401.1 Principles of Sounds and Sound Production Part2of2

SAE Institute Bucharest
Module 100 Basic Media Studies
Unit 100.2 Principles of Sounds and Sound Production Part 2 of 2
these slides are a

work in progress
and will be
updated weekly.
Friday, November 9, 12 1
Basic Electronic Components
Soldering Iron
(Weller, 2010)
Electricity
Electricity is the flow of charge around a circuit carrying energy from the battery (or
power supply) to components.
Electricity can flow only if there is a complete circuit from the battery or power supply
through wires to components and back to the battery or power supply again.
The switch works by breaking the circuit.
We can see, hear or feel the effects of electricity flowing such as a lamp lighting, a bell
ringing, or a mixer being turned on. (Hewes, 2011)
Electrons are negatively charged. Protons are positively charged.
(Darren) 3
Conventional current
Conventional current is said to flow from positive (+) to negative (-). But in reality it
flows from negative to positive. The end result is the same.
Simple DC Circuit
(Kightley)
4
AC/DC
In AC the electrons change direction sinusoidally (in an alternating fashion)
The frequency of this alternating cycle in the UK/Europe and most of the world, is 50Hz.
In the US it's 60Hz. (which is why mains hum sounds like a 50 Hz tone).
In DC the electrons will carry on flowing around the circuit without changing direction.
AC is used to transmit power over long distances because DC current loses power the
further it goes.
In the 1800s only those who lived in a mile radius of a power station had power .
These days AC is used to power our homes.
AC current is ‘stepped down’ to DC for electronic circuits with transformers.
Simple AC Circuit Simple DC Circuit
(Kurtus, 2005)
PBS. (Photographer). (1999). Ac/dc: What's the

difference?. [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/edison/sfeature/
acdc.html
use link in class for graphics 6
Simple AC Circuit Simple DC Circuit
(Kurtus, 2005)
Ohm's Law
An important equation in electrical circuits is called Ohm's Law.

German physicist Georg Ohm discovered the law in 1827.
Ohm's Law is the equation I = V/ R and is used in both AC and DC circuits.
Knowing two items in this equation allows you to calculate the third.
7
Ohm's Law
(Kurtus, 2005)
Ohm’s Law triangle
(teknikka, 2008) 8
Voltage
Voltage is the electrical potential energy or potential difference and is measured in volts.
A good analogy is to think of a water hose. There is water pressure or potential energy on the
other side of the outlet valve. Once you open the tap, the pressure causes the water to rush
through the hose.
The measurement is Volts. e.g. 110V.
(Kurtus, 2005)
Current
Current indicates the amount of electrons passing through the wire and is measured in amperes
or amps for short. Confusingly I is used to indicate current in Ohm’s Law.
The measurement is amps. e.g. 2.0A.
Electrical current is similar to the rate of water flowing through a hose.
Resistance
Electrical resistance can be thought of as the "friction" on the movement of electrons in a wire.
Resistance is measured in ohms, and the unit symbol for it is the Greek letter omega, Ω.
3 ohms is often written as 3 Ω.
Most devices in an electrical circuit can be considered resistors, including loudspeakers. Even the
wire itself provides some resistance. Just as you get some heat from friction, electrical resistance
also results in heat. Explaining why the light bulb filament gets hot and glows.
Keeping the water hose analogy. The resistance increases with a narrower hose, just like a thin
copper wire has more electrical resistance than a thick wire. (Kurtus, 2005)
10
Electric Circuit
(Electronic, 2007) 3 minutes
11
Voltage, Current and Resistance
(biology , 2011) 10 minutes
12
Speaker basics - part 2 - calculating loudness
Michael , P. (Videographer) (2008). Speaker basics - part 2 - calculating loudness [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y9rur78FE1k
13
Basic Electronic theory will appeal to those who are interested in electrical maintenance,
studio installation or live sound applications where equipment is regularly setup.
DJs who want to understand their PAs will also benefit from a good understanding of
speaker resistance and power ratios.
14
Transformers
Used in all audio equipment that needs power.
Transforming high voltage (24o volts in Europe and most of the world) to lower voltages
required by the equipment.
Converts AC to DC or visa versa

The primary winding is relevant to the input and the secondary winding to the output.
Transformer Showing Marshall 12,0000 series 100W

Primary and secondary
Power Transformer Reproduction
windings
(Audio, 2011) 15
("transformer winding," )
Transformer Types
Step-up Transformer:
The secondary has more turns than the primary so the output voltage is higher.
Step-down Transformer:
The secondary has fewer turns than the primary so the output voltage is lower.
Isolating Transformer:
Intended to transform from one voltage to the same voltage. The two coils have
approximately equal numbers of turns, although often there is a slight difference in the
number of turns, in order to compensate for losses (otherwise the output voltage would
be a little less than, rather than the same as, the input voltage).
Variable Transformer:
The primary and secondary have an adjustable number of turns which can be selected
without reconnecting the transformer.
(Tabtronics, 2007)
16
Resistors and Capacitors

Ohm’s law is one of the most important ideas to understand in
electronics. It describes the relationship between voltage, current
and resistance.
Voltage
Voltage is the measure of electrical pressure or potential. The
greater the pressure the more current can pass
through the same conductor. The unit of Voltage is the Volt and is
named for the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta.
Current
Current is the measurement of electrons through an electrical
conductor. The unit for measuring current is the Amp or Ampere,
named for the French physicist André-Marie Ampère.
Resistance
Resistance is the measure of how much a material resists or slows
down an electrical current flowing through it. Every material
including conductors have some resistance. The unit of resistance
is the Ohm.
(Eagle)
17
Resistors
Resistors have the same impedance no matter what

current passes through them. They disperse the current as
heat.
(Eagle)
18
Ohm’s Law Dating from 1827
The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is proportional to the current
through it. The constant of proportionality is called the "resistance", R.
Georg Ohm
(Antique, 2012)
19
Resistors
Resistors values are coded with colored
stripes. The stripes are weighted to one
end of the resistor. That is the end to
start from.
The first to stripes are digits, the third

is a multipler and the fourth the
tolerance of the resistor.
(Kadi, 2006)
20
(Eagle)
Resistors in Practice
Resistors and other components in a circuit can be connected in two ways.
In Series :
The same current flows through all the components but a different potential difference
(voltage) can exist across each one.
In Parallel :
The same potential difference (voltage) exists across all the components but each
component may carry a different current..
(Coates, 2007)
21
In Series :
To calculate the total resistance of resistors wired in series then simply sum the
individual resistors.
R total = R1 + R2 + R3
For example if three resistors having values of 1, 2 and 3 Ohms are wired in series then
the resistance total will be 6 Ohms.
1 Ohm 2 Ohms 3 Ohms
1 2 3 6 Ohms
22
In Parallel :
If resistors are placed in parallel they share the current and the calculation is a little more
difficult.
R total = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)
R total = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

8 Ohms 8 Ohms 8 x 8 = 64
8 + 8 = 16
64/16 = 4 Ohms
23
For more than two resistors the calculation is more complex.
Ohm’s Law in Practice
To calculate the current:
24
To calculate the current:

9 volts /3 Ohms = 3 amps...
25
R Total = R1+R2+R3 (12Ohms)
Current 12 (volts) /12 (Ohms) =
R1 Current 12/12 =
R2
R3
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/circuit-construction-kit-ac 26
R Total = R1+R2+R3 (12Ohms)
Current 12 (volts) /12 (Ohms) = 1 amp
R1 Current 12/12 = 1 amp
R2
R3
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/circuit-construction-kit-ac 27
Power
Power in Electrical Circuits
Electrical Power, (P) in a circuit is the amount of energy that is absorbed or produced
within the circuit.
A source of energy such as a voltage will produce power while the connected load
absorbs it.
The symbol for power is P and is the product of voltage multiplied by the current with
the unit of measurement being the Watt (W)
By using Ohm's law and substituting for V, I and R the formula for electrical power can
be found as:
The Power Triangle
(Storr, 2012) 28
Power
25 V 2.5 ohms
29
Power
10 amps
25 V 2.5 ohms
250 Watts
30
Basic Electronic Components Classic Guitar from the inside
Guitar pedal/stomp box schematic diagram
Classic Guitar Pedal
(Marossy, 2009)
(Kit)
31
Three band equalizer schematic diagram

Five band equalizer circuit board.
(Circuits, 2001)
32
Inductors and Capacitors
Inductors and capacitors also resist the flow of

electronic current in very different ways to resistors
Inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.
Capacitors pass AC but block DC.
Frequency specific resistance is known as reactance.
33
Condenser microphones are also known as capacitor mics because of A capacitor

their differing electronics mainly their use of capacitor principles.
A dielectric is an insulator...
34
(Nave, 2001)
Microphones (from Intro to Audio Tech...)
Condenser
microphones are
said to use a
capacitor
principle.
(Nave, 2001)
35
Production Listening
36
Decibels
dB dBa dBv dBu dBm
The decibel is the unit for measuring the level of sound. It is also used to measure electronic
signals. Our ears do not function in a linear fashion so a non linear measurement was found.
Unlike frequency measurements which are linear the dB is a logarithmic measurement used to
describe a ratio between two measurements which might be power of an amplifier, sound pressure
level of a microphone or loudspeaker, voltage in an electronic circuit.
The inventor of the telephone was Alexander Graham

Bell. Telephone companies developed the early
technology to transmit electrical signals over large
distances. The reason we use a capital letter in dB is
because it pays homage to the inventor
37
( R e c h n e r, 2 0 0 0 )
Decibels
dB dBa dBv dBu dBm
dB vs dBm
When a physical quantity, such as power or intensity, is measured relative to a reference
level it is expressed in decibels (dB), which is a logarithmic unit.
Decibel is considered as a dimensionless unit because it is a ratio of two quantities.
The best example of this is the signal-to-noise ratio.
When measuring sound pressure level, the basic reference against which we take
measurements is the threshold of hearing.
(Ian, 2011)
38
Decibels
dB dBa dBv dBu dBm
dB vs dBm
dBm is different but definitely related to dB. dBm stands for an absolute power level. It is
in reference to another unit of power the milliwatt.
(Ian, 2011)
39
Decibels
dB dBa dBv dBu dBm
dBv
dBv is for measuring voltage.
(Ian, 2011)
40
Decibels
Sound Operating Levels S.O.Ls
dB dBa dBv dBu dBm
Broadcast : +8 dBm Semi Pro Audio : -10 dBv
Pro-Audio : +4 dBm Consumer Audio : -20 dBv
41
Metering
VU Meter PPM Meter
Use Pro-
Tools
session to
demo the
response
(Galdon, 2008) (BBC, 2007)
The Volume Unit Meter is the oldest meter

having been around since the beginning of The PPM (Peak Program Meter) is
audio time. The VU meter measures the more expensive than the VU but
average voltage in a circuit (RMS-root mean more accurate to peaks. With a
square). As a result they are not accurate to quicker fallback time they can
sudden transients like drums and because of appear to show the transient nature
their slow fallback time they seem to of music.
emphasize quicker release times of sounds.
(Robjohns, 2000)
42
Metering
PPM Meter
(Galdon, 2008) (BBC, 2007)
A fast high level signal also known as a transient can be monitored with a Peak Programme
meter.
(Robjohns, 2000)
43
Metering
24 track Otari Tape Machine (recording/mixing) 1986
VU Meter
(Galdon, 2008)
( Fi x e r )
$229.00 754.276 RON $195.00 642.251 RON

Ma g n e t i c f l u x d e n s i t y i s
measured in Nano Webers per
Meter Squared.
44
Metering
With different meters designed in different
countries for different audio applications we
are left with a confusing set of numbers.
Now with digital technology by so many

more designers the problem is exaggerated.
Metering is only a guideline for our audio.

Trust your ears and practice is the best
solution.
(Astronomy)
45
Headroom
Is the maximum signal level any signal chain can handle before distortion takes place.
In the old days headroom was defined by the equipment’s analogue components. In
the digital domain the headroom is defined by digital word length or bit rate.
(Thornton, 2010)
(Yamaha, 1990) 46
(Robjohns, 2000)
Signal to Noise Ratio
Definition
Signal to Noise Ratio is the measurement of how much noise there is compared with the
desired audio signal.
For example if the signal level is – 40 dBm and the noise floor of an equipment is –130
dBm) then the signal to noise ratio is 90 dBm
Pro-Tools Screen Shot
47
Basics of Sound Waves
(SPL) Sound Pressure Level
SPL is measured in Decibels and you will find it on microphone specifications. The
higher the SPL the more volume the microphone can take before it distorts.
threshold of pain 130 dB
48
49
References
Biology , B. (Editor) (2011). Voltage, current and resistance[Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J4Vq-xHqUo8&feature=related
Coates, E. (2007). Series & para&el resistors. Retrieved from http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/resistors_20.php
Electronic, I. (Editor) (2007). Electric circuits [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymRwIUNlEL4
Ian. (2011, October 11). Difference between db and dbm. Retrieved from http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-db-and-dbm/
Kadi, J. (2006). Introduction to sound recording technology. Unpublished raw data, Department of Music, Stanford University, California, California. Retrieved from https://ccrma.stanford.edu/
courses/192a/1-Basic_Electronics.pdf
Kurtus, R. (2005, August 19). Ohm. Retrieved from http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/elect_ohms_law.htm
Storr, W. (2012, February). Electronics tutorials about ohms law and power. Retrieved from http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html
Thornton, M. (2010, June). Keep your headroom. Sound On Sound, Retrieved from http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun10/articles/pt_0610.htm
50
Image References
Audio, M. (Photographer). (2011). Marshall 12,0000 series 100w. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.merrenaudio.com/marshall_power_transformers
BBC. (Photographer). (2007). Ppm meter. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.bbcradioresources.com/TechnicalSpecificationBWAV/Glossary.html
b r e c h b u e h l e r. ( Wr i t e r ) ( 2 0 1 1 ) . Ta b l e o f s o u n d l e v e l s t o g e t a f e e l o f d e c i b e l s [ We b ] . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. b r e c h b u e h l e r. c h /
W h i s p e r- 9 0 0 0 . 1 2 9 . 0 . h t m l
Darren. (Designer). (n.d.). Electricity. [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://www.english-online.at/science/electricity/nucleus-and-electrons.gif
D a v e . ( Wr i t e r ) ( 2 0 0 5 ) . Wa v e l e n g t h f o r m u l a [ We b ] . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / f o r u m s . r a d i o r e f e r e n c e . c o m / g e n e r a l - s c a n n i n g - f o r u m / 3 5 1 8 4 -
s c a n n e r- r a d i o - s i g n a l - b o o s t e r s . h t m l
Galdon. (Designer). (2008). Vu meter. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6i4ik_tuto-after-effects-vu-meter_creation
H e i j l i g e r s , M . ( Wr i t e r ) ( 2 0 0 6 ) . A s h o r t i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a u d i o e n c o d i n g [ We b ] . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / h o m e p a g e . m a c . c o m / m a r c . h e i j l i g e r s /
audio/ipod/compression/encoding/encoding.html
Kightley, R. (n.d.). Electric current. Retrieved from http://www.rkm.com.au/animations/animation-electrical-circuit.html
M i c h e l e n , A . ( D e s i g n e r ) . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . Ty p e o f d e v i c e s . [ We b G r a p h i c ] . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. g l o b a l s p e c . c o m / r e f e r e n c e / 9 6 4 0 / 3 5 9 7 4 9 / i - v -
characteristics
51
Image References
O X , O. ( E d i t o r ) ( 2 0 1 1 ) . D o u b l e u p . [ T h e a t e r ] . A v a i l a b l e f r o m h t t p : / / d a n c i n g w i t h a m m o . b l o g s p o t . c o m /
R u m s e y, F. , & M c C o r m i c k , T. ( 2 0 0 9 ) . S o u n d a n d r e c o r d i n g . ( 6 t h e d . , p . 2 / 3 ) . O x f o r d : E l s e v i e r.
S m i t h , S . W. ( 1 9 9 7 ) . Ti m b r e . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. d s p g u i d e . c o m / c h 2 2 / 2 . h t m
Tabtronics, R. (2007). Transformer basics. Retrieved from http://www.raftabtronics.com/TECHNOLOGY/ElectromagneticBasics/TransformerBasics/tabid/110/Default.aspx
teknikka. (2008, November 24). Ohm's law. Retrieved from http://www.teknikka.com/wiki/index.php?title=Ohm's_Law
(n.d.). transformer winding. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://ludens.cl/Electron/trafos/trafos.html
Yamaha. (Photographer). (1990). Dynamic range and headroom. [Print Drawing]. Retrieved from http://www.yamaha.com/yamahavgn/CDA/ContentDetail/WrappedTextDetail.html?
CNTID=48553&CTID=227500
Weller. (Photographer). (2010). We&er soldering iron. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.wellersolderingiron.co.uk/images/2.jpg
52
Bibliography
Metzler, B. (1993). Audio measurement handbook. Oregon: AUDIO PRECISION. (Metzler, 1993)
Robjohns, H. (2000, June). Metering frequently asked questions. Sound On Sound, Retrieved from http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun00/articles/metring.htm
Wa r l i c k , C . ( 2 0 1 0 ) . c i t a t i o n m a c h i n e . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / c i t a t i o n m a c h i n e . n e t / i n d e x 2 . p h p ?
start=&reqstyleid=0&stylebox=2
w a v e l e n g t h o f a n a c o u s t i c w a v e . R e t r i e v e d f r o m h t t p : / / w w w. s e n g p i e l a u d i o . c o m / c a l c u l a t o r - w a v e s . h t m
53

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SAE Institute Bucharest

Module 100 Basic Media Studies

Unit 100.2 Principles of Sounds and Sound Production Part 2 of 2

these slides are a

Electrons are negatively charged. Protons are positively charged.

In AC the electrons change direction sinusoidally (in an alternating fashion)

AC current is ‘stepped down’ to DC for electronic circuits with transformers.

PBS. (Photographer). (1999). Ac/dc: What's the

use link in class for graphics 6

An important equation in electrical circuits is called Ohm's Law.

Ohm’s Law triangle

(Electronic, 2007) 3 minutes

Voltage, Current and Resistance

(biology , 2011) 10 minutes

Converts AC to DC or visa versa

Transformer Showing Marshall 12,0000 series 100W

Resistors and Capacitors

Resistors have the same impedance no matter what

The first to stripes are digits, the third

1 Ohm 2 Ohms 3 Ohms

R total = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

R total = (R1 x R2) / (R1 + R2)

To calculate the current:

To calculate the current:

R Total = R1+R2+R3 (12Ohms)

Current 12 (volts) /12 (Ohms) =

R Total = R1+R2+R3 (12Ohms)

Current 12 (volts) /12 (Ohms) = 1 amp

R1 Current 12/12 = 1 amp

The Power Triangle

Guitar pedal/stomp box schematic diagram

Classic Guitar Pedal

Three band equalizer schematic diagram

Inductors and capacitors also resist the flow of

Inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.

Capacitors pass AC but block DC.

Frequency specific resistance is known as reactance.

Condenser microphones are also known as capacitor mics because of A capacitor

dB dBa dBv dBu dBm

The inventor of the telephone was Alexander Graham

dB dBa dBv dBu dBm

dB dBa dBv dBu dBm

dB dBa dBv dBu dBm

Sound Operating Levels S.O.Ls

dB dBa dBv dBu dBm

Broadcast : +8 dBm Semi Pro Audio : -10 dBv

Pro-Audio : +4 dBm Consumer Audio : -20 dBv

VU Meter PPM Meter

(Galdon, 2008) (BBC, 2007)

The Volume Unit Meter is the oldest meter

(Galdon, 2008) (BBC, 2007)

$229.00 754.276 RON $195.00 642.251 RON

Now with digital technology by so many

Metering is only a guideline for our audio.

Pro-Tools Screen Shot

(SPL) Sound Pressure Level

threshold of pain 130 dB

Coates, E. (2007). Series & para&el resistors. Retrieved from http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/resistors_20.php

Electronic, I. (Editor) (2007). Electric circuits [Web]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ymRwIUNlEL4

Kurtus, R. (2005, August 19). Ohm. Retrieved from http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/elect_ohms_law.htm

Darren. (Designer). (n.d.). Electricity. [Web Graphic]. Retrieved from http://www.english-online.at/science/electricity/nucleus-and-electrons.gif

Galdon. (Designer). (2008). Vu meter. [Print Photo]. Retrieved from http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x6i4ik_tuto-after-eﬀects-vu-meter_creation

Kightley, R. (n.d.). Electric current. Retrieved from http://www.rkm.com.au/animations/animation-electrical-circuit.html

Tabtronics, R. (2007). Transformer basics. Retrieved from http://www.raftabtronics.com/TECHNOLOGY/ElectromagneticBasics/TransformerBasics/tabid/110/Default.aspx