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Electrostatics
Topics to cover:
1) Coulomb's Law 5) Material Properties
2) Electric Field / Electric Field Strength 6) Gauss' Theorem
3) Electric Potential 7) Capacitance
4) Flux and Flux Density 8) Electrostatic Energy
Introduction
In this part of the course we will first look at electric and magnetic fields. We will try to
understand fields and their effects from a macroscopic point of view; that is in media
that consists of large homogeneous material bodies. The concept of a field is used to
describe "action at a distance" - a disturbance or input at one point can have an effect or
output at a distant point. The region where the effect of this coupling media is felt is the
field, described by its (vector) field strength.
Two kinds of electric charges (+,−) and two magnetic polarities (N,S) are known to
exist. Electromagnetic field theory was originally developed from the concept that these
charges and poles give rise to electric and magnetic fields.
Experiment has shown that a force exists between any two bodies that have a net
electric charge, that is an excess of positive over negative charge or vice versa. When
these bodies are at rest, these forces are called electrostatic. Such forces were studied by
Coulomb who experimentally determined a law about them.
Thus the force experienced by Q2 due to the radial field of Q1 can be written as:
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
k E Q1Q2
F= rˆ (N)
R2
Q1
r
Q2
R F
1
kE =
4πε
where ε=εrεo is the absolute permittivity (often simply called permittivity) of the
medium, εr a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the dielectric
constant, and ε 0 = 10 −9 36 π . For free space, εr=1. (What is the SI unit for permittivity?)
When more than two charges are present in free space any one of them will experience a
force that is the vector sum of the forces resulting from each of the others, considering
them one at a time. This is the principle of superposition.
Exercise:
Consider 5 charges as shown. The test charge q' is −2 nC and is assumed sufficiently
small so as not to affect the field due to the other charges. Determine the force
experienced by the test charge due to the other charges if q1 =−20 nC, q 2 =+10 nC,
q 3 =−30 nC and q 4 =+50 nC. Assume free space.
q1 q' q2
50 mm
q4 q3
50 mm 50 mm
(Answer: 52 . 4 ∠ − 76 . 4 ° µN )
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48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
The region in which forces are experienced due to the presence of electric charges is
called an electric field. At all points within this region the electric field strength will
have a magnitude and a direction. E, the electric field strength, is defined at any point
to be the force acting on a unit positive charge placed at that point (with the proviso that
the introduction of the unit charge in no way disturbs the distribution of the existing
charges in the field). We can obtain an expression for the electric field using the
Coulomb's Law. If the test charge is set to unity, we can write
kEQ
E= rˆ (Vm−1)
R2
when the field is due to a single charged body sufficiently distant from the field point so
that the body can be considered a point charge of Q.
n
Qi
E = kE ∑ r̂i (Vm−1)
i =1 Ri2
Consider the electric field at a point P, a distance d above an infinite charged plane.
The density of charge on the plane is Q coulombs per square meter. Determine E at P.
dS
dθ
r S
dr
Solution:
Consider the geometry above. The force on a unit positive charge placed at point P due
to the charge on dS is Q r dθ dr 4πε0 (d 2 + r 2 ) in the direction of SP. This can be
resolved into two orthogonal components:
Q r dθ dr d
at right angles to the plane and
4πε 0 (d + r
2 2
) d 2 + r2
Q r dθ dr r
parallel to the plane.
4πε 0 (d 2 + r 2 ) d 2 + r2
Page 2-3
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
If a full ring of charge is considered then it is clear that the parallel components will
2π
cancel and the force will only have a normal component. As ∫ dθ = 2π , the force
0
normal to the plane due to an incremental ring of charge is
2π Q r d dr Qd r dr
=
3
2ε0 3
4πε0 ( d + r 2 2 2
) (d 2
+r )
2 2
The total force is found by summing the contributions of all incremental rings
(integrating over the surface). That is the magnitude of E is:
∞
Qd − 1
∞
Qd r dr Q
E=
2ε 0 ∫ 3
= 2 =
2 ε 0 d + r 2 0 2ε 0
0
(d 2
+r 2
) 2
Q
E= n$
2 ε0
where n$ is the normal unit vector to the infinite plane. Note that for this special case
that the field strength is not a function of d.
The electric potential difference between two points (e.g. A and B in the diagram
below) in an electrostatic field is defined as the external work needed to move a unit
positive charge from one point to another against the field strength vector.
dW = − EdR
1 1
B RB
Q
VBA = VB − V A = − ∫ E • dl = − ∫ k E 2
dR = k E Q −
A RA
R RB R A
Page 2-4
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
P'
E
B
P θ dl
RA dR
R RB
dV
E=− rˆ (Vm−1)
dR
at any point P in the field, where r̂ is a unit vector in the direction from Q to P.
Example:
Calculate the potential difference between point A (3,4) m and point B (0,0) m situated
in an electric field produced by a charge Q1 (of 20 µC) at point (0,4) m and a charge Q2
(of −10 µC) at point (3,0) m. This arrangement is shown below.
Solution:
n
qi 1 1
VB − V A = ∑ − 4 Q1
A
i = 1 4πε0 R Bi R Ai
So in this case
Q2
−6 −6 B
20 × 10 1 1 − 10 × 10 1 1
VB − V A = 4 − 3 + 4πε 3 − 4
O 3
4πε 0 0
= −22.47 × 10 3 (V)
Page 2-5
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
E vector at that point. (Since this vector has a unique direction at each point, the flux
lines cannot intersect.) Lines of force are close together where the field is strong and far
apart where the field is weak. Below are some examples of flux lines.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Examples of flux lines
The electric flux density, D, (Cm−2) is the amount of flux per unit normal area.
Referring to the figure below we can write:
δψ dψ
D = lim =
δA →0 δA dA
ψ n
and
ψ = ∫ D • dA area dA
D = εE
Page 2-6
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Gauss' Theorem
Gauss' theorem states that for any closed surface the total outward flux is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the free charges enclosed within the surface. Mathematically stated
that is
ψ = ∫ D • da = q enclosed
A
r
r00
r0 r
Consider a spherical conductor in free space, radius r0 , with uniform surface charge q
Cm−2. Determine the electric field strength at a point at distance r from the centre of
the sphere. Consider two cases: r > r0 and r < r0 . Assume that there are no other
charged bodies in the vicinity. (This is implied by the uniform charge distribution.)
Solution:
To solve this problem construct an imaginary sphere of radius r, concentric with the
conductor (called a Gaussian surface) and apply Gauss' theorem to this (closed)
surface. By symmetry E (and D) will constant over this surface and radially directed.
For the case r > r0 the charge enclosed by the sphere is the surface area of the
conducting sphere ´ the surface charge per unit area, that is:
q enclosed = 4 πr02 q
∫ D • dA = D ∫ dA = 4πr
2
D
A A
Page 2-7
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
2
q enclosed q r
E= n$ = o n$
4πr ε o
2
εo r
For the case when r < r0 the enclosed charge is zero and therefore E is also zero.
(As an exercise consider the same charged sphere coated in a dielectric material with
ε ≠ ε 0 . Let the coating have a uniform thickness d. Determine the field strength at a
point inside the coating and at a point outside the coated sphere.)
In this case the charge is uniformly distributed along the surface of the conductor with
Q Cm−1. Determine the electric field strength at a point at distance r from the centre of
the conductor.
Solution:
The symmetry (implied by the infinite length and straightness of the conductor) ensures
that the field strength at a point r distant from the conductor axis will be radial. As a
Gaussian surface we choose a concentric unit length cylinder. The charge enclosed is
therefore Q. The radial nature of E (and therefore D) means that no flux passes
through the plane circular sides of the Gaussian surface. D is constant on the curved
part of the Gaussian surface. Also the angle q between the vectors D and dA is 0o.
Therefore, Gauss' theorem in this case leads to
∫ D • dA = D ∫ dA= 2πrD
A A
and so
Q
E= nˆ
2πrε 0
(As an exercise determine the electric field at a point P, a distance d above an infinite
charged plane using Gauss' theorem. Assume the density of charge on the plane is Q
coulombs per square meter. Compare your answer with the answer obtained earlier
using Coulomb's Law)
Capacitance
If we consider an isolated conductor of any shape and place charge Q on it then its
electric potential will rise. Assume that it rises to V volts. Now we place another
charge of Q Coulomb on it. Using superposition the conductor's potential rises to 2V
volts. That is, as charge is added the potential rises proportionally, or Q ∝ V . We define
Page 2-8
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Q = CV
The unit of capacitance is Coulomb per Volt (CV−1) which is called the Farad.
Electric flux lines originate from the positive charges on the surface of one conductor
and terminate on the negative charges on the surface of the other conductor. (Note that
these flux lines are perpendicular to the conductor surfaces, i.e. each surface being an
equipotential.) The voltage between the two conductors is V12. The capacitance of this
capacitor can be written as
Q
C =
V12
The capacitance of a two conductor system depends on the geometry of the conductor
system and the permittivity of the medium between them, but does not depend on the
charge Q or the potential difference V12. Capacitance can be determined by (1) assuming
a V12 and determining Q in terms of V12, or (2) assuming Q and determining V12 in terms
of Q.
C1 C2 Cp
or
C p = C1 + C2
Page 2-9
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
C1 C2 Cs
or
1 1 1
= +
Cs C1 C2
Example:
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S separated
by a uniform distance d, as shown in the diagram below. The space between the plates
is filled with a dielectric of a constant permittivity ε. Determine the capacitance.
Solution:
For this problem, it is obvious that the appropriate coordinate system to use is the
Cartesian coordinate system. Following the procedure outlined above, we put charges
+Q and −Q on the upper and lower conducting plates, respectively. The charges are
assumed to be uniformly distributed over the conducting plates with surface densities
+ρs and -ρs, where ρs = Q S . The electric field strength is zero inside a conductor and
normal to the conductor surface. Applying the Gauss’s law, we have
D = − a y ρs or E = − a y ρs ε
in the dielectric between the conducting plates if the fringing of the electric field at the
edges of the plates is neglected. The potential difference between the two plates can be
calculated as
y=d y=d
ρs
∫ (− a ρ s ε ) • (a y dy ) =
Qd
V12 = − ∫ E • dl = − d=
ε εS
y
y =0 y =0
εS
C=
d
which is independent of Q or V12.
Page 2-10
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
Example:
outer radius of R . The space between the conductors is filled with a dielectric with
o
Solution:
Ri
ε
Assume charges +Q and −Q on the inner and outer conductors
respectively. Applying Gauss' Law to a spherical surface of Ro
radius R, ( Ri < R < Ro ) , we find
Q
E= nˆ
4πR 2 ε
where n̂ is the unit outward pointing radial vector. Next we can obtain the voltage
between the conductors from
Q 1
Ri Ri
V = − ∫ E • (nˆ dR ) = − ∫
Q 1
dR = −
Ro Ro 4πR ε
2
4πε Ri Ro
Q 4 πε
C = =
V 1 1
−
Ri Ro
(Note: The capacitance of an isolated sphere of radius Ri can be obtained by letting
Ro → ∞ , giving C = 4πεRi )
Electrostatic Energy
Since the electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work required
to bring a unit positive charge from infinity (zero potential) to that point, to bring a
charge Q2 (slowly so that the kinetic energy and radiation effects may be neglected)
from infinity against the field of a charge Q1 in free space to a distance R12, the amount
of work required is
Q1 Q2
We 2 = Q2V21 = Q2 = Q1 = Q1V12
4πε o R12 4πε o R12
or
We 2 = (Q2V21 + Q1V12 )
1
2
Page 2-11
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
1 N
We = ∑ Qk Vk
2 k =1
where Vk, the electric potential at Qk, is caused by all the other charges and has the
following expression
1 N Qj
Vk = ∑
4πε o j =1 R jk
( j ≠k )
For a continuous charge distribution of density ρ the formula for the electric energy
becomes
1
We = ∫ ρVdv
2 V'
where V is the potential at the point where the Coulomb charge density is ρ and V' is the
volume of the region where ρ exists.
1
where D • E is the energy density. Using D=εE for a linear medium, we have
2
1 1
2 V∫' 2 V∫'
We = εE 2 dv or We = D 2 ε dv
Reading Material
So far we have discussed only the electric field of stationary charge distributions in free
space or air. We now examine the field behaviour in material media. In general, we
classify materials according to their electrical properties into three types: conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators (or dielectrics). In terms of the crude atomic model of
an atom consisting of a positively charged nucleus with orbiting electrons, the electrons
in the outermost shells of the atoms of conductors are very loosely held and migrate
easily from one atom to another. Most metals belong to this group. The electrons in the
atoms of insulators or dielectrics, however, are confined to their orbits; they cannot be
liberated in normal circumstances, even by the application of an external electric field.
The electrical properties of semiconductors fall between those of conductors and
insulators in that they possess a relatively small number of freely movable charges.
Page 2-12
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
In terms of the band theory of solids we find that there are allowed energy bands for
electrons, each band consisting of many closely spaced, discrete energy states. Between
these energy bands there may be forbidden regions or gaps where no electrons of the
solid's atom can reside. Conductors have an upper energy band partially filled with
electrons or an upper pair of overlapping bands that are partially filled so that the
electrons in these bands can move from one to another with only a small change in
energy. Insulators or dielectrics are materials with a completely filled upper band, so
conduction could not normally occur because of the existence of a large energy gap to
the next higher band. If the energy gap of the forbidden region is relatively small, small
amounts of external energy may be sufficient to excite the electrons in the filled upper
band to jump into the next band, causing conduction. Such materials are
semiconductors.
Assume for the present that some positive (or negative) charges are introduced in the
interior of a conductor. An electric field will be set up in the conductor, the field
exerting a force on the charges and making them move away from one another. This
movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and
redistribute themselves in such a way that both the charge and the field inside vanish.
Hence, inside a conductor (under static conditions), the volume charge density in Cm−3
ρ = 0. When there is no charge in the interior of a conductor (ρ=0), E must be zero.
The charge distribution on the surface of a conductor depends on the shape of the
surface. Obviously, the charges would not be in a state of equilibrium if there were a
tangential component of the electric field intensity that produces a tangential force and
moves the charges. Therefore, under static conditions the E field on a conductor
surface is everywhere normal to the surface. In other words, the surface of a
conductor is an equipotential surface under static conditions. As a matter of fact,
since E = 0 everywhere inside a conductor, the whole conductor has the same
electrostatic potential. A finite time is required for the charges to redistribute on a
conductor surface and reach the equilibrium state. This time depends on the
conductivity of the material. For a good conductor such as copper this time is of the
order of 10−19 (s), a very brief transient.
Ideal dielectrics do not contain free charges. When a dielectric body is placed in an
external electric field, there are no induced free charges that move to the surface and
make the interior charge density and electric field vanish, as with conductors. However,
since dielectrics contain bound charges, we cannot conclude that they have no effect on
the electric field in which they are placed.
Page 2-13
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
The molecules of some dielectrics possess permanent dipole moments, even in the
absence of an external polarizing field. Such molecules usually consist of two or more
dissimilar atoms and are called polar molecules, in contrast to nonpolar molecules,
which do not have permanent dipole moments. An example is the water molecule H2O,
which consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The atoms do not arrange
themselves in a manner that makes the molecule have a zero dipole moment; that is, the
hydrogen atoms do not lie exactly on diametrically opposite sides of the oxygen atom.
The dipole moments of polar molecules are of the order of 10−30 (Cm). When there is
no external field, the individual dipoles in a polar dielectric are randomly oriented,
producing no net dipole moment macroscopically. An applied electric field will exert a
torque on the individual dipoles and tend to align them with the field in a manner
similar to that shown in the figure above.
Some dielectric materials can exhibit a permanent dipole moment even in the absence of
an externally applied electric field. Such materials are called electrets. Electrets can be
made by heating (softening) certain waxes or plastics and placing them in an electric
field. The polarized molecules in these materials tend to align with the applied field and
to be frozen in their new positions after they return to normal temperatures. Permanent
polarization remains without an external electric field. Electrets are the electrical
equivalents of permanent magnets; they have found important applications in high
fidelity electret microphones.
Page 2-14
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
equals the power loss in the dielectric due to the hysteresis effect, known as the electric
hysteresis loss, and can be calculated by
Physt = ∫ E • dD
When the electric hysteresis of a dielectric is ignored and the dielectric properties are
regarded as isotropic and linear, the polarization is directly proportional to the electric
field strength, and the proportionality constant is independent of the direction of the
field. We write
D = εE
where the coefficient ε=εrεo is the absolute permittivity (often simply called
permittivity), and εr a dimensionless quantity known as the relative permittivity or the
dielectric constant.
Exercises:
1. Use Gauss' Law to obtain the electrostatic flux density, D, and hence the field
intensity, E, at a distance d (in free space)
(i) from a line charge with uniform charge density of q Cm − . 1
3. A straight rod AB lies along the x-axis and it carries charge q/unit length, uniformly
distributed. Show that the x and y components of the electric field E at point P are
given by:
E Px =
q
(sin θ B − sin θ A ), E Py = q (cosθ A − cosθ B )
4πε o b 4πε o b
where: P is a point in the first quadrant, b is the distance from P to the x-axis, θ A
and θ B are the angles AP and BP make with the x-axis.
Also show that for a semi-infinite line charge (A at origin, B at ∞):
q q
E Py = − E Px = , EP = , ∠E P = 135°
4πε o b 2 2πε o b
and for an infinite line (A at −∞, B at ∞):
Page 2-15
48531 EMS – Chapter 2. Electrostatics
q
E Py = E P = , E Px = 0 , (field cylindrical)
2πε o b
(n.b. The problem is identical to magnetic field around a long straight conductor)
(Problem 4) (Problem 5)
7. Prove that the following formula for electrostatic energy hold true for any two
conductor capacitor:
1
We = CV 2
2
8. Einstein's theory of relativity stipulates that the work required to assemble a charge
is stored as energy in the mass and is equal to mc2, where m is the mass and c ≈
3×108 (m/s) is the velocity of light. Assuming the electron to be a perfect sphere,
find its radius from its charge (−1.602×10−19 C) and mass (9.1×10−31 kg)
(Answer: 1.69×10−15 m)
Page 2-16