Colloquium Carlos I I I

Introduction.
Industrial applications
Electromagnetic modelling
Magnetic field formulation
Magnetic field/magnetic potential formulation
Numerical solution
Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications
Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro

Departamento de Matemática Aplicada, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela. Spain
Colloquium del Departamento de Matemáticas de la

Universidad Carlos III
Madrid April 17, 2012
Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Introduction. Industrial applications
Numerical solution
Outline
Electrodes for electric arc furnaces
Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Maxwell’s equations
Constitutive laws
Harmonic eddy currents model
Strong problem
Weak formulation
Scalar magnetic potential
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Finite element approximation
Discretized problems. Error analysis
Computer implementation
Numerical experiments

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Industrial applications of electromagnetism

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Contract with Ferroatlántica I+D company. Also financed by

the the Spanish government), FEDER and Xunta de Galicia
FA is interested in silicon production
FA invented a new compound electrode called ELSA in the
1990. It is the world leader in the sector of silicon of
metallurgical quality
Numerical simulation has helped Ferroatlántica for ELSA
design and operation, and also for marketing

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Silicon
Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the earth’s

crust after oxygen.
In natural form, it can be found mainly as silicon dioxide
(Silica, SiO2 ) and silicates.
In particular, quartz and sand are two of the most common
forms.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Applications of silicon
Depending on its purity, silicon has a wide variety of applications:

Ferrosilicon (silicon steels, it can contain more than 2% of
other materials)
Metallurgical silicon (e.g. silicon-aluminum alloys, it contains
about 1% of other elements)
Chemical silicon (silicones)
Solar silicon (solar cells)
Electronic silicon (semiconductors, the purest silicon, “9N” =
99.9999999 of purity)

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Metallurgy of silicon I
Silicon is produced industrially by reduction of silicon dioxide

with carbon by a reaction which can be written in a simple way
as follows:
Si O2 + 2C −→ Si + 2CO.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Metallurgy of silicon II

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
The ELSA electrode I

Motion system Graphite core
Nipple
Support
system
Pre-baked paste
Casing
Liquid paste
Clamps
Solid paste

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
The ELSA electrode II
Modulus of the current density, |Jh |, in conductors.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
The ELSA electrode III
e h in dielectric.
Magnetic potential Φ

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
The ELSA electrode IV
|Jh |: Horizontal section of one of the electrodes.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
The ELSA electrode V
|Jh |: Vertical section of one of the electrodes.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Induction furnaces
Photographs taken from http://www.ameritherm.com

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Industrial induction furnace
Silicon for
melting and
purification
Graphite
crucible
Refractory
layers
Water-cooled
coil

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Mathematical modelling
Multi-physics problem
Three coupled models corresponding to three different areas of

physics.
Electromagnetic model Thermal model
Hydrodynamic Model

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation I

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation II

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation III
VELOCITY

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation IV
VELOCITY

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electric motors
Contract with ORONA Company in the framework of the

project NET0LIFT to design new lift technologies
This project was co-financed by the Spanish research
programme CENIT
Our tasks were related to the numerical simulation of electric
motors

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Usage of electric motors I
Electric motors are a reliable way of transforming electrical energy

into movement.
Photo by Zurecks.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Usage of electric motors II
From classical uses. . . .
Photo by Harrihealey02.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Usage of electric motors III
. . . to present or future applications.
Photo by Tony Hisgett.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation of electric motors
Electromagnetic energy is dissipated into heat through two

different mechanisms: Joule effect and hysteresis
The released heat causes the temperature rise of the motor
This is a very important limiting factor in designing electric
motors.
Numerical simulation is nowadays an essential tool for
optimum design.
It is done in two steps:
1 electromagnetic analysis and
2 thermal analysis.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic analysis I
Electromagnetic analysis aims at determining the eddy currents

which are responsible for Joule heating.
Electromagnetic models are obtained from Maxwell equations
Three-dimensional electromagnetic simulation of the whole
motor is still a challenge

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic analysis II
Figure: Stator: coils and laminated core

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic analysis III
Figure: Magnetic laminated core

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic analysis IV
The presence of a laminated core composed of isolated thin

plates makes this problem difficult because very fine meshes
need to be used (several geometric scales)
The material of the laminate has nonlinear magnetic behaviour
with hysteresis
For these reasons, motor designers usually employ simplified
2D transient magnetic models.
These 2D distributed parameter models are coupled with
lumped parameter (or circuit) models

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Motor sketch
A motor is composed of many pieces:

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic simulation: 2D mesh

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic simulation: magnetic flux density

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic simulation: losses

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Heat transfer simulation. 3D FE mesh
Having many pieces of different size and local phenomena can lead
to large meshes . . .
A coarse mesh of the motor.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Temperature I
FEM GLPM

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Temperature II
FEM GLPM

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Microwave heating and food technology
Household microwave ovens work by passing non-ionizing

microwave radiation, at a frequency of 2.45 GHz.
Some substances in the food, like water and fat, absorb energy
from the microwaves in a process called dielectric heating
(lossy dielectrics).
Raytheon Company sold the first microwave oven in 1947,
derived from radar technology developed during the World War
II.
The compact versions become popular from 1967.
Microwave heating is very important for food technology, in
particular, for defrosting food

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Microwave oven
Figure: Domain.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Microwave oven
Figure: Domain.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation: electric field
Figure: Norm of the electric field.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation: temperature I
Figure: Temperature.

Induction furnaces
Electric motors
Microwave heating
Numerical solution
Numerical simulation: temperature II

Electromagnetic modelling Maxwell’s equations
Magnetic field formulation Constitutive laws
Magnetic field/magnetic potential formulation Harmonic eddy currents model
Numerical solution
Electromagnetic modelling: Maxwell’s equations
 ∂D

 ∂t − curl H = −J in R3 ,

 ∂B
Maxwell’s ∂t + curl E = 0 in R3 ,
equations 
 div B = 0 in R3


div D = ̺ in R3
H: Magnetic field, E: Electric field,

D: Electric displacement, J : Current density,
B: Magnetic induction, ̺: Charge density,
t: Time.

Numerical solution
Electromagnetic modelling: constitutive laws
J = σE + v × B, σ: electric conductivity
D = εE, ε: electric permittivity,
B = µH, µ: magnetic permeability.

Numerical solution
Harmonic regime. Eddy currents model I
(
∂D
∂t can be neglected (low frequency)
Assumptions
F(x, t) = Re [eiωt F(x)] (alternating current)
ω: angular frequency, i: imaginary unit

Numerical solution
Harmonic regime. Eddy currents model II
Time harmonic eddy current model
curl H = J
curl E = −iωB
div B = 0
B = µH
J = σE
E(x) = O(|x|−1 ) uniformly for |x| → ∞

H(x) = O(|x|−1 ) uniformly for |x| → ∞
Fields are complex valued

Numerical solution
Harmonic regime. Eddy currents model III
Different formulations are possible
Magnetic field/scalar magnetic potential (H/ϕ)

Magnetic vector potential/scalar electric potential (A/V )
Electric field (E)
Primitive of the electric field with respect to time (A∗ or u)
...
For the harmonic regime see, for instance, the book
Eddy Current Approximation of Maxwell Equations.

Theory, Algorithms and Applications
A. Alonso Rodrı́guez and A. Valli
Springer, 2010.
Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
The magnetic field formulation
Ω is a bounded domain such that

Ω = ΩC ∪ ΩD
ΩC : conductors (σ > 0)
ΩD : dielectrics (air) (σ = 0)
Conductors are not assumed to
be totally included in Ω

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Boundary conditions
The boundary of the domain splits as follows:

∂Ω = ΓC ∪ ΓD
where
ΓC := ∂ΩC ∩ ∂Ω,
ΓD := ∂ΩD ∩ ∂Ω.
ΓI := ∂ΩC ∩ ∂ΩD .
Boundary conditions:
E×n=g on ΓC,
H×n=f on ΓD.

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Strong problem
SP.- To find the magnetic field H and the electric field E in Ω,

satisfying
curl H = 0 in ΩD , (1)
curl H = J = σE in ΩC , (2)
iωµH + curl E = 0 in Ω, (3)
div(µH) = 0 in Ω, (4)
E×n=g on ΓC, (5)
H×n = f on ΓD. (6)

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Weak formulation I
We eliminate the electric field E in the previous system:

Let us make the scalar product of (3) by a test field G such that
curl G = 0 in ΩD and G × n = 0 on ΓD .
Then, let us integrate in Ω. We get
Z Z
iωµH · Ḡ + curl E · Ḡ = 0 in Ω,
Ω Ω
Now we use a Green’s formula to transform the second integral:
Z Z Z
curl E · Ḡ = E · curl Ḡ + E · Ḡ × n dΣ.
Ω Ω Γ

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Weak formulation II
We have
Z Z
iωµH · Ḡ + curl E · Ḡ
0=
Z Z Z Ω Ω
= iωµH · Ḡ + E · curl Ḡ + E · Ḡ × ndΣ

Ω ΩC ΓC
Z Z Z
= iωµH · Ḡ + E · curl Ḡ + n × (E × n) · Ḡ × n, dΣ
Ω ΩC ΓC
Z Z Z
= iωµH · Ḡ + E · curl Ḡ + n × g · Ḡ × n dΣ
Ω ΩC ΓC
Z Z Z
= iωµH · Ḡ + E · curl Ḡ − g × n · Ḡ × n dΣ.
Ω ΩC ΓC

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Weak formulation III
Now we use (2) to deduce

1
E= curl H in ΩC .
σ
By replacing this equality we finally get
Z Z Z
1
iωµH · Ḡ + curl H · curl Ḡ = g × n · Ḡ × n dΣ
Ω ΩC σ ΓC

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Function spaces

G ∈ L2 (Ω)3 : div G ∈ L2 (Ω) ,
H(div, Ω) :=

H(curl, Ω) := G ∈ L2 (Ω)3 : curl G ∈ L2 (Ω)3 .

Hr (curl, Ω) := G ∈ Hr (Ω)3 : curl G ∈ Hr (Ω)3 , r > 0.
Each of these spaces is endowed with its natural norm, i.e.,
kGk2Hr (curl,Ω) = kGk2Hr (Ω)3 + k curl Gk2Hr (Ω)3 .
1/2
H00 (Γ): space of functions defined on Γ that extended by 0
to ∂Ω \ Γ belong to H1/2 (∂Ω).
−1/2 1/2
H00 (Γ): dual space of H00 (Γ).

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Weak formulation in terms of H
WP.- To find H ∈ V such that

H × n = f in H00 (ΓD)3 ,
−1/2
Z Z
1

iω µH · Ḡ + curl H · curl Ḡ = g × n, Ḡ × n Γ , ∀G ∈ V 0 .
Ω ΩC σ C
where
V = {G ∈ H(curl, Ω) : curl G = 0 in ΩD } ,
n o
V0 G ∈ V : G × n = 0 in H00 (ΓD)3 .
−1/2
=

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Existence of weak solution
Theorem.-If there exists Hf ∈ V such that Hf × n = f in

H00 (ΓD)3 , then the weak problem WP has a unique solution.
−1/2
The proof is standard (Lax-Milgram Lemma)

Strong problem
Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Properties of the weak solution
Theorem.- Let H ∈ V be the solution of problem WP. Let

B = µH ∈ L2 (Ω)3 , J = curl H ∈ L2 (Ω)3 , and
E = ( σ1 J)|Ω ∈ L2 (ΩC)3 . Then:
C
div B = 0 in Ω,
iωµH + curl E = 0 in ΩC ,
(ΓC)3 ,
−1/2
E×n = g in H00
in H00 (ΓD)3 ,
−1/2
H×n=f
J=0 in ΩD .
Remark: The electric field is not uniquely determined in the
dielectric domain

Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Cutting surfaces
Bossavit and Verité (1982): magnetic field in ΩC / scalar

magnetic potential in ΩD .
Σj “cut”surface:
Σj ⊂ ΩD , j = 1, . . . , J.
∂Σj ⊂ ∂ΩD , j = 1, . . . , J.
Σ̄j ∩ Σ¯k = ∅ for j 6= k.
S
Ωe := ΩD \ j=J Σ̄j
D j=0
is simply connected.

Weak formulation
Numerical solution
The kernel of the curl operator
e ) defined by
Let T be the linear space of H1 (Ω D
n o
T = Ψ e ∈ H1 (Ωe ) : [[Ψ]]
e
D Σj = constant, j = 1, . . . , J .
e ∈ T /C,
For all G ∈ V, there exists a unique scalar field Ψ
such that G|ΩD = gread Ψ.e

Weak formulation
Numerical solution
e ∈ W such that
Problem WPP: To find (H, Φ)
e × n = f in H−1/2 (Γ )3 ,
gread Φ 00 D
Z Z
1
iω µH · Ḡ + curl H · curl Ḡ
ΩC ΩC σ
Z

+iω e · gread Ψ
µ gread Φ ē = g × n, Ḡ × n , ∀(G, Ψ) e ∈ W 0.
Γ C
ΩD
where
n o
e ∈ H(curl, Ω ) × (T /C) : (G| gread Ψ)
W := (G, Ψ) e ∈ H(curl, Ω) ,
C
n o
e ∈ W : gread Ψ
W 0 := (G, Ψ) e × n = 0 in H−1/2 (Γ )3 .
00 D

Weak formulation
Numerical solution
Theorem.- If there exists Hf ∈ V such that Hf × n = f in

e
H00 (ΓD)3 , then problem WPP has a unique solution (H, Φ),
−1/2
e
with (H| gread Φ) being the unique solution of problem WP.

Numerical solution
Numerical solution: Finite Element Method
Ω, ΩC and ΩD are Lipschitz polyhedra.
{Th }: family of regular thetraedral meshes of Ω.
For every mesh Th , each element K ∈ Th is contained either in

ΩC or in ΩD.

Numerical solution
Nédélec edge elements (Nédélec, 1980)
H(curl, Ω) is approximated by:

N h (Ω) := {Gh ∈ H(curl, Ω) : Gh |K ∈ N (K) ∀K ∈ Th } .
where

N (K) := Gh ∈ P1 (K)3 : Gh (x) = a × x + b, a, b ∈ C3 , x ∈ K .
Degrees of freedom of a function Gh ∈ N (K):
Z
Gh · te for the six edges e of K .
e

Numerical solution
Nédélec edge elements. An important property
Fields of the form

Gh (x) = a × x + b, a, b ∈ C3 ,
have constant tangential component along any straight line in
the space
In particular, this is true along the 6 edges of any tetrahedron
This function vector space has dimension 6
The values of the tangential components are taken as
interpolation conditions to determine a and b in each
tetrahedron of the mesh

Numerical solution
Discretizing problem WP I
Problem DWP: To find Hh ∈ V h such that

Hh × n = fI on ΓD,
Z Z
1
iω µHh · Ḡh + curl Hh · curl Ḡh
Ω ΩC σ
Z
= g × n · Ḡh × n ∀Gh ∈ V 0h ,
ΓC
where
fI := two-dimensional Nédélec interpolant of n × f ,
V h := {Gh ∈ N h (Ω) : curl Gh = 0 on ΩD } ,
V 0h := {Gh ∈ V h : Gh × n = 0 on ΓD} .

Numerical solution
Discretizing problem WP II
Theorem.- Let us assume that the solution H of problem WP

satisfies H|ΩC ∈ Hr (curl, ΩC) and H|ΩD ∈ Hr (ΩD)3 , with
r ∈ ( 12 , 1].
Then, fI is well defined by the 2D Nédélec interpolant of n × f ,
problem DMP has a unique solution Hh , and
h i
kH − Hh kH(curl,Ω) ≤ Chr kHkHr (curl,Ω ) + kHkHr (Ω )3 .
C D

Numerical solution
Discretizing problem WPP I
Finite dimensional space to approximate T :

e h ∈ Lh (Ω
Th := {Ψ e ) : [[Ψ
e h ]] = constant, j = 1, . . . , J},
D Σj
being
n o
e ) := Ψ
Lh (Ω e h ∈ H1 (Ω e h | ∈ P1 (K) ∀K ∈ T ΩD .
e ): Ψ
D D K h
The curl-free vector fields in N h (ΩD ) admit a multivalued

potential in Th .

Numerical solution
Discretizing problem WPP II
e h ) ∈ W h such that
Problem DWPP: To find (Hh , Φ
gread Φe h × n = f on Γ ,
I D
Z Z
1
iω µHh · Ḡh + curl Hh · curl Ḡh
ΩC ΩC σ
Z
+iω µ gread Φe h · gread Ψ
ē h =
ΩD
Z
g × n · Ḡh × n ∀(Gh , Ψe h) ∈ W 0 ,
h
ΓC
n o
e h ) ∈ N h (ΩC ) × (Th /C) : (Gh | gread Ψ
W h := (Gh , Ψ e h ) ∈ H(curl, Ω) ,
n o
W 0h := (Gh , Ψe h ) ∈ W h : gread Ψ
e h × n = 0 on Γ .
D

Numerical solution
Discretizing problem WPP III
e of problem HP
Theorem.- Let us assume that the solution (H, Φ)
r e
satisfies H ∈ H (curl, ΩC) and gread Φ ∈ H (ΩD)3 , with
r
r ∈ ( 12 , 1].
Then, problem DWPP is well posed, it has a unique solution
(Hh , Φe h ), and
e − gread Φ
kH − Hh kH(curl,Ω ) + k gread Φ e hk 2
L (ΩD)3
h C i
≤ Chr kHkHr (curl,Ω ) + k gread Φke r
H (Ω ) .
3
C D

Numerical solution
Computer implementation of problem DWPP
It is necessary to impose the following constraints:

e h ) ∈ H(curl, Ω):
(Gh | gread Ψ
Elimination of the degrees of freedom of Gh on the interface by static
condensation.
e h ]] = constant, which arise from the definition of Th :
[[Ψ Σj
e h| − = Ψ
Ψ e h | + + [[Ψ
e h ]] = Ψ
e h | + + chj , j = 1, . . . , J.
Σ j Σ jΣj Σ j
e h × n = f on Γ is imposed
The boundary condition gread Φ I D
by means of a Lagrange multipler defined on ΓD.

Numerical solution
Coaxial cable: Ω is a cylindrical domain which consists of two

different conductors ΩC1 and ΩC2 separated by a dielectric ΩD .
An alternating current J goes through the innermost
conductor along its axis.
Numerical solution
Analytical solution
By using a cylindrical coordinate system:

In the innermost conductor: H(r) = c I1 (γ1 r)eθ .
I
In the dielectric domain: H(r) = 2πr eθ .
In the outer conductor: H(r) = (d I1 (γ3 r) + e K1 (γ3 r))eθ ,
being
√ √
γ1 = iωµσ1 , γ3 = iωµσ3
I1 and K1 modified Bessel functions.
c, d, e constants obtained by using the boundary and the
interface conditions.

Numerical solution
Numerical results

Numerical solution
Numerical results
Error curve for the magnetic field H (log-log scale).

2
10
Percentual errors
y=Ch
Relative error (%)
1
10
4 5 6
10 10 10
Number of d.o.f.

Numerical solution
Numerical results
Magnetic potential in the dielectric domain.

Numerical solution
References
A. Bermúdez, D. Gómez, M.C. Muñiz, P. Salgado, R. Vázquez, Numerical

modelling of industrial induction, in Advances of Induction & Microwave
Heating of Mineral and Organic Materials p. 75–100, INTECH Open Access
Publisher. Rijeka. 2011.
A. Bermúdez, C. Reales, R. Rodrı́guez, P. Salgado, Numerical analysis of a

finite-element method for the axisymmetric eddy current model of an induction
furnace. IMA J. Numer. Anal., 30 p. 654–676, 2010.
A. Bermúdez, D. Gómez, P. Salgado, Eddy-current losses in laminated cores

and the computation of an equivalent conductivity. IEEE Transactions on
Magnetics, 44, p. 4730–4738, 2008.

Numerical solution
References
A. Bermúdez, R. Rodrı́guez, P. Salgado, A finite element method for the

magnetostatic problems in terms of scalar potentials. SIAM Journal on
Numerical Analysis, 46, p. 1338–1363, 2008.
A. Bermúdez, D. Gómez, M. C. Muñiz, P. Salgado, Transient numerical

simulation of a thermoelectrical problem in cylindrical induction heating
furnaces. Advances in Computational Mathematics, 26, p. 39–62, 2007.
A. Bermúdez, R. Rodrı́guez, P. Salgado, FEM for 3D eddy current problems in

bounded domains subject to realistic boundary conditions. An application to
metallurgical electrodes. Archives of Computational Methods in Engineering,
12 (1), p. 67–114, 2005.
A. Bermúdez, R. Rodrı́guez, P. Salgado, A finite element method with

Lagrange multipliers for low frequency harmonic Maxwell equations. SIAM
Journal on Numerical Analysis, 40 (5), p. 1823–1849, 2002.

Colloquium Carlos I I I

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Colloquium Carlos I I I

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Introduction.

Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro

Colloquium del Departamento de Matemáticas de la

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Industrial applications of electromagnetism

Electrodes for electric arc furnaces

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Electrodes for electric arc furnaces

Contract with Ferroatlántica I+D company. Also financed by

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Silicon (Si) is the second most abundant element in the earth’s

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Depending on its purity, silicon has a wide variety of applications:

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Silicon is produced industrially by reduction of silicon dioxide

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

The ELSA electrode I

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

The ELSA electrode II

Modulus of the current density, |Jh |, in conductors.

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

The ELSA electrode III

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

The ELSA electrode IV

|Jh |: Horizontal section of one of the electrodes.

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

The ELSA electrode V

|Jh |: Vertical section of one of the electrodes.

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Photographs taken from http://www.ameritherm.com

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Industrial induction furnace

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Three coupled models corresponding to three different areas of

Electromagnetic model Thermal model

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Numerical simulation III

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Contract with ORONA Company in the framework of the

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Usage of electric motors I

Electric motors are a reliable way of transforming electrical energy

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Usage of electric motors II

From classical uses. . . .

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Usage of electric motors III

. . . to present or future applications.

Photo by Tony Hisgett.

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Numerical simulation of electric motors

Electromagnetic energy is dissipated into heat through two

It is done in two steps:

1 electromagnetic analysis and

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications

Electromagnetic analysis aims at determining the eddy currents

Alfredo Bermúdez de Castro Numerical methods in electromagnetism and applications