319

effectiveness of the polymer since snagging is greatly reduced. Virtually all HPAM
properties show a large sensitivity to salinity and hardness, an obstacle to using
HPAM in many reservoirs. On the other hand, HPAM is inexpensive and relatively
resistant to bacterial attack, and it exhibits permanent permeability reduction.

Polysaccharides

These polymers are formed from the polymerization of saccharide molecules (Fig.
8-3b), a bacterial fermentation process. This process leaves substantial debris in the
polymer product that must be removed before the polymer is injected (Wellington,
1980). The polymer is also susceptible to bacterial attack after it has been introduced
into the reservoir. These disadvantages are offset by the insensitivity of
polysaccharide properties to brine salinity and hardness.
Figure 8-3(b) shows the origin of this insensitivity. The polysaccharide
molecule is relatively nonionic and, therefore, free of the ionic shielding effects of
HPAM. Polysaccharides are more branched than HPAM, and the oxygen-ringed
carbon bond does not rotate fully; hence the molecule increases brine viscosity by
snagging and adding a more rigid structure to the solution. Polysaccharides do not
exhibit permeability reduction. Molecular weights of polysaccharides. are generally
around 2 million.
Today, HPAM is less expensive per unit amount than polysaccharides, but
when compared on a unit amount of mobility reduction, particularly at high salinities,
the costs are close enough so that the preferred polymer for a given application is site
specific. Historically, HPAM has been used in about 95% of the reported field
polymer floods (Manning et al., 1983). Both classes of polymers tend to chemically
degrade at elevated temperatures.

Polymer Forms

The above polymers take on three distinctly different physical forms: powders, broths
and emulsions. Powders, the oldest of the three, can be readily transported and stored
with small cost. They are difficult to mix because the first water contacting the
polymer tends to form very viscous layers of hydration around the particles, which
greatly slow subsequent dissolution- Broths arc aqueous suspensions of about 10 wt.
% polymer in water which are much easier to mix than powders. They have the
disadvantage of being rather costly because of the need to transport and store large
volumes of water. Broths are quite viscous so they can require special mixing
facilities. In fact, it is this difficulty which limits the concentration of polymer in the
broth. Emulsion polymers, the newest polymer form, contain up to 35 wt. % polymer
solution, suspended through the use of a surfactant, in an oil-carrier phase. Once this
water-in-oil emulsion is inverted (see Fig. 9-5), the polymer concentrate can be
mixed with make-up water to the desired concentration for injection. The emulsion
flows with roughly the same viscosity as the oil carrier, which can be recycled.