand sadness,fortuneand misfortune, and heavenand
hell- can be eliminated by uniting them into one through the act of dying.Ratherthan
awaitdeath,thepopularversionsshowSitiJenarleadingin promoting shortcutsto end
lifeso thatsuffering couldbe eased at a muchfasterpace via beingone withGod. Bearing
58 M.C.Ricklefs,
'SixCenturies inNehemia
ofIslamization', Levtzion toIslam
(ed.),Conversion ,NewYork:
Holmes& Meier,1979, pp.107-8.
59 Antoon Subud
Geels, andtheJavanese Tradition
Mystical , Richmond,
Surrey:Curzon,
1997,p.59.
60 Ibid.
61 StephenC. Headley, ofIslamic
TheJavanization
'Sembah/Salat: Prayer;TheIslamization
ofJavanese
inDavidParkin
Prayer,' andStephenC.Headley Islamic
(eds.), Across
Prayer theIndian
Ocean:Inside
and
theMosque
Outside , Richmond, Curzon
Surrey: 2000,p. 178.
Press,
68
JMBRAS
VOL.78
SunanAmpeland SunanDrajatmeettheirstudents
whorun
awaywhenaskediftheyhaveprayed.
thisgoal in mind,he rationalizes

to his students thatone's actionsin thisworldaretrivial
becauselifeonlybeginsupondeath.
This idea thatdeathis moreessentialthanlifeis construed in termsof SitiJenar's
refusalto perform the Fridayprayerswiththe Nine Saintsin the mosqueof Demak.
Subsequently, he beginsto discouragehis devoteesfrompraying,informing themto
violateone ofthebasic laws oftheshariabecauseitis consideredextraneous andirrele-
vanttowardsachievingdeath.To showthatSiti Jenaris defyingIslamiclaw,theWali
Songowilloftenappearinthenarrative topassjudgement on his 'reckless'actions.In the
followinginstanceon skippingprayer,SunanAmpeland SunanDrajatare illustrated in
populartextsas feelingdisheartened withtheeffectthatSitiJenarhaveon villagers.On
theirwayto a villagetheyareacquaintedwith,SunanAmpeland SunanDrajatmeettwo
of theirformer students andenquireiftheyhavedonetheirprayers. Ratherthananswer-
ingthequestion,thestudents takeoffbecausetheyno longerneededto praysincethey
havebeenfaithfully followingSitiJenarandhisbrandofIslam.Thisconfrontation exem-
plifiestheWali Songo as protectors of thesharia, attempting to fixthedisorderthatSiti
Jenarhas leftupontherakyat.
To add to thedetriment of therakyat , SitiJenarfurther motivates his followersto
embarkon killingrampagesas a meansto releasethemselves fromthe'shackles'of life.
Thisresultsin masssuicidesandlargenumbers ofinnocent individuals beingmindlessly
sacrificed,believingthatdoingso wouldalleviatetheirsuffering. Once more,one of the
saintswouldappearin thestoryto givehisopinionon SitiJenar's'reckless'teachings. In
thiscase, SunanMuriastumbles uponfiveofSitiJenar'sdisciples.He is shockedto learn
thattheywanthimto end theirlives. Ratherthanrebukingthemfortheirthoughtless
behaviour, SunanMuriaexpresseshisdisapproval byexplaining patiently thatAllahdoes
notfavourthosewhomurder or choosesuicideoverlife.
69
PART
2,2005
SitiJenar's seekdeathbykilling
disciples orcommitting
suicide.
The climaxof SitiJenar'sattainment of thestateof deathandbeingone withGod

is theassertionthathe is Allah.The storygoes thattheWali Songo holdan inquisition,
summoning SitiJenarto comeforward and facetheirquestionsabouthis doctrinaldevi-
ations.Two menarethensentto call on SitiJenar. Whentheyrequesthispresenceat the
inquisition,SitiJenarreplies,'Seh SitiJenaris nothere,onlyAllahis.' Uponhearingthis
claim,SunanGiri'sresponseis to ask thetwomento requestAllah's presenceinstead.
Whenthetwomenreturned to SitiJenar,thistimehe replies,4Allahis nothere,onlySiti
Jenaris.' Stunnedbythemen'sreport, SunanGirioutwitsSitiJenarbyinforming themen
to summonbothSitiJenarandAllahon theirsubsequentvisit.Findingno way out,Seh
SitiJenarfinallyattendstheinquisition buthe adamantly refusestoabandonthebeliefthat
he is Allah.Thus,theWali Songoproceedto executehim.It is a deathsentencethatSiti
Jenargladlyreceivesbecauseitpermits himto attainultimate death.
70
JMBRAS
VOL.78
SitiJenar saysthattheshariais useless,

facestheinquisition, toabandon
andrefuses theclaimthat
heis God.TheWaliSongodecidetogivehimthedeathsentence.
is trying
SitiJenar toreflect
hisbatin(Film). SitiJenar
announces as Allah(Film).
himself
RadenPatahis aboutto askSitiJenarifhe hasanylastrequest

before
theexecution.
SitiJenar
thathelooksforward
replies todying(Film).
71
PART
2,2005
is executed.
SitiJenar
From the explanationabove, in promoting fana to fulfilwahdatulwujud, the

populargenres have interpretedthese complex Sufi doctrinesas 'illogical'pre-Islamic
adat thatencouragespeedyroutesto death.Consequently, theWali Songo,in reacting to
thechaos,haveno optionbutto punishSitiJenarfordisobeying theshariaandmislead-
ingtheordinary masses.In interpretingSitiJenar'sfinaloutcome,thepopularportrayals
of Siti Jenar's'deviations'are criticismsof Javanesemysticsforfocusingon other-
worldlymystical practicesthatarenotwithinthefoldofIslam.The executionofSitiJenar
is, fact, warningofthedireconsequencesthatfollowwhenone neglectsthesharia.
in a
72
VOL.78
JMBRAS
' '
Seh Siti Jenara Deviant Saint?
In theintroduction of thisessay,it was mentioned thata targetof thedakwahmovement
is themysticaldoctrinesand practicesderivedfromJavaneseadat. It needsto be stated
clearlythatthedesireto reform Javanesemysticsandtheircustomswitha strictinterpre-
tationoftheshariais an Islamizingprocessoccurring inSufiandnon-SuficampsinJava.
Sufireformists arealso trying tobe more'in linewithcurrent Sunniorthodoxy andortho-
praxis'.62Carrying out thisprocedureactuallyappears to be more difficult:the extentto
whichwahdatulwujud,fana , and practising' kesaktian constitute shirkor bid'a is current-
ly stilla source of contention among Javanese Muslims.63 The apparent ease with which
thepopulargenresdelineatetheseas pre-IslamicJavanesemysticaladat rituals,which
standin contrast to theshariavaluesof thedakwahwarriors in SitiJenar'sstory, is thus
misleading.
It is thisambiguity withinthecontextof thedakwahmovementand attempts to
separateaccurately the sharia and adat that forms the basis for re-interpreting Siti Jenar
andhisreligiousphilosophy inpopulartexts.Whilethereis disagreement on howtopurge
Javanesemystical adat from the sharia , goodpractice of thesharia remains a priority of
thedakwahmovement. Thus,producers of the populargenres remoulded the Wali Songo
in linewithshariavaluesthat,needlessto say,morphed thesaintsintodakwahwarriors.
SitiJenar, as partof theWali Songo mythology, also neededto be reformed accordingly.
However,thisis achieved at the of
expense misrepresenting himas a 'deviant'saintwho
is 'bad', 'wrong',and 'misleading'in rigidmoralcategoriesthatwere previouslynot
imposedon hispersonality.
In turning to babad literature, it is ironicthatthemythsrelatedto theWali Songo
andSitiJenaractuallyembodythecomplexities behindstriking a correct balancebetween
developingthebatin(mysticism) and lahir(sharia).6*In thepopulargenres,it is stated
thattheWali Songo are dakwahwarriorswho emphasizepracticeof thesharia above
everything else. This is notan entirely different interpretation fromthatin babad litera-
turebecause theNine Saintshave alwaysprioritized thelahir aspectsof Islam before
batin(althoughthebatinaspectsshownin babads are presently scarce in thepopular
genres).SitiJenar, incontrast, has alwaysstressed thebatinaspectswhichtendtobe more
complexand difficult to understand in comparison to thelahir.By bluntlydefining Siti
Jenar'semphasison batindevelopment as ilmusihirand an eagernessto die (justas the
expression of thelahiris putacrossplainlyas thesharia),it leads to a misunderstanding
of SitiJenarand his religioussymbolism. SitiJenaris readin thiswaybecausethemyth
is beingre-interpreted inthemoralcontext ofthedakwahmovement whereby mysticsand
mysticism are heavily criticized forcommitting bid'a.
An incidentfrombabad literature helpsto reinforce how Siti Jenarhas been mis-
understood. The outcomeof SitiJenar'sdeathhas beenremovedfromthepopulargenres
becauseof theepisode'sambiguity. In theBabad JakaTingkir , afterSiti Jenarhad died,
hissoul returns to admonishtherestofthesaints:
62 Martin VanBruinessen, andPolemics

'Controversies Involving inTwentieth-Century
theSufiOrders
Indonesia', DeJong
inFrederick Radtke
andBernd Islamic
(eds.), Mysticism : Thirteen
Contested Centuries
andPolemics,
ofControversies Mass.:Brill,
Boston, p.707.
1999,
63 Woodward, p.235.
IslaminJava,
64 Ibid.,
p.3.
73
PART
2,2005
The reasontheLaw {sharia)is disregarded

Is thatitis troublesome
Andcauses continuous work,irresolution,restlessness,
One knowsnotifone can relyon it.
ThatLaw is to be used (destined)forthisworld:
Shouldone come to death,thenitfails.
The mostEssentialKnowledge
is to be unflinching
in thecontemplation oftheSelf.
Confirm of it
yourconception (concentrate youridea of it)
(then) one arrives
at the that
certainty it is One.
The analysisof theesotericKnowledge
Is in Being,whichis perfectRest(or,devoidof all motion).65
Here,Siti JenarwarnstheWali Songo thatin theirpursuanceof thelaw {sharia),they

have neglectedthe 'EssentialKnowledge'thatrefersto themysticaldoctrinesthathe
espouses.He is effectively chidingthemfornotstriking an appropriate balancebetween
practice of the sharia and mysticism. This part of the story raises an ambivalentand
unresolvedquestionon theextentto whichthesharia shouldbe balancedwithmystic
rituals.In thisparticular circumstance, itwas bestleftoutbecausethisimbalancecannot
be categorizedin populargenresas 'bad', 'wrong',or 'misleading'.Unlikethe other
episodesin SitiJenar'sstory, anyclearerdefinition wouldhavemadeSitiJenar'scharac-
tervaguein termsof wherehe standsin thedakwahwarrior schema.
On thetechnicalfront, theillustration ofcartoonsandcomicsandthechoreography
of a filminvolveissuesof timingand space as well as decisionson whichcombinations
of thetwoare quickestin capturing thegistof thestory.Stereotyped ideas are therefore
preferred.66 Such inclinations result in typifying complicated ideas like batin, wahdatul
wujud, and fana as pre-Islamic Javanese axioms rather than beliefs of Sufism.This
complexity lies in the to
incapacity correctly separate the sharia from Javanese mystical
practicethatblendsHinduism,Buddhism,animism,and Islam. BenedictAndersonhas
pointedout thisintertwining tendencyof adat and thesharia in his discussionof the
he
Koran; argued that'the domestication of Islam and Arabicby theJavanesecultural
impulse was done through the transformation oftheKoranintoa hermeneutic textbook of
riddlesandparadoxes.'67 Categorizing SitiJenaras pre-Islamic avoidsthiscomplication:
thesharia and adat are not so strictly differentiatedin a Javanesecontext.Reducing
wahdatulwujudandfana, termswithoriginally multifariousmeanings,to ilmusihirand
shortcuts to death,respectively, allows foreasiercomprehension by the audiencesof
popularnarratives. This is because theseworksare forpersonalconsumption and their
audienceis conventionally accustomedto straightforward, stereotypical ideas in contrast
to relativistelucidationsof philosophicalthoughtcommonlyfoundin babad literary
writing and storytelling.
65 Ringkes.
TheNineSaints
ofJava.
d.29.
66 Matthew
P. McAllister,
EdwardH. Sewell, andIanGordon,
Jr., ComicsandIdeology',
in
'Introducing
Matthew
P.McAllister,
Edward
H.Sewell, andIanGordon
Jr., (eds.),Comics
andIdeology
, NewYork:
P.
2001,p.3.
Lang,
67 Anderson,
LanguageandPower
, p.127.
74
VOL.78
JMBRAS
Owingto theconditions outlinedabove,SitiJenaris positionedas a 'deviant'saint

inthepopulargenrestodemonstrate thatobedient, Muslimscan stillstrayoff
God-fearing
the correctpath if theydo not strictly abide by the sharia. While these superficial
portrayalshave theirnegativerepercussions, it is nevertheless
a clear indicationthat
sharia-centredIslamic values are muchstronger among theJavanese populacethanin
priorperiodsof theIslamization process.
Conclusion
Havingassessedthecurrent artisticadaptations and changesto theWali Songo in their

makeoverintodakwahwarriors andtheirimplications forotherrelatedmyths, a pertinent
questionremains:besidestheconsiderable reshaping ofthesemythsin popularworksby
ongoingIslamizingprocesses,whatis thevirtueofrefashioning Javanesemythology into
thepopulargenres?
Javaneseinterest in history andhistorical figuresis oftenexpressedin mythical and
phenomenal dimensions.These traditions surviveand constitute integralrepositories of
Javanesecultureand religion.For manycenturies, pujanggas (courtscribes),wayang
performances, andjuru kuncis(custodiansof kramats)have enchantedlocal Javanese
audienceswiththeirlegendaryinterpretations of heroesof the past. These traditional
storytellingmediasustainedthepopularity ofJavanesemythsandmadethemconcurrent-
lyavailableto thepublicandrelevant totheconcerns, values,andidealsoftheirsocieties.
The significance of thesemythslies in informing theJavaneseabouttheirhistory, ances-
tors,culture,and religion.In doingso, themythsfulfiltheirmostimportant function of
enforcing Javaneseidentity: tellingtheJavaneseaboutthemselvesand whatit meansto
be Javanese.
Duringthecolonialperiod,thesetraditional mediaofstorytelling wereclassifiedby
Dutchphilologists as HighLiterature, basedon theirexclusivity andrefinement.68 Today,
theyareperceivedbyyounger generations ofJavaneseas kuno(old-fashioned orancient).
To them,babad literature, fromwhichtraditional storytellersobtainedtheirstories,has
become'an indecipherable monument to a remoteand essentiallyirrecuperable past'.69
However,withtheadventof technology, modernor secularmodesof storytelling have
become available to worldwideaudiencesin the formof television,cinema,books,
cartoons,and radio.In thisglobal context,themetamorphosis of theWali Songo into
dakwahwarriors is a [natural]responseto theabove shiftsin storytelling mediawhich
appeal more to the masses.This changeprovides an outlet forthe revamp renewalof
or
the archaicWali Songo mythology, allowing the myths of the Nine Saints to remain
fascinating and accessible to contemporary Javanese audiences.
GiventheIslamiccontent, theWali Songo mythsare further subjectedto change
withfluctuations in Javanesereligiouscontexts.Increasingly, theWali Songo dakwah
warriorsand the intriguesleadingto Siti Jenar 's executionare realignedwithsharia-
centredreforms thatare beingpropagatedintensely amongtheabangan masses in the
dakwahmovement. Thesechangesencompassmoralmessages,encouraging theJavanese
to be 'good', ifnot'better',Muslims.Old ideasofheroes,villains,and anti-heroes relat-
ing to theWali Songo,Majapahit, and SitiJenar, and theirrespective religiouspersuasions
68 Florida, thePast, p.22.
Writing
69 Ibid.,
p.31.
75
PART
2,2005
are thusre-textual ized in thepopulargenresthrough theattribution of new meaningsto

vindicatethesharia whilstdisparaging Javaneseadat. It is a themethatis plainlyput
across and steadilyportrayedthroughdifferent episodes of the Wali Songo myth.
Although it was emphasized that these works are not aimedat meetingthegoals of the
dakwahmovement, the Wali Songo mythology in the populargenresis, nonetheless,
redrawnandreinterpreted withinthisparticular religiousmood.
Anotherfactorresponsibleforthisparticularpresentation of the mythsis the
economiccalculationof supplyanddemand:howthepreferences ofJavaneseconsumers
are factoredintotheproduction of artistic
works.Comics,films,and cartoonsare cheap
and mass-produced literarygenres aimed at accessinga wide audience.Thus,theyare
imbuedwithcharacteristics thatmostJavanesecan relateto. In thepopulargenres,the
phenomenal worldof thesaintsencapsulated in babad literatureis humanizedin settings
familiarto locals. The saintsthemselvesare visuallyillustrated as interacting withthe
in and
people,engaging activities, solvingeveryday, practicalproblems confronted by
ordinary Javanesemen,women,and children. Hence,thehumdrum natureof publiclife
is intendedto blendsmoothlywiththesuperhuman characteristicsof theNine Saints.
Indeed,thesuperhuman heroicfeatsperformed bytheWaliSongo are mostlytargeted at
righting wrongsand repositioning equilibriums ofjusticein societyto favourtherakyat.
Undoubtedly, thisfeature notonlyreaffirms theenduring ideologicalconnections thatthe
Nine Saintshave withordinary Javanese,butalso propagateswidespreadveneration of
theirpersonalities amongtheyoungergeneration.
However,whenthepopulargenresdrawon Javanesemythology thatis heavily
ladenwithcomplexreligiousethics,an issueofmisrepresentation arisesas demonstrated
in thecase studyof SitiJenar. Froman anti-hero ofJavanesemysticism, he is interpreted
as a 'deviant'saintwhosereligioustransgressions are unforgivable withinthecontextof
thedakwahmovement. When theelusivenessof his philosophyin babad literature is
plainlyportrayed, it distortsthe meaningand idea of Sufism.Sufism,however,is no
longera distinguishing textualfeaturein popularversionsof theWali Songo myth.This
factis illustrated by the ambiguitysurrounding Siti Jenar
's positionand the sharia-
centredness of the overallWali Songo heroiciconography. The downgrading of Siti
Jenar 's statusbyproducers of thepopulargenresis attributed to theenhancing of images
of the Wali Songo because theyare traditionally and philosophically closer thanthe
former in representing thevirtuesofpractising thesharia.It is striking thatthereappears
tobe a trendtowardswriting SitiJenaroutfromtheWaliSongomythology. In contrastto
theportrayal of theNineSaints,less space in thecomicsandfilmis devotedto hisstory.
The cartoonstorybooks arethemostdrastic, as theyonlymention his 'deviance'in a few
paragraphs.
In tracingthe textualmetamorphosis of theWali Songo fromsaintsto dakwah
warriors, thisessay has revealedhow modern-day popularcultureand its consumers
creatively reproducetheheroicpast.It is an analysismadepossibleby lookingat differ-
ent formsof popular genresas an entityof sharedinfluencesand parallel artistic
developments. Most crucially,it demonstrates how theIndonesianpopulargenreshave
integrated secularforeignstorytelling mediaintotheirculturein theprocessof drawing
on Javanesemythology forinspiration. In turn,thisallowsthepastthathas beencareful-
ly preservedin traditional Javaneseoral and written traditionsto continually serveits
purpose.
76
JMBRAS
VOL.78
Glossary
Abangan NominalMuslim
Adat Customs;traditions
Adipati Javanesetitlefor'lord',ruler,or regent
Babad Javanesetextwritten in chronicleform;Babad TanahJawiis
'History of Java'; Babad JakaTingkir is 'StoryofYouthfrom
Tingkir' and Babad Majapahit 'Historyof the House of
is
Majapahit'
Bahasa Indonesia Nationallanguageof Indonesia;theshortformis Bahasa
Batin Innerself;as opposedto lahirwhichis outerself
Bid'a Arabicforunacceptable innovations
В intoroDemak FirstIslamicSultanateestablishedby RadenPatah,popularly
believedto havebeenwiththehelpof theWali Songo
Dakwah Proselytizing to (a) convertand/or(b) call to deepenIslamic
piety
Dhikr Repetitive prayer;remembrance ofAllahprimarily byreciting
thenames/attributes ofAllah;purposeofthedhikr(apartfrom
devotion)is to attainan ecstaticor mysticexperience
Fana Arabic for 'annihilation','dissolution'in God; the passing
awayofconsciousness in mysticunion
Gamelan The percussionorchestra whichcan eitherbe playedalone or
used to accompanythewayangor variousotherartforms
Gawat Javanesefor'danger'
Hadith Arabicfortraditions regarding thestatement andactionsofthe
Prophet
Halus Controlling one's feelingsor emotions;as opposedto kasar
limit Knowledge;science;esotericknowledge
Ilmusihir Black magic
IslamKTP Identity cardholderbearingthereligionIslam; non-practising
Muslims
Jihad Endeavour;HolyWar
Jurukunci Keeper-of-the-key; caretaker
Kasar Displayingone's emotions;unrefined; as opposedto halus
Kesaktian Magicalknowledgeor powers
Komikus Comicartist
Koran SacredBook of Islam
Kramat Magicallyempowered graves
Kraton Court;palace; capital
Kuno Javaneseforold-fashioned; ancient
Lahir Outerself;as opposedto batin(innerself)
Majapahit Mostfamousandpowerful of theearlyJavanesekingdoms
Pendekar A warrior whois skilledin silat
Perjuangan Struggle;fight
Pesantren Islamicboardingschool
Pujangga Courtpoetor scriberesponsible forwriting babad literature
Rakyat The masses
77
PART
2,2005
Ramadan Muslimfasting month

Salat Ritualprayeror divineservice;Salat Sunah Istiqa is a ritual
prayeraskingforrain
Santri Student;orthodox Muslim;practising Muslims
Shirk Arabicforpolytheistic deviations
Silat Martialarts
Slametan Ritualfeast
Sufi Devotingoneselfto themysticlifeon becominga Sufi
Sunan Abbreviated formof 'susuhunan';honorific beforethenames
of theninewalis
Sunni Memberof the branchof Islam thataccepts the firstfour
caliphsas rightfulsuccessorsto Muhammad;one of thetwo
mainbranchesoforthodox Islam
Surat Books of theKoran
Tasaxvwuf Arabicfortheinner, esoteric,or mysticalbranchof Islamand
theintellectual
aspectsofSufiteachings
Tembang Poems, written in variousrigidforms,whichmay be either
reador sung,withgamelanaccompaniment ifone wishes
Ummat Islamiccommunity
WahdatulWujud Arabicforthedoctrine ofreachingonenesswithGod
Wahyu Revelationas transmittedbytheProphet;inspiration
Wali To be near,to govern,to rule,to protectsomeone;friendof
God or allyofGod
WaliPenutup ConcludingWalifortheWaliSongo
WaliSongo The Nine Saintsof Javato whomtheIslamizationof Javais
attributed
Wayangkulit The shadowplay,whichuses leatheror woodenpuppetsto
dramatizestoriesfromthe Javaneseversionsof the Indian
epics,theMahabharataand theRamayana, or mythological
versionsofthehistory ofthekingdoms of pre-colonialJava
Wongcilik JavaneseforOrnalipeople'
Zakat Donation,one oftheprincipalobligations of Islam
78
JMBRAS
VOL.78
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82

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FROM SAINTS TO SUPERHEROES: THE WALI SONGO MYTH IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA'S

FROM SAINTS TO SUPERHEROES: THE WALI SONGO MYTH

Thisfinal-yearundergraduate essay bySingaporean

It is indeed perplexingthatin these popularworks,the Wali Songo embody

overarchingheroicthemetherefore quiteaptlydescribestheNine Saintsin thesepopular

Historical Overview: From Babad to Comic Book

5 S. Margana, Pujangga JawadanBayang-Bayang Kolonial

theWaliSongoacquiredtextualimagesofsupernatural Sufiteacherswhosanctioned Sufi

incertain"target"areaswhere,becauseofpoliticalorculturalhistory, Islamis thought to

LiteraryReview and Methodological Essay

ofJavaleads in thisdiscussionbysinglinghimoutas a culturalherowhowas willingto

The analysisof theseprimary sourcesis facilitated

WALISONGOIN COMICBOOKS (COMICSA)

WALISONGOIN COMICBOOKS (COMICSB)

Part I: The Wali Songo as Dakwah Warriors

Form, Context, and Language of Popular Genres

The exaltationofpoliticalheroesfromtheIndonesianRevolutionhas also affected

NineSaintsin getting themassesto understand thattheyarebeingoppressed.Theseter-

SunanGresiklendsa handtotherice-planting ina pesantren

intendedimpact.In onlyrarecircumstancesdo theWaliSongoresortto supernatural acts

's perjuanganSunanKalijaga in Javanesegarb

Sunan Kalijaga and the Javanesewayang SunanKudusconvincing thata cow

The dakwahwarriors appearto emergetriumphant in usingall thesepeacefulbut

Javaneseare 'bad' or 'weak' Muslims,mostofthemythsthathavebeenreproduced tend

It needsto be stressedthatthedakwahendeavoursof theWali Songo as portrayed

On de-emphasizing power:Ki AgengAduwantsto challenge

undertaking for a typicalMuslim observer,it represents a more complexeffortfor

Followingthesestruggles forpower,thedakwahwarriorstakeadvantageof the

Thissectionhas shownhowtheinfluences ofmodernhistorical andreligiousmove-

Part II: The Controversy of Seh Siti Jenar

According to scholarly oftheWaliSongomythinbabad literature,

intoWaliSongo history can be tracedto theBabad TanahJawiandBabad JakaTingkir.

(outwardaspects)through regularandconsistent practiceofthesharia, hadith , salat,and

Whiletheidea ofthebatinis a neutraltermin babad literature, itis representedas

SunanKalijaga(in white)is unableto see thespurting

To Live is to Die, to Die is to Live

thisgoal in mind,he rationalizes

The climaxof SitiJenar'sattainment of thestateof deathandbeingone withGod

SitiJenar saysthattheshariais useless,

RadenPatahis aboutto askSitiJenarifhe hasanylastrequest

From the explanationabove, in promoting fana to fulfilwahdatulwujud, the

62 Martin VanBruinessen, andPolemics

The reasontheLaw {sharia)is disregarded

Here,Siti JenarwarnstheWali Songo thatin theirpursuanceof thelaw {sharia),they

Owingto theconditions outlinedabove,SitiJenaris positionedas a 'deviant'saint

Havingassessedthecurrent artisticadaptations and changesto theWali Songo in their

are thusre-textual ized in thepopulargenresthrough theattribution of new meaningsto

Ramadan Muslimfasting month

Ricklefs,M. C., A Historyof Modem Indonesia,c.1200 to the Present , 3rd edn.,

Ricklefs,M. С., 'Six Centuriesof Islamizationin Java', in NehemiaLevtzion(ed.),

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