CW43: The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001
Jewish settlement in Palestine, 1900–45
Conflict
 World War One
Britain and Arabs ally against
the Ottoman Empire;
expectation from the Arabs
that they would get Palestine
in return; Hussein-McMahon
letters
 Political conflict
Emir Feisal becomes king of
an Arab state consisting of
Palestine, Lebanon,
Transjordan and Syria; publicly
opposes Zionist migration;
Arab parties unite to form the
Arab Higher Committee; Ben
Gurion’s conference at the
Biltmore Hotel calls for the
immediate creation of a Jewish
state in Palestine
 Civil disobedience
1936 general strike
 Arab-Israeli violence
Protest against Samuel’s
decision; 1929 massacre;
Irgun planted bombs and shot
Arabs in response to the White
Paper
 Arab-British violence
1937–39 rebellion
 Jewish-British violence
Lehi, Abraham Stern, Lord
Moyne, Irgun violence
 World War Two
30,000 Jews in Palestine
joined the British army
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Causes of conflict
 Misperceptions
Unaware of the details of the
Sykes-Picot Agreement and the
Balfour Declaration; Britain’s
support for both them and Zionism
 Arab disagreement with various
proposals: verdict of Paris Peace
Conference
Decision to include the Balfour
Declaration in the way in which
Palestine was to be governed; Peel
Report – proposed a Jewish state
and an Arab state
 Rate of settlement
Herbert Samuel’s influence; Jewish
population doubled between 1922–
29
 Extreme Zionism
Vladimir Jabotinsky, demonstration
near the Mosque of the Dome of
the Rock in Jerusalem
 Jewish dissatisfaction
Anger at the 1939 White Paper in
light of the Nazi threat
Presence and influence of other
actors and international events
 Actors: Ottoman Empire
Until 1917, retention of Arab
customs in Palestine
 Actors: Britain
Balfour Declaration; given a
mandate over Palestine by the
Paris Peace Conference; helped
the Jews build up their military
forces such as the Hagannah and
the Irgun Zvai Leumi
 Actors: King-Crane Commission
Concluded that the case for a
Zionist presence should be
dropped; findings ignored by Paris
Peace Conference
 Actors: France
King Feisal started attacking the
French; French removed him from
Syria and Lebanon
 Actors: Herbert Samuel
British Jew, High Commissioner of
Palestine; 16,500 Jews to be
allowed to settle in Palestine in
1920
 Events: First World War; Paris
Peace Conference
1
Changing Arab-Israeli relationships
 Jewish settlements
Lovers of Zion; Rishon-le-Zion;
more than 40 Zionist settlements in
Palestine by 1914; Jewish
population doubled between
1922–29
 Reasons for migration
Influence of Rothschild; Herzl and
the Zionist Congress in 1897;
Jewish National Fund
 Wartime immigration
Jews smuggled in by ship: the
Struma
Proposed solutions
 Paris Peace Conference
Arabs should have the right to
national self-determination;
need for a major power to help
them run their new country;
Britain received the mandate
to look after Palestine, also
confirmed that the terms of the
Balfour Declaration should
apply to the new country
 Peel Report
Palestine should be divided
into a Jewish state and an
Arab state; Britain to keep
control of the area around
Jerusalem
 1939 White Paper
Jewish immigration to be
limited to 75,000 over the next
five years; no more
immigration without Arab
consent
 1942 Biltmore Programme
Calls for the immediate
creation of a Jewish state in
Palestine
The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001
The creation of the state of Israel and its impact
Conflict
 Irgun and Lehi
From 1946, the Irgun and the
Lehi began a large-scale
campaign of violence against
the British, including the
blowing up of the King David
Hotel in Jerusalem,
headquarters of the British
government in Palestine,
which killed 91 people
 Death toll
212 killings in Palestine
 Civil War
Operation Dalet, Deir Yassin
capture of Tiberias, Haifa and
Jaffa; Hagganah occupied
most of the Arab areas of West
Jerusalem
 War of Liberation
The civil war of 1948 was
about to turn into an
international war, the first of a
series of Arab-Israeli conflicts
that has rocked the Middle
East since 1948. On 15 May
1948, armies from Egypt,
Lebanon, Transjordan, Iraq
and Syria entered Palestine
with the aim of helping the
Palestinian Arabs fight the
Jewish state of Israel which
had been created that day;
Arab Legion of Transjordan
had taken back control of the
Old City of Jerusalem; Israelis
seized western Galilee; drove
the Lebanese back north;
Israel was left in control of
80% of the land
© Pearson Education Ltd 2009
Causes of conflict
 British immigration limits
Despite President Truman’s
declaration that 100,000 Jews
should be allowed into Palestine,
the British fixed the limit at 1500 a
month. This was the last straw for
the Lehi and the Irgun; Exodus
 UNSCOP Plan
Jewish state would be larger than
the Arab state; vote for partition
was followed by violent Arab
protests which soon turned into
killings and counter-killings between
Jews and Arabs
 Purchasing of arms
Hagannah leaders went to Skoda
arms firm in Czechoslovakia and
bought a huge quantity of
armaments
 Arab League assistance
Arab League in December 1947
declared partition illegal and gave
the Palestinians 10,000 rifles; early
in 1948 it formed an Arab Liberation
Army of 3000 volunteers to fight in
partition
 Formation of Ben Gurion
government
Five neighbouring Arab countries
sent armies to make war on Israel
Presence and influence of other
actors and international events
 President Truman
Demanded that 100,000 Jews be
allowed into Palestine at once
 United Nations
Asked to take back the mandate
from Britain and decide the future of
the country; UN Special Committee
on Palestine; truce arranged on
11 June 1948 which allowed the
Israelis to reorganise their army
and transport the Czech weapons
they had bought earlier in the year
from Europe; second truce lasted
until October 15
 Arab League
Palestine turned to it for help;
however, it had only been created
recently and its members were
divided on many issues
2
Changing Arab-Israeli relationships Proposed solutions
 Propaganda – Ben Gurion and the  UN voted in November 1947 to
Jewish Agency continued to try to partition Palestine six months
smuggle Jews into Palestine from that date; Jerusalem
should be an international zone
 Political change under UN control; Jewish and
On 15 May 1948, the British Arab states should be linked in
mandate ended and the Arab and an economic union to help
Jewish states came into being; the each other’s trade
Jews named their state Israel and
formed a government led by David
Ben Gurion
 Effects of the violence
Nearly a million Palestinians left or
were forced to leave their homes;
most went to Jordan and the Gaza
Strip, many went to Syria and
Lebanon; Arab state of Palestine
ceased to exist; Palestinians
became a minority people in the
new state of Israel
 Reasons for Palestinian migration
Massacre at Deir Yassin, Israeli
military victory; Arab leaders
encouraged them to leave during
the conflict
The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001
Reasons for, and outcomes of, Arab-Israeli conflicts to 1973
War of 1948
 Description:
On 15 May 1948, armies from Egypt,
Lebanon, Transjordan, Iraq and Syria
entered Palestine with the aim of helping
the Palestinian Arabs fight the Jewish state
of Israel which had been created that day
 Causes:
Establishment of Ben Gurion government;
unhappiness with the UN Partition Plan;
British mandate expiring; both sides
rearmed
 Effects:
- Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan and Syria signed
armistices with Israel but no peace treaty;
many Arabs have refused to recognise
Israel and have talked about destroying it;
many Jews arrived in Israel from existing
refugee camps and communities from
Eastern Europe
- Israel’s first law in 1950 was the Law of
Return; anti-Jewish riots; in Iraq, Zionism
was punishable by death; Arab protest at
Israeli diversion of the waters of River
Jordan
- Need for $65 million of international aid to
cope with new humanitarian needs;
change of leadership in Arab
governments: assassination of Egyptian
prime minister in 1948; a series of military
takeovers in 1949; in 1950: assassination
of Lebanese prime minister; murder of
King Abdullah of Jordan; coup in Egypt
which gave Colonel Nasser power; Arab
leaders blamed their defeat on Britain and
the USA and concentrated on improving
their economies
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War of 1956
 Description:
Lasted for 10 days; invasion began on
29 October; advanced deep into Sinai;
involvement of Britain and France; Egypt
refused to evacuate Suez Canal zone and
were bombed by the British and French;
UN voted for a ceasefire; Arab countries
stopped supplying Britain with oil; USA
refused to support the invasion; Eden
forced to agree to a ceasefire just 24 hours
after the first British troops had landed in
Egypt; UN Emergency Force moved in to
police the border between Egypt and Israel
 Causes:
- Nasser wanted to avenge Egypt’s defeat
in the 1948 war against Israel and to
return Palestine to the Arabs; increased
wealth and armed strength; his reputation
in the Arab world increased; he aimed to
unite the Arabs under Egyptian leadership
- 1955 arms agreement with
Czechoslovakia gave Egypt many Soviet
weapons
- Support for Algerian rebels angered
France – supported Arab rebels who were
fighting the French in their colony of
Algeria
- Nationalisation of Aswan Dam angered
Britain – it had been owned largely by
British and French shareholders; Nasser
did this after Britain and the USA
cancelled the loans they had promised
- Increase of Fedayeen attacks angered
Israel – continuance of cross-border
attacks; closing of the entrance of the Gulf
of Aqaba to Israeli ships
3
War of 1967
 Description:
5 June 1967; Israeli initial air strike
(bombed Egyptian airfields and launched
similar attacks against the other Arab air
forces); land war (drove Egyptians out of
the Gaza strip and Sinai; defeated Jordan
within two days, capturing the Old City of
Jerusalem and the ‘West Bank’; attacked
the Syrian army in the Golan Heights and
this was over by June 10); United Nations
ordered a ceasefire which the Arab nations
had to accept
 Causes:
- Syria became violently anti-Israel
(General Jedid’s takeover, attacks by
Fatah guerrillas from Syria increased)
- Land dispute – Israeli tractor ploughed up
some Arab-owned land close to the
border and met Syrian fire. Israel
responded by bombing Syrian guns.
Israel warned that it would strike back
if Syria did not stop
- USSR intervention (incorrectly argued that
Israel was ready to invade Syria at short
notice); King Feisal of Saudi Arabia and
King Hussein of Jordan promised to help
Syria
- Nasser ordered UN Emergency Force to
leave Egyptian territory; UN was ordered
to withdraw; barred the Gulf of Aqaba to
Israeli ships; military pacts (Jordan and
Egypt formed a defence pact; eight Arab
states were poised to attack); Moshe
Dayan (appointed Minister of Defence)
decided to use attack as a form of
defence
War of 1973
 Description:
6 October; the Day of Atonement; Arab
initial success: smashed Israel’s Suez
Canal defences; 80,000 Egyptians crossed
the canal; destroyed Israeli tanks; Syria
advanced into the Golan Heights and drove
the Israelis back into Galilee; Israel fought
back: US weapons sent to Israel; 254,000
reservists mobilised; 14 October tank battle
against the Egyptians; Israel crossed into
the Suez Canal; international pressure –
USSR wanted it ended (feared that the
Egyptians would lose); USA wanted it
ended (did not want to provoke the Soviets
into giving even more weapons to Egypt
and Syria); joint ceasefire proposed came
into force on 22 October
 Causes:
- Sadat replaced Nasser in 1970 and he
wanted to reverse the Arab defeat of 1967
- Egypt was more ready – asked the USSR
for assistance; plans were made for an
invasion of Sinai across the Suez Canal;
Syria would also attack from the Golan
Heights
 Effects:
- Israeli victory: 12,000 Arabs had been
killed compared to 2000 Israelis
- Oil as a weapon: OAPEC increased the
price of Arab oil until Israel withdrew from
Egypt and Syria
- USA tried to appease the Arabs
- Britain stopped supplying Israel with
weapons
- EEC expressed sympathy for the
Palestinians
- Kissinger’s proposal: disengagement of
Israeli and Egyptian forces should
happen in 1974; they should withdraw to
pre-ceasefire positions; UN army should
control the gap between them; Israel
should withdraw from Sinai and in return
get American aid
The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001
Reasons for, and outcomes of, Arab-Israeli conflicts to 1973 (cont)
War of 1948
- Some of the new leaders hoped for a
union of the Arab countries; very little
action taken on Palestinian refugees
among all Arab countries, except Jordan;
Fedayeen established – secret guerrilla
attacks on Israeli targets; each year from
1949 to 1955, some 250 Israelis were
killed or wounded in such attacks. This
prompted Israeli attacks in retaliation,
including an attack on the village of Qibya
in Jordan in 1953 and in 1955 the Israelis
mounted a raid on the Gaza strip after a
series of Fedayeen attacks on their
territory; Arab boycott of Israeli trade –
Israeli ships could not use the Suez
Canal; confiscation of cargo from Israeli
ships which called at Arab ports; Israel
was in a permanent state of tension
© Pearson Education Ltd 2009
War of 1956
 Effects:
- Egypt’s military power reduced – 1000
casualties; Israel accepted as a
permanent member of the international
community
- Britain and France humiliated – their
influence in the Middle East declined; had
to leave Egypt empty-handed; failed to
overthrow Nasser; failed to keep the Suez
Canal open; had to introduce petrol
rationing
- Israel gained security against Fedayeen
attacks – destroyed their bases; UN took
over Sharm el-Sheikh and Gaza;
emergence of Palestine Liberation
Organisation
- Nasser’s reputation in the Arab world
increased – pro-western governments in
Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq turned against
France and Britain; hopes for United Arab
League were soon dashed
4
War of 1967 War of 1973
 Effects:
- Israel improved its strength and security –
kept Sinai, Gaza Strip, West Bank, Golan
Heights, and doubled the size of the
country
- Disaster for the Arabs – 15,000 men
killed; 800 tanks captured or destroyed;
suffering for the Palestinians – those
who had been living in the West Bank and
the Gaza Strip were now in occupied
territories and faced heavy restrictions
on their lives
- Strength of Fatah – Turned to Fatah rather
than other Arab states – Fatah increased
their weapons; Battle of Karameh; Arafat
became leader; continual fighting between
Egypt and Israel; support from USSR;
1970 ceasefire; Guerrilla warfare (PFLP,
Dawson’s Field hijackings), Black
September Organisation assassinated the
Prime Minister of Jordan, kidnapped and
later murdered eleven Israeli athletes
taking part in the Munich Olympic Games;
failed diplomatic effort – UN Resolution
242
The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001
Arab nationalism in the 1980s and 1990s, and divisions in the Arab world
Divisions in the Arab world
 President Sadat
Sadat’s initiative: recognised Israel’s existence; Camp David Agreement of 1978;
Washington Treaty 1979; caused fury in the Arab world; President Sadat was murdered by
angry Egyptian soldiers
 Lebanon
Sunnis, Shi’ites, Druzes; Christians-Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Greek Catholics; conflict
between Maronites and Sunni Muslims; refugee problem
 PLO in Lebanon
Muslims in Lebanese government supported the PLO whilst the Maronites condemned them;
full-scale civil war between Phalangist Militia and Tiger Militia and Shi’ite and Druze Muslims;
Syria invaded Lebanon on the side of the Christians and then killed Christians
 Civil war between terrorist groups in Lebanon
Islamic Jihad Organisation; Hezbollah; Arab Red Knights; Black Brigades; civil war involved
taking of hostages
 Rise of Hamas from Fatah
Following on from this, Hamas and other militant organisations rose to power and shook the
foundations of the authority which Fatah under Arafat had established. However, Arafat
remained in his position until a month before his death in 2004
© Pearson Education Ltd 2009
Conflict
 Direct conflict between Israel and Lebanon
26,000 Israeli troops invaded Lebanon in response to a bus hijack; PLO continued their
attacks undeterred by the UN or the Christian militia leader, Major Haddad; June 1982 –
172,000 Israeli soldiers invaded Lebanon; UN let them pass; forced the PLO out of Beirut;
PLO went to Algeria and Iraq. Defeat for Israel – assassination of pro-Israeli Maronite
President Gemayel of Lebanon; Sabra-Chatila massacre turned public opinion in Israel
against the war; Defence Minister Ariel Sharon resigned; Israel had to withdraw from Beirut;
met with suicide bombs from fanatical Shi’ites
 PLO attacks
By 1986, PLO guerrillas were back in south Lebanon and making cross-border attacks on
Israel; splinter groups came into being; Palestine Liberal Front hijacked a cruise ship and the
Abu Nidal group hijacked an Egyptian airliner
 Internationalisation of conflict
Terror campaign was spread in places like Britain and France; in 1986 an American soldier
was killed by a terrorist bomb in West Berlin; US bombing of Tripoli and Benghazi
 Political dissension within Israel
Peres – talks in Morocco and Egypt; Taba; Yitzchak Shamir – no negotiation with the Arabs
over the West Bank; Jewish settlers continued to build new settlements there; Likud talked of
extreme solutions such as the annexation of the occupied territories
 Intifada
On 9 December 1987 an Israeli army patrol shot two attackers; uprising soon followed;
strikes and economic boycotts; refused to work for Israeli employers; Israel’s response –
‘iron fist’
 Arafat’s change of tactics
Renounced terrorism; proclamation of independent state of Palestine; sought to negotiate a
settlement with Israel; USA entered into talks with the PLO; the Oslo Accords of 1993,
agreed by Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO Chairman Yasser Arafat, granted
the Palestinians the right to self-government in the Gaza Strip and the city of Jericho in the
West Bank, through the creation of the Palestinian Authority. The PLO had used negotiating
tools to get as close to their stated aims as was realistically possible, but this by no means
marked the end of the conflict, as the Second Intifada, with repeated suicide bombings, took
place in 2000–04
5
The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001

Sources
Lowe, N. Mastering Modern World History (3rd edition, Macmillan Masters, 1997)
BBC series, Cold War, written by Jeremy Isaac and Taylor Downing, published by Transworld in 1998
Hunter, R. E. The Six Day War (Purnell’s History of the 20th century, Vol. 6, Chapter 94, BBC, 1969)
Kyle, K. Suez: Britain’s End of Empire in the Middle East (I. B. Tauris, 2003)
Mandle, B. Conflict in the Promised Land (Heinemann, 1976)
Mansfield, P. A History of the Middle East (Penguin, 2003)
Perkins, S. J. The Arab-Israeli Conflict (Nelson Thornes, 1991)
Regan, G. Israel and the Arabs (Cambridge University Press, 1993)
Scott-Baumann, M. Conflict in the Middle East: Israel and the Arabs (Hodder Murray, 2007)

Processes (Part A)
Assess the impact of British intervention 1914–21 on the growth of Arab nationalism in the ensuing decade.
Assess the impact of Britain, Egypt and Suez 1945–56 on the growth of Arab nationalism in the ensuing decade.
Assess the impact of the Cold War 1956–73 on the growth of Arab nationalism in the ensuing decade.
Assess the impact of the United Nations and the Gulf War 1990–91 on the growth of Arab nationalism in the ensuing decade.

The role of individuals (Part A)

What was the short-term significance of David Ben Gurion?
What was the short-term significance of Colonel Abdel Nasser?
What was the short-term significance of Yasser Arafat?
What was the short-term significance of Saddam Hussein?

Key events (Part A)

What was the short-term significance of the creation of the state of Israel, 1948?
What was the short-term significance of the war of Yom Kippur, 1973?
What was the short-term significance of the Iranian Revolution, 1979?
What was the short-term significance of the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, 1995?

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The Middle East and Arab-Israeli Conflict, c1900–2001

Processes (Part B)
How significant was the presence of foreign powers as an influence on the nature and growth of Arab nationalism in the years 1900–2001?
How significant was the existence of Israeli-Arab wars as an influence on the nature and growth of Arab nationalism in the years 1900–2001?
How significant was the promotion of proposed solutions as an influence on the nature and growth of Arab nationalism in the years 1900–2001?
How significant was Israeli migration as an influence on the nature and growth of Arab nationalism in the years 1900–2001?

The role of individuals (Part B)

Assess the significance of the role of individuals in affecting Israeli-Arab relations in the years 1900–2001.

Key events (Part B)

To what extent do you consider the Balfour Declaration to be a key turning point in the political development of the Middle East during the 20th century?
To what extent do you consider the 1948 Civil War in Palestine to be a key turning point in the political development of the Middle East during the 20th century?
To what extent do you consider the founding of the Palestine Liberation Organisation to be a key turning point in the political development of the Middle East during the 20th century?
To what extent do you consider the death of President Nasser to be a key turning point in the political development of the Middle East during the 20th century?

© Pearson Education Ltd 2009 7