Journal of Geophysics and Engineering

J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 (20pp) doi:10.1088/1742-2132/11/3/035008

Pore facies analysis: incorporation of

rock properties into pore geometry based
classes in a Permo-Triassic carbonate
reservoir in the Persian Gulf
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
School of Geology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

E-mail: e.aliakbardoust@gmail.com

Received 5 November 2013

Accepted for publication 16 April 2014
Published 4 June 2014

Abstract
Pore facies analysis is a useful method for the classification of reservoir rocks according to
pore geometry characteristics. The importance of this method is related to the dependence of
the dynamic behaviour of the reservoir rock on the pore geometry. In this study, pore facies
analysis was performed by the quantification and classification of the mercury injection
capillary pressure (MICP) curves applying the multi-resolution graph-based clustering
(MRGC) method. Each pore facies includes a limited variety of rock samples with different
depositional fabrics and diagenetic histories, which are representative of one type of pore
geometry. The present pore geometry is the result of the interaction between the primary
rock fabric and its diagenetic overprint. Thus the variations in petrographic properties can be
correlated with the pore geometry characteristics. Accordingly, the controlling parameters
in the pore geometry characteristics were revealed by detailed petrographic analysis in each
pore facies. The reservoir rock samples were then classified using the determined petrographic
properties which control the pore system quality. This method is proposed for the classification
of reservoir rocks in complicated carbonate reservoirs, in order to reduce the incompatibility
of traditional facies analysis with pore system characteristics. The method is applicable where
enough capillary pressure data is not available.

Key words: MICP curve, pore facies, pore type, depositional fabric

(Some figures may appear in colour only in the online journal)

1. Introduction rocks affects seismic responses. Complicated pore systems in

Understanding the relationship between the pore system and
the rock fabric creates a challenge in determining the associa-
tion of geological facies and petrophysical properties in res-
ervoir modeling (e.g. Luo and Machel 1995; Bliefnick and
Kaldi 1996; Woody et al 1996; Tanguay and Friedman 2001;
Gomes et al 2008, 1996; Beiranvand 2003; Varavur et al 2005).
Pore system characterization is an important aspect in oil and
gas reservoir studies because the pore system controls fluid
saturation and the quality of the reservoir rock. According
to Karimpouli et al (2013), the pore geometry of carbonate
carbonate rocks are the result of geological processes which
can be the main reason for ambiguities in their elastic behav-
iour (Anselmetti and Eberli 1999; Assefa et al 2003; Eberli
et al 2003; Baechle et al 2004). Pore throat size distribution
(PTSD), pore throat sorting (PTS), pore throat to pore body
size ratio, and pore throat connectivity are critical parameters
representing the pore geometry in a rock sample. The ­mercury
injection capillary pressure (MICP) method is a popular
approach for pore geometry characterization in reservoir rock
and has been the subject of many investigations (Purcell 1949;
Dullien and Dhawan 1974; Wardlaw 1976; Schowalter 1979;

1742-2132/14/035008+20$33.00 1 © 2014 Sinopec Geophysical Research Institute  Printed in the UK

J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 1. The main diagenetic features that affected the quality of the pore system in the reservoir rock. (a) Dolo-grainstone with a well-
connected and well-sorted interparticle pore system. (b) A homogenous crystalline dolomite. (c) Over-dolomitization in a crystalline
dolomite. (d) Dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity and intergranular anhydrite cement. (e) Grainstone with moldic porosity, micrite
and anhydrite cements. (f) Grainstone with interparticle porosity and calcite and anhydrite cements. (g) Grainstone with moldic and
intraparticle porosities. (h) Dolo-mudstone with dissolution enlarged micropores. (i) Mudstone with anhydrite cement and a pressure-
dissolution feature which is filled with hydrocarbon.

Van Brakel et al 1981; Wardlaw and McKellar 1981; Jennings
1987; Krause et al 1987; Kopaska-Merkel and Friedman
1989; Melas and Friedman 1992; Hollis et al 2010; Skalinski
and Kenter 2013; Xu and Torres-Verdin 2013).
The present pore geometry in a reservoir rock is the product
of interactions between depositional environment controls
creating the original rock fabric, and secondary alterations by
diagenetic overprints. In carbonate rocks, post depositional
processes can completely modify the original pore types and
depositional textures, and increase the reservoir heterogeneity.
Diagenetic alteration analysis (such as interparticle cement
evaluation) in a carbonate rock sample may explain why two
samples with the same depositional fabrics show different res-
ervoir properties.
In this study MICP curves and pore types are used to clas-
sify carbonate reservoir rock samples based on their pore
geometry characteristics. This method is carried out mainly
for (1) finding a relationship between capillarity and geo-
logical properties thus decreasing the incompatibility of geo-
logical facies and dynamic properties of the reservoir rocks
(Chehrazi et al 2011), and (2) determining the reservoir quality
based on petrographic properties such as pore types. This might
be useful for distinction between reservoir and non-reservoir
rocks when enough mercury injection data is not available.
Defining the rock properties in the studied carbonate rocks by
petrographic analysis enables recognition of the controlling
parameters in capillary behaviour and reservoir quality.
2.  Data base and methods
270 thin sections and 48 core plug samples were studied from
the pay zones of two wells in the South Pars Gas field of the
Persian Gulf. Gas in this field is hosted by the Permo-Triassic
carbonates of the upper Dalan (late Permian) and Kangan
(Triassic) formations. Samples were collected from K1, K2
(Kangan formation), K3 and K4 (Dalan formation) units, from
2450 m to 2800 m in well A, and from 2280 m to 2720 m in
well B. These carbonate units are composed of dolomite, lime-
stone and evaporate series which are representative of depo-
sition in shallow-marine conditions (Kashfi 1992; Alsharhan

2
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
and Narin  1997; Ehrenberg et al 2007; Esrafili-Dizaji and
Rahimpour-Bonab 2009; Rahimpour-Bonab et al 2010).
Thin section petrography is based on the modified Dunham
(1962) classification scheme for carbonate textures. In addi-
tion, petrographic analysis was carried out on the core plug
thin sections which had MICP data from the producing
intervals (gas is produced from low quality reservoir rocks).
Samples were impregnated with blue-dyed epoxy to display
pore types, texture, grain or crystal size, cement types and
volume, and other diagenetic features. Half of the samples
were examined with the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
to characterize cement and pore types. As a result, variations
in the rock sample texture, cement percentage and pore types
in each pore facies were determined.
High pressure mercury intrusion tests were performed up to
a maximum pressure of 60 000 psi. Core plug thin sections (with
at least two thin sections from each sample) and the porosity-
permeability of these samples are provided for the study.
3.  Reservoir facies and diagenetic features
Detailed characterization of these units has shown that reser-
voir properties are a function of both sedimentary and diage-
netic processes at the field scale. Facies analysis of the studied
units indicates that the sediments were deposited in the inner
parts of a homoclinal carbonate ramp, and were subsequently
subjected to shallow diagenesis and minor burial. The vertical
distribution of the facies shows cyclic patterns that impact
reservoir quality. Even though the original poroperm het-
erogeneities in the studied reservoir are inherited from the
depositional environment, they have been modified to varying
degrees by subsequent diagenetic overprinting. Thus, tentative
correlation may be possible between facies types and reser-
voir properties based on diagenetic effects (Esrafili-Dizaji and
Rahimpour-Bonab 2009).
Five facies assemblages indicative of deposition within
supratidal, intertidal, lagoon, shoal and off-shoal environ-
ments were recognized. These facies are repeated vertically
through the reservoir units. Individual facies may range from
decimetres to several meters in thickness. Grouping different
facies using their sub-environments, two main groups can be
documented. Group A comprises supratidal, intertidal and
restricted lagoon facies. These are commonly overprinted by
dolomitization and anhydrite plugging. This group was depos-
ited landward of the studied ramp under low-energy condi-
tions. Group B includes open lagoon, shoal and off-shoal
settings facies. This group is associated with high-energy con-
ditions situated on the seaward flank of this homoclinal ramp.
At a local scale, diagenesis is the most important control-
ling factor over the porosity distribution in the field. Three
major poroperm-controlling diagenetic features in the studied
samples are dolomitization, cementation and dissolution.
Compaction and fracturing influenced the reservoir quality
locally (Esrafili-Dizaji & Rahimpour-Bonab 2009; Tavakoli
et al 2011; Karimpouli et al 2013).
3
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
The main diagenetic overprints in the studied carbonate
reservoir are:
3.1. Dolomitization
Generally, the precursor interparticle porosity and the initial
reservoir quality have been preserved by the fabric retentive
dolomitization in grain dominated fabrics. In comparison
with limestone, dolomitic samples show higher permeability
due to their well-sorted pore throat distribution (based on the
PTSD curves in the following sections). Figure 1(a) repre-
sents a dolo-grainstone with a well-connected and well-sorted
interparticle pore system. The pore system is homogenized in
dolo-grainstone and crystalline dolomite (figure 1(b)). Some
pore spaces are occluded due to over-dolomitization in sam-
ples with lower reservoir quality (figure 1(c)). A comprehen-
sive explanation of various dolomite types and their origins
in these units is presented by Rahimpour-Bonab et al (2010).
3.2. Cementation
Anhydrite, calcite and dolomite are the main types of pore
filling cements. In figures 1(d)–(f) the major parts of the pore
bodies are occluded by cement. Dolomite, isopachous calcite
and anhydrite cement (referred to as anhydrite plugging) are
filling molds and interparticle porosity, destroying the reservoir
quality; particularly in the dolomitic samples (figures 1(d)–(f)).
3.3. Dissolution
Moldic porosity as a main fabric-selective dissolution is
frequently present in the studied samples. However, despite
producing high porosity values, its isolated nature generally
resulted in low permeability (figure 1(g)). Dissolution enlarged
molds and vugs are important features in creating a different
and mainly irregular type of pore system. They are poorly
connected to the pore network. On the other hand, dissolution
enlarged pore spaces have been very effective in improving the
reservoir quality in dolo-mudstone (figure 1(h)). Intraparticle
porosity and pressure-dissolution (stylolites) are also present
but they have a minor effect on pore system characteristics
(figures 1(g) and (i)).
The diagenesis history of the Dalan and Kangan reservoir
units in the South Pars Gas field and its effect on the reservoir
quality has been reviewed by many authors (Rahimpour-Bonab
2007; Moradpour et al 2008; Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-
Bonab 2009; Rahimpour-Bonab et al 2010; Tavakoli et
al 2011). In this work, our purpose is to find a relationship
between the rock properties (depositional and diagenetic fea-
tures) and its pore geometry. In the following section, the main
pore types in the studied samples are introduced and detailed.
4.  Pore types
In this study, Lønøy’s (2006) pore type classification scheme
is used. According to his classification, different pore types
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 2. Different types of porosity in the reservoir rock. (a) Dolo-grainstones with interparticle porosity; (b) Dolo-grainstone with
interparticle porosity which has been plugged by anhydrite cement. (c) Over-dolomitization in a crystalline dolomite. (d) Intercrystalline
porosity with anhydrite cement. (e) Dissolution in a dolo-mudstone sample. (f) Dolo-mudstone with anhydrite cements. (g) Grainstone
with separate molds. (h) Grainstone with molds that are connected as a result of fracturing and dissolution. (i) Grainstone with
interparticle and intraparticle porosities.

provide variable ranges of correlation coefficients with per-
meability, which can be useful for petrophysicists and reser-
voir engineers.
In the studied samples, interparticle and intercrystalline
porosities as well as mudstone microporosity (in dolo-mud-
stone) mainly originated from or were affected by dolomiti-
zation. However, moldic, vuggy and intraparticle porosities
were mainly formed by dissolution. In the interparticle,
intercrystalline and microporosity pore types, dolomitization
led to permeability enhancement by the creation of inter-
connected networks (intercrystalline and microporosity). In
the case of the fabric retentive dolomitization (interparticle
porosity) the initial porosity is preserved. By the creation of
isolated moldic and intraparticle porosity, dissolution has
only increased the total porosity and so the permeability has
not improved greatly.
4.1.  Dolomitization-related pore types
4.1.1.  Interparticle porosity.  Interparticle porosity is the most
effective pore type in improving reservoir quality as it pro-
duces a connected network for fluid movement in the reservoir
rock. Fabric selective dolomitization and cementation are the
most important diagenetic features that affect this pore types.

4
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
Figure 3. Parameters that are extracted from MICP curves and their relationship with permeability. Parameters with correlation coefficients
higher than 0.7 are selected for MICP curves.
The best reservoir quality is presented by dolo-grainstones
with interparticle porosity (figure 2(a)). Consequently, the
connectivity of interparticle pores is the principal control-
ling factor in fluid movement in this pore type. Interparticle
porosity in low quality reservoir rocks is plugged by various
types of cement (figure 2(b)). The highest permeability values
(116–795 md) in the studied intervals are mostly related to this
pore type.
4.1.2. Intercrystalline porosity.  This pore type is related to
crystalline carbonates, which have been formed by dolomi-
tization in the studied wells. Permeability can be high in this
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H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
pore type, unless the reservoir quality has not been decreased
due to over-dolomitization (figure 2(c)), or there is an
increase in the volume of anhydrite cement in the pore spaces
(­figure 2(d)). Forming a connected pore network, intercrystal-
line porosity generally contributes to fluid movement.
4.1.3. Mudstone microporosity.  According to the following
sections, porosity in mudstone samples is high, and generally
ranges from 17% and 26%, but the permeability values are
low, reflecting small or occluded pore throats. Dolomitization
positively affects the micropores in many samples and per-
meability has locally been improved by dolomitization and
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
Figure 4. The plot of the classification of parameters, extracted from MICP curves based on the MRGC method.
dissolution in a few samples (figure 2(e)). In the studied sam-
ples, microporosity is partially plugged by anhydrite cement
(­figure 2(f)). As a result, mudstone generally cannot be con-
sidered as an important reservoir rock.
4.2.  Dissolution-related pore types
4.2.1.  Moldic porosity.  Moldic porosity is the major pore type
in the limestone samples, and has been referred to as a fabric
selective pore type in the field. The size and connectivity of
molds mainly depends on the original particles and their abun-
dances. For example, the samples in figures 2(g) and (h) are
both grainstone with moldic porosity, but dissolution or frac-
turing effectively improved the reservoir quality in sample H
in comparison to sample G. By decreasing the reservoir qual-
ity, moldic porosity has been plugged by pore-filling calcite
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H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
and dolomite cements. The classification of rock samples in
the following sections indicates that the quality and sorting in
the pore system also varies with the variations in the sorting
of the original particles.
4.2.2. Intraparticle porosity.  Dissolution can improve this
type of porosity but it is small and mostly isolated (enclosed
by the grain walls) and therefore does not contribute to the
permeability of the studied samples. This type of porosity can
be effective in rock samples with low reservoir quality that do
not have a connected interparticle pore network (figure 2(i)).
5. MICP
Some petrophysical parameters were extracted from MICP
curves, such as displacement pressure, threshold pressure
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
(Tp), pore throat radius at different saturations (35%, 50%,
75%), average pressure index (API), Swanson’s parameter
(Sp), height above free water level, reservoir grade (RG),
medium hydraulic radius (MHR), and pore size distribution
(PSD). Each one of these parameters is indicative of some
characteristics of the pore geometry. According to figure 3,
parameters with a correlation coefficient of 0.7 (and higher)
with permeability were selected for the classification of MICP
curves and cluster analysis. Six discrete classes were defined
(figure 4) using the multi-resolution graph based clustering
(MRGC) method which was introduced by Ye and Rabiller
(2000). Figure 4 shows the distribution of each of the classes.
This distribution indicates that the properties of each class are
different from other classes. Numbers and colours are repre-
sentative of the classes. The data for each class is located in a
separated zone in the graph.
Capillary pressure analysis is an experimental method used
largely for distinction between reservoir and non-reservoir
rock samples, reservoir rock quality evaluation, and deter-
mination of petrophysical properties. Capillary pressure is
defined as the pressure difference across a curved interface
between two immiscible fluids in a capillary tube. Assuming
a porous media as a bundle of capillary tubes, the effective
radius of these tubes controls the fluid flow in the porous
media. There are various laboratory techniques available for
capillary pressure analysis, including porous-plate equilib-
rium, mercury injection and high-speed centrifuge techniques.
Pore-system geometry controls the movement and storage of
fluids within the reservoir rock. Therefore, the shape of the
mercury injection curves reflects the pore geometry and pore
system quality. The first part of the MICP curve (entry pres-
sure) is representative of the largest pore throats. The second
segment of the curve (the plateau) represents the connectivity
and sorting of the pore system. This part is broad in a well-
connected and sorted pore system. The PTSD curves related
to this type are leptokurtic (pore throat diameters in the major
portion of the pore system are around the mode). In contrast,
MICP curves in poorly sorted pore systems show consider-
able steep slopes and the plateau is absent from their curves
(platykurtic PTSD curves), indicating the high variety in pore
throat size distribution. Thus the variations in MICP curves
exactly reflect the pore geometry characteristics and the pore
system quality. Increases in the slope of MICP curves reflect
the decrease in pore throat sorting, which is representative of
the smaller pore throats.
In order to fully exploit the potential of the MICP curves
in the evaluation of reservoir rock and pore system charac-
teristics, these curves are classified based on quantitative
parameters. These parameters include pore throat radius, dis-
placement pressure (Pd), threshold pressure (Tp), Swanson’s
parameter (Sp), average pressure index (API), and height
above free water level.
Pore throat radius. Pore throat radius of an equivalent
cylindrical capillary tube can be determined by the Young-
Laplace equation at any injection pressure (Washburn 1921).
2σ (cosθ )
r=
(1) .
P the shape of the plot for interpretations of the pore network
7
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
Where:
r = pore aperture radius intruded (µm)
σ = interfacial tension of mercury (485 dynes cm−1)
θ = contact angle between mercury and the pore surface (in
this study = 130 degrees)
P = injection pressure (dyn cm−2)
Height above free water level (HAFWL). The hydro-
carbon column is calculated at 50% and 75% non-wetting
phase saturations for each sample using the following equa-
tion (Welge and Bruce 1945).
0.102Pc
H=
(2) .
( ρw − ρg )
H: height above free water level (m)
Pc: hydrocarbon/ brine capillary pressure (Kpa)
ρw and ρg: water and gas densities respectively under the
reservoir condition (g cm−3)
Average pressure index (API). API is the graphical mean
of the injection pressure in the MICP curves, which is inversely
related to the pore system connectivity and pore throat sorting.
Pore throat sorting corresponds with the degree of sorting of pore
throats in the rock sample (Jennings 1987). It is computed using
the following equation developed by Trask (1932). The first and
third quartile pressures are obtained directly from the MICP
curve and reflect 25% and 75% saturation (Jennings 1987).
( Third-quartilepressure )
PTS =
(3) .
( First-quartilepressure )
In this study, API is calculated at 16%, 50% and 84% mer-
cury saturations. As the shape of the MICP curves reflect the
pore system characteristics, this parameter is representative
of the variations in the range of pore throat radii and thus is
inversely related to the pore throat sorting. The increase in the
value of this parameter represents the increase in the injection
pressure and the decrease in the quality of the pore system.
This parameter has been referred as PTS (Chehrazi et al 2011).
P16% + P50% + P84
API =
(4)
3
Swanson’s parameter (1981). SP is the maximum value
of the ratio of mercury saturations (S, % bulk volume) to
corresponding pressures (S/Pc)A. Swanson (1981) used the
maximum value of the pore volume injected to the injection
pressure for finding a relationship between the pore structure
and permeability. Based on Swanson’s concept, the maximum
value indicates the transition from broad and well-connected
to small and poorly-connected pores. The volume of small and
poorly-connected pores increases in low quality pore systems
and show lower values in this point.
Pore throat size distribution (PTSD). MICP analysis is
capable of attaining injection pressures as great as 60 000 psi
(10 000 psi in this study), thus providing coverage of an entire
range of pore throat size distribution, that is not possible to
attain at low pressures. A graph of normalized PTSD against
pore throat radius for each sample can be constructed (for
a unified range of distribution between 0 and 1 and using
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 5. Pore throat size distribution curves. (a) Leptokurtic PTSD curve which is representative of high pore throat sorting, (b) Platykurtic
and poly-modal curve which reflects a poorly sorted pore system.

Table 1.  The average values of the petrophysical properties, the parameters which are extracted from the MICP curves. Left to right: pore
facies number, permeability, porosity, displacement pressure, threshold pressure, Swanson’s parameter, height above free water level at 50%
and 75% non-wetting phase saturations, pore throat sorting, reservoir quality index, flow zone indicator and pore throat radius at 50% and
75% mercury saturation.
Pore PHI_e H 50% H 75%
Facies K (md) (%) PHI_Z Pd (PSI) Tp (PSI) Swanson (m) (m) PTS RQI FZI R 50% R 75%
1 409.5 23.5 0.307 7.1 10.3 0.77 2.6 4.7 25.2 1.26 4.40 5.8 3.2
2 151.5 23.2 0.302 13.1 17.9 0.36 6.2 12.05 64.6 0.70 1.96 2.4 1.3
3 6.6 23.4 0.305 17.4 27.3 0.2 10.7 23.6 127.7 0.16 0.81 1.5 0.74
4 1.9 18.5 0.22 55.4 86.2 0.06 31.9 77.3 375.4 0.10 0.86 0.5 0.26
5 0.49 14.07 0.16 7.3 9 0.15 21.35 132.6 534.9 0.05 0.33 0.69 0.11
6 0.43 21.3 0.27 124.8 264.1 0.04 145.6 275.03 1175.04 0.03 0.14 0.13 0.06

characteristics). A unimodal and leptokurtic graph indicates a
well sorted pore throat system in the sample, and a polymodal
and platykurtic graph represents a poorly sorted pore throat
system (figure 5).
6.  Pore facies analysis and classification
Petro facies analysis is a term which describes a method for res-
ervoir rock classification, using petrophysical properties. In the
literature, it is defined as “the characterization and classification
of pore types and fluid saturations as revealed by the petrophys-
ical measurements of a reservoir rock” (Chehrazi et al 2011).
Kopaska-Merkel and Friedman (1989) focused on the rela-
tionships between porosity, mercury-recovery efficiency, pore
throat size distribution, the shapes of capillary-pressure curves
and lithologic information from petrographic analysis to define
petrophysical facies or petrofacies. Grotsch and Mercadier
(1999) also used a petrophysical-based definition of the reser-
voir rock type for their reservoir model input. The advantages
of pore facies analysis over the other methods of facies analysis
(traditional methods) are deliberated by Chehrazi et al (2011).
The main advantage of the proposed method in this paper is
the incorporation of dynamic data into the static model thus
reducing the uncertainties and incompatibility of dynamic and
static models. The proposed pore facies analysis is a new gener-
ation of reservoir rock facies analysis according to pore geom-
etry of the reservoir rock. The MICP curves have been applied
for the facies analysis, but the unique relationship between the
MICP curves and geologic properties (depositional texture and
diagenetic features) have not been considered. In other words,
pore characteristics and pore types can be considered more pre-
cisely in pore facies analysis by focusing on the relationship
between the MICP curves and geological features.
In the traditional facies analysis, the geological facies are
defined based on their depositional properties, and a capillary
pressure curve is assigned to each facies. Using this method
may not cause problems in sandstone reservoirs, but it cannot
be reliable in carbonates because they are heterogeneous.
Accordingly, the reservoir quality and capillary pressure
curves are totally different in rock samples with similar depo-
sitional fabrics that have been affected by various diagenetic
processes to different degrees.
By classifying the reservoir facies on the basis of capil-
lary pressure curves, not only are the reservoir rocks classified
according to their pore system quality and fluid conduction
ability, but the geological properties that control this quality
can also be determined.
In this paper, six pore facies are defined based on the pore
geometry characteristics. Pore facies analysis was performed
by classifying the extracted parameters from the MICP curves.
The classification was carried out using the MRGC method.
Results of the pore facies analysis, the average values and the
range of the extracted parameters in each pore facies along
with permeability-porosity are presented in table 1.

8
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 6. MICP and PTSD curves for pore facies 1–3, which are classified based on the MRGC method. Each cluster shows a certain
pattern of increase in injection pressure with mercury saturation. An average PTSD curve and some statistical parameters are presented for
each pore facies. (a) and (b) pore facies 1; (c) and (d) pore facies 2; (e) and (f) pore facies 3. (Continued)

6.1.  MRGC method σn ( y ) =  exp  ( − m / k )

The most important advantages of this method are that it: Where y is the mth nearest neighbor of x; k is the number
(a) is independent of a priori knowledge of data set; of points; and n = 1, 2,…, N−1.
(b) automatically proposes an optimal number of clusters; k
(c) is reliable for processing real data sets containing clusters S(X) = ∑ σ (X)
of very complex configurations; and n=1
(d) is without limitation in numbers of dimensions of point
and clusters. Smin= min  { S ( xi ) } , Smax= max  { s ( xi ) }
Using KRI and NI index parameters differentiates MRGC
i = 1, N
from conventional methods. In this method the best number of
clusters is determined based on the neighboring index parameter. NI = S ( x ) − Smin /Smax − Smin.
Neighboring Index (NI): Using the neighboring index
method, the data and closest points can be classified, based on Considering that in this method the NI depends on the
the rank of each point to the main point (x). density of points near the main point instead of the absolute

9
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 6 (Continued). MICP and PTSD curves for pore facies 4–6 which are classified based on the MRGC method. Each cluster shows a
certain pattern of increase in injection pressure with mercury saturation. An average PTSD curve and some statistical parameters are present
for each pore facies. (g) and (h) pore facies 4; (i) and (j) pore facies 5; (k) and (l) pore facies 6.

distance, another parameter, the Kernel representative index The reservoir quality index (RQI) and flow zone indicator
(KRI), is defined. (FZI) are practical parameters for the evaluation of the reser-
KRI Index: Combinations of NI, distance (D) and weighting dis- voir rock quality using the combination of porosity and per-
tance M(x, y). Clusters with equivalent size and volume tend to be meability data. Using these parameters in reservoir studies is
generated based on M (the number of neighbors) and D (distance) based on the view that the reservoir rock can be classified into
factors, giving a balance between the size and volume of the clusters. heterogeneous sub-members (Amaefule et al 1993).
KRI= NI(x)  M(x,y)  D(x,y) ∅e
∅Z =
Where M is the weighting distance, D is the distance 1 −∅e
between x and y in clusters. K
RQI = 0.0314
NI finds the Kernel of a mode; and M and D, the importance ∅e
and the extension of this mode to the whole data set. The Kernel RQI
and all the neighboring members that are influenced by it are FZI =
∅Z
specified. The influence of members on the next member deter-
mines the boundaries of clusters. The boundaries are specified Ø: Porosity
when a member loses the ability to affect the next member. K: Permeability (md)

10
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 7. Rock fabrics and pore types in pore facies 1, 2, 3 and 4. (a) Dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity; (b) crystalline dolomite
with intercrystalline porosity; (c) dolograinstone with interparticle porosity; (d) dolo-mudstone with mudstone microporosity; (e) ooid
grainstone with moldic porosity; (f) ooid grainstone with moldic porosity; (g) dolo-mudstone with microporosity; (h) dolo-grainstone with
interparticle porosity; and (i) ooid bioclastic grainstone with moldic porosity.

In table 1 the average values of RQI and FZI in each pore
facies are also presented. According to Tiab and Donaldson
(1996), samples with the same FZI values have similar pore
throat size, thus the only purpose of providing these param-
eters is in making comparisons between their values in dif-
ferent pore facies.
In the proposed classification, each pore facies indicates
rock samples sharing similar petrophysical properties and
MICP curves; characteristics which are representative of one
type of pore geometry. The average values of the petrophys-
ical parameters in each pore facies are present in table 1.
6.2.  Pore geometry characteristics in pore facies
In the following section, all six pore geometry based facies
are defined and parameters extracted from MICP curves are
introduced. Then, in order to constrain a representative value
for these parameters and other petrophysical properties (such
as permeability of various facies), the average value of each
parameter in each facies is determined.
Different rock fabrics with corresponding pore types
are then determined by detailed petrography. Pore geo-
metrical characteristics of each facies, obtained from
MICP analysis, are compared with the corresponding rock
properties and pore types. The range of rock fabrics with
different diagenetic features and pore types which are rep-
resentative of the same petrophysical class can be deter-
mined. Eventually, distinct rock properties (texture, pore
types and diagenetic features) in each pore facies reflect
the controlling factors in pore system quality. Using this
classification, a pore facies may include several reservoir
rock samples with different rock fabrics and diagenetic his-
tories, or rock samples with similar depositional fabrics,
might show different petrophysical classes as a result of
different diagenetic histories.
A representative curve is defined for all rock samples
falling into one pore facies by averaging the PTSD curves in
each pore facies (figure 6). The representative curves clearly
indicate the variations of the pore throat size distribution of
pore facies. These parameters have been applied for the clas-
sification of reservoir rocks. As expected, values change with
respect to reservoir rock quality variations.
6.2.1. Pore geometry type 1.  The pore geometry charac-
teristics and permeability values in this facies are typical of
the best reservoir quality among the six pore facies. On the

11
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
MICP curves, low displacement pressure indicates the large
and interconnected pore throat system (figure 6(a)). A broad
and flat plateau between 10 and 90% mercury saturations sug-
gests a homogeneous pore throat size distribution. Saturation
of more than 80% of the pore volume by mercury at about
50 psi (corresponds to the pore throat radius of 1.7 µm) injec-
tion pressures indicates that this portion of the pore volume
is accessed by throats with radius >1 µm (equation (1)). This
means that the pore throats are large and well-interconnected.
The average permeability in the facies is 409.5 md (ranging
from 116 to 795 md), which indicates that the reservoir quality
is excellent (the best reservoir quality among these six facies).
PTSD curves are leptokurtic with a sharp apex, indicating
unimodal distribution and excellent pore throat sorting. The
dominant pore throat radius in this facies is between 6 and
12 µm (the apex of PTSD curves) (figure 6(b)). Extracting the
statistical parameters from the PTSD curves would be help-
ful in this type of classification, particularly when the MICP
curves are not available (only PTSD curves are available).
6.2.2.  Pore geometry type 2.  The MICP curves in this facies
are characterized by gently sloping plateaus (figure 6(c)). In
comparison to pore facies 1, displacement pressure generally
shows higher values, and mercury saturation is lower at most
injection pressures, indicating that the pore throats are smaller
and less well-connected than the pore throats in facies 1.
The connectivity of the pore system can be predicted from
the capillary pressure curves. In the MICP curves, low displace-
ment pressure and a broad plateau at low pressure is representa-
tive of a well-connected and sorted pore system. The increase
in the slope of the MICP curves represents smaller pore throats
and consequently the increase in the required pressure for fluid
movement in the pore system. As reservoir geologists, our only
concern is the capability of the reservoir rock in fluid conduc-
tion. Thus, the increase in the applied pressure reflects the lower
ability of a pore system to conduct fluids. Higher injection
pressures in MICP curves reflect small pore throats and lower
degrees of the connectivity of the pore system in reservoir con-
ditions, which can be a result of the increase in the amount of
cement or other depositional and diagenetic features.
The pore throat radius is >1 µm in 73 to 89% of the
pore volume in this facies. The PTSD curves are lepto-
kurtic to mesokurtic with unimodal to bimodal distribution
(figure  6(d)). The lack of a prominent apex in the bimodal
curves indicates that the pore throat sorting is lower than in
facies 1. The average permeability and porosity are 151.5 md
and 23.2% respectively. As a result, the reservoir quality in
this facies is ranked second in this classification.
6.2.3.  Pore geometry type 3.  In comparison to the previous
facies, samples assigned to this facies show higher displace-
ment pressures and lower mercury saturation in each injection
pressure, suggesting that this facies consists of samples with
smaller and less well-connected pore throats (figure 6(e)). The
pore throat radius in 50 to 65% of the pore volume is >1 µm in
these samples. The PTSD curves are mesokurtic, which shows
that the pore throat sorting is medium due to the extensive
effect of diagenesis. Generally diagenetic features decrease
12
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
the quality of the pore system and pore throat sorting in this
pore facies. Rock samples with similar depositional fabrics
show different reservoir qualities as a result of various diage-
netic features (see the following sections). After a long depo-
sitional process the textural maturity increases (Ahr 2008),
which can be destroyed by diagenetic overprint. For example,
cementation occurs everywhere in the reservoir rock and dif-
ferent types of cement occlude small or large pore throats.
Unlike depositional processes, there is no rule or special style
for cementation. Dolomitization and the creation of crystalline
dolomite might be the only way of increasing the pore system
quality by diagenetic processes, because the initial rock fabric
totally disappears and a new crystalline network grows.
The most common pore throat radii (the apex of PTSD
curves) are small in all samples, in comparison with the pre-
vious facies. The average permeability and porosity values of
this facies are 6.6 md and 23.4%, respectively.
6.2.4.  Pore geometry type 4.  In this facies, the MICP curves
are characterized by high displacement pressure values and
sloping plateaus, reflecting small and poorly connected pore
throats (figure 6(g)). The pore throat sorting is low in this pore
facies. In comparison with the previous three facies, these
characteristics indicate a relatively poorer reservoir quality.
The pore throat radius is >1 µm only in <10% of the pore vol-
ume in these samples (according to the MICP curves). The
PTSD curves show that there is greater tendency to smaller
sizes of pore throats. There is a broad range of pore throat
radii in each sample, reflecting that pore throat sorting is low
(figure 6(h)). The average permeability and porosity values
are 1.9 md and 18.5%, respectively.
6.2.5. Pore geometry type 5.  In pore facies 5, samples are
characterized by a broad range of pore throat size distribution.
This characteristic emerged in the MICP and PTSD curves
(figures 6(i) and 6(j)). The absence of the plateau on the MICP
curves and the polymodal and platykurtic PTSD curves indi-
cate that the prominent characteristic of the samples assigned
to this facies is their unsorted pore throat system. These fea-
tures are not compatible with other groups. Although the dis-
placement pressure is low, the absence of an explicit plateau
in these curves makes this facies different from the others,
based on the pore system architecture. The average permeabil-
ity and porosity of this facies are 0.49 md and 14%, respec-
tively. These characteristics (low permeability, poor sorting of
PTSD and the abundance of small pore throats) indicate that
the quality of the pore system in pore facies 5 is poor.
6.2.6. Pore geometry type 6.  The highest displacement
pressure values (the average value is more than 100 psi), the
absence or high gradient of the plateaus, and the lower mer-
cury saturation at all injection pressures in these curves all
indicate that this facies includes samples with the lowest res-
ervoir quality (figure 6(k)). Some of these samples are char-
acterized by two populations of pore throats which clearly
can be seen on PTSD curves (figure 6(l)). The pore throat
radius is <1 µm in the majority of the pore volume. Very poor
sorting of the pore throats is reflected by the platykurtic to
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
Figure 8. Rock fabric and pore types in pore facies 5 and 6. (a) and (b) ooid bioclastic grainstone with moldic (dominantly), interparticle
and intraparticle porosity; (c) dolo-grainstone with totally plugged porosity. (d) Grainstone with moldic porosity.
mesokurtic PTSD curves and steeply sloping MICP curves.
In PTSD curves, it is clear that these samples have a sig-
nificant amount of microporosity, as the major portion of the
pore system in PTSD curves shows pore throat radii <1 µm.
Average permeability and porosity are 0.4 md and 21%,
respectively.
7.  Rock fabrics and pore types assigned
to pore facies
7.1.  Pore facies 1
Two types of rock fabrics with typical pore types are as-
signed to this category: dolo-grainstone with interparticle
porosity; and crystalline carbonate with intercrystalline
­porosity.
7.1.1. Type 1a.  This sample is a porous and permeable dolo-
mite with well interconnected intercrystalline porosity. It dis-
plays total replacement of the reservoir rock by the fine to
medium crystal size sucrosic dolomites. The intercrystalline
porosity has been plugged partially by the anhydrite cement
(up to 10% anhydrite cement). According to Lønøy’s clas-
sification the pore types are intercrystalline, uniform meso-
pores. Permeability and porosity values are 417.8 md and
32.8%, respectively, reflecting a very good reservoir quality
(figure 7(a)).
13
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
7.1.2. Type 1b.  The second type is fine to medium grained
oolitic-peloidal dolo-grainstone. The fabric retentive dolo-
mitization has caused the preservation of the interparticle
porosity in the sample. The anhydrite cement is present in
the interparticle porosity in only a few percent (about 10%
anhydrite cement). The interparticle porosity is the main
pore type in pore facies 1, including micro-, meso- and
macro-pores which are uniformly distributed in the samples
(figure 7(b)). Permeability is high as a result of the very well
interconnected pore systems and excellent pore throat sort-
ing in pore facies 1. Porosity and permeability are 18.2% and
256.4 md, respectively.
7.2.  Pore facies 2
This pore facies includes two types of rock fabrics with typical
pore types. Interparticle porosity and mudstone microporosity
are the main pore types. The interparticle porosity has been
plugged partially by various types of cement.
7.2.1. Type 2a.  This is an example of well-sorted medium
to coarse grained dolo-grainstone. The rock fabric has been
preserved by the fabric-retentive dolomitization. The interpar-
ticle porosity (meso- to macro- pores) is the main pore type
which has been plugged partially by the dolomite and blocky
anhydrite cements (Lønøy 2006). The pore throat sorting in
this type of porous and permeable dolo-grainstone is reduced
by the intergranular cement. The intergranular cement
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Table 2.  Rock properties (depositional texture and pore types and diagenetic features) in defined pore facies.

Pore facies Type Properties Phi (%) K (md) Figure

PF1 1a (1) Porous and permeable dolomite with well inter-connected intercrystalline 32.8 417.8 7(a)
porosity (uniform mesopores), (2) total replacement of initial grains by the fine to
medium crystal size sucrosic dolomite, (3) partial anhydrite cement (up to 10%) in
intercrystalline porosity.
1b (1) Fine to medium grained oolitic-peloidal dolo-grainstone with well-interconnected 18.2 256.4 7(b)
pore system (uniformly distributed meso and macropores), (2) excellent pore throat
sorting. Fabric retentive dolomitization and intergranular anhydrite cement (about 10%).
PF2 2a (1) Well-sorted medium to coarse grained dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity 24.5 180.7 7(c)
(meso to macro pores), (2) partial anhydrite (blocky) and dolomite plugging (10 to
20 % of the rock sample). (3) fabric-retentive dolomitization.
2b (1) Massive dolomudstone, (2) the original porosity is partially plugged by the 24.1 38.1 7(d)
anhydrite cement (anhydrite cement = about 4%). (3) Pervasive dolomitization and
the uniform distribution of mudstone microporosity.
PF3 3a (1) Well sorted medium to coarse-grained oolid grainstone, (2) interparticle porosity 32.9 2.91 7(e)
is plugged completely by calcite cement. (3) Well sorted moldic porosity as a result
of well sorting in grains or low content of the pore-filling cements.
3b Dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity. 12.5 4.8
PF4 4a (1) Poorly sorted ooid bioclastic grainstone with moldic porosity, (2) interparticle 18.4 0.11 7(f)–8 (i)
porosity has been plugged totally by the calcite cement and the moldic mesoporosity
is filled sporadically by the pore filling cements.
4b (1) Poorly sorted dolo-grainstone in which the original grains have been replaced 8.8 1.9 7(g)
by dolomite, (2) interparticle porosity is plugged by the anhydrite and dolomite
cements in the majority of instances (about 30% of the sample)
4c (1) A dolo-mudstone, (2) Mudstone micro-porosity is partially plugged by anhydrite 26.2 5.23 7(h)
cement.
PF5 5 (1) Ooid bioclastic grainstone, (2) the main pore types are moldic and vuggy but other 18.4 1 8(a)– 8(b)
types of dissolution enlarged porosities such as intraparticle porosities are also present in
large quantities. (3) Moldic porosity is filled partially by the anhydrite and calcite cement.
PF6 6a (1) Oo-peloidal dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity, (2) grains have been replaced 5.6 0.01 8(c)
by dolomite and the interparticle porosity is totally plugged by the anhydrite cement.
6b (1) Poorly sorted grainstone with moldic porosity, (2) molds are completely isolated 10.2 0.06 8(d)
and show various sizes thus barely improve the reservoir quality.

(dolomite and anhydrite) constructs 10–20% of the rock sam- Table 3.  Classification of reservoir and non-reservoir rocks based on
ple (­figure 7(c)). (Permeability = 180.7 md, porosity = 24.5%) capillary pressure and saturations (Sneider 1987; Vavra et al 1992).
Reservoir Non-Reservoir
7.2.2.  Type 2b.  This sample is a massive dolomudstone. The
original matrix porosity is partially plugged by the anhydrite Pc(mercury occupies 1% <300 psi >500 psi
cement (anhydrite cement volume is about 4%). The perme- bulk volume)
Mercury saturation (1000 >3 % bulk vol. ≤2 % bulk vol.
ability has been improved by pervasive dolomitization and psi)
by uniformly distributed mudstone micro-porosity within Mercury saturation (200 >3% bulk vol., ≤3% bulk vol.,
the original calcimudstone (figure 7(d)) (Porosity = 24.1%, psi) > 50% pore vol. ≤50% pore vol.
permeability = 38.1 md). Displacement pressure <100 psi >100psi

7.3.  Pore facies 3

This pore facies is subdivided into two subtypes based on rock
fabrics and dominant pore types. The main pore types are inter-
particle and moldic porosities. The interparticle porosity has
been plugged progressively by calcite, anhydrite and dolomite
cements.
7.3.2.  Type 3b.  Dolo-grainstone with interparticle porosity is
the second rock property in this pore facies. The amount of
intergranular cement is higher than in the previous pore facies.
Porosity and permeability are 12.5% and 4.8 md, respectively.
7.4.  Pore facies 4

7.3.1. Type 3a.  A well sorted medium to coarse-grained ooid
grainstone is the main fabric in this pore facies. The interpar-
ticle porosity is plugged completely by calcite cement. Moldic
porosity is well sorted due to the sorting of the grains or the
low content of the pore filling cements (figure 7(e)). (Porosity:
32.9% and permeability: 2.91 md)
This pore facies is subdivided into three subtypes based on the
rock fabrics, dominant pore types and cement content. This facies
has a varied assemblage of rock fabrics with different porosity
types, including interparticle, moldic, intercrystalline and mud-
stone microporosity. The interparticle porosity and mudstone
microporosity have been pervasively plugged by the anhydrite

14
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Table 4.  Classification of reservoir rock samples based on the petrographic properties.

Depositional Porosity
Class texture Pore types sorting Cement (% rock sample) Pore system characteristics
1 Grainstone Interparticle and Well-sorted <10% The pore system quality is excellent
and crystal- Intercrystalline
line carbonate
2 Grainstone Interparticle Weak 10–20% The higher intergranular cement content de-
creases the pore system quality
3 Grainstone Interparticle - >20% The intense decrease in the pore throat diam-
and crystal- eters due to the increase in cement content
line carbonate
4 Grainstone Moldic Well-sorted The entire interparticle Molds are similar in size and pore-filling ce-
spaces ment is low inside the molds
5 Grainstone Moldic and Weak The entire interparticle Porosity sorting is weak due to the weak
vuggy spaces and sporadically sorting of grains and sporadically distributed
inside molds and vugs pore filling cement in molds and vugs
6 Mudstone Mudstone micr- - <5% The pore system quality has been developed
oporosity due to dolomitization and dissolution
7 Mudstone Mudstone micr- - >5% The porosity has been plugged by anahydrite
oporosity cement

cement and the intercrystalline porosity has been occluded by Table 5.  The average values of the petrophysical parameters in
anhydrite and dolomite cement due to over-dolomitization. petrographically-defined classes.
Petrographic K PHI Pd Swan-
7.4.1. Type 4a.  Poorly sorted ooid bioclastic grainstone with class (md) (%) (PSI) PTS son RQI FZI
moldic porosity is the main rock type in this facies. The inter-
1 409.5 23.5 7.1 25.2 0.77 1.26 4.4
particle porosity has been plugged totally by calcite cement and 2 218.6 22.8 7.7 72.89 0.39 0.89 3.04
the moldic mesoporosity is filled sporadically by pore filling 3 2.8 10.3 113.8 801.28 0.04 0.14 1.44
cements (figures 7(f) and (i)). (Porosity = 18.4%, permeability 4 2.5 27.2 13.9 91.4 0.26 0.08 0.24
5 0.66 18.8 23.9 619.7 0.09 0.07 2.95
0.11 md) 6 38.4 25.5 27.5 59.7 0.29 0.38 1.17
7 1.2 24.8 131.2 553.8 0.06 0.05 0.17
7.4.2. Type 4b.  This is a poorly sorted dolo-grainstone in
which the original grains have been replaced by dolomite.
The interparticle porosity is plugged by anhydrite and dolo- Figures 8(a) and 8(b) show examples of ooid bioclastic
mite cements in the majority of instances (figure 7(g)). The grainstone with moldic, interparticle and intraparticle porosity.
volume of intergranular cement is about 30% of the sample. The porosity sizes are different, including micro-, meso- and
(Porosity = 8.8%, permeability = 1.9 md). macro-porosity (large molds). The moldic porosity is also
filled partially by anhydrite and calcite cements. The promi-
7.4.3. Type 4c.  This is a dolo-mudstone (figure 7(h)) which nent characteristic of this facies is the unsorted pore system.
the mudstone is partially plugged by the anhydrite. (­Porosity = Porosity: 18.4% and Permeability: 1 md.
26.2% and permeability = 5.23 md)
7.6.  Pore facies 6
7.5.  Pore facies 5 This pore facies could be subdivided into two subtypes based
The rock fabrics and dominant pore types of this pore facies on rock fabrics and dominant pore types. The interparticle
are simple and very easy to identify, i.e. poorly sorted grain- porosity has been plugged totally by anhydrite and calcite
stone with different types of porosity. Having different pore cements and moldic porosity is the only pore type in this facies.
types is the prominent characteristic of this pore facies, so
these samples cannot be included with the previous facies. 7.6.1. Type 6a.  This type is an oolitic-peloidal dolo-grain-
Also the MICP curves are very different from the other curves. stone (figure 8(c)) with interparticle porosity. Grains have
Considering the petrography, its main pore types are moldic been replaced by dolomite and the interparticle porosity is
and vuggy, but other types of dissolution enlarged porosities totally plugged by anhydrite cement. Porosity and permeabil-
such as intraparticle porosities are also present in large quanti- ity are 5.6% and 0.01 md, respectively.
ties (figures 8(a) and (b)). Rock samples with separate vugs
and other unusual dissolution features that reduce the porosity 7.6.2.  Type 6b.  This is an example of poorly sorted grain-
sorting could be classified in this pore facies. The co-occur- stone with moldic porosity (figure 8(d)). Calcite cement
rence of these various pore types leads to an unsorted pore has occluded the interparticle porosity and a large por-
throat system. tion of the moldic porosity. These molds are completely

15
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008 H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust

Figure 9. The classification of the MICP curves based on the parameters presented in table 4 (depositional fabric, pore types and
diagenetic features).

isolated and show various sizes thus barely improve the
reservoir quality. Firstly, the connection of pore system
is poor as the molds are isolated thus their pore throats
are poorly connected. Secondly, the pore throat sorting is
low as seen in the MICP and PTSD curves for this pore
16
facies. This can be related to the molds with different sizes
that are connected to proportional pore throats (Porosity
= 10.2% and permeability = 0.06 md). All types of rock
fabrics and pore types in the pore facies are summarized
in table 2.
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
1000
100
Permeability (md)
10
R² = 6E-05
1
1 10
R² = 0.144
0.1
0.01
Porosity %
Figure 10. The scatter plot of poroperm values of the studied samples which are available from the capillary pressure tests. 48 core
samples of the MICP tests (this paper) and 34 from centrifuge tests. The figure indicates the absence of correlation between porosity and
permeability in the reservoir.
8.  Results and discussion
In this study, pore facies analysis was carried out and the
results involved defining six pore geometry-based facies (pore
facies) in the reservoir rock. These six pore facies were classi-
fied according to the parameters extracted from MICP curves
using the MRGC method. The pore geometry and capillary
pressure curve for each sample is unique, and each pore facies
contains samples with the greatest similarities (based on the
cluster analysis) in pore geometry and MICP curves. The
results show that the reservoir quality decreases from pore
facies 1–6. Each pore facies is divided into subtypes with
limited varieties of rock properties (depositional texture, pore
types and cement content). These variations in the rock proper-
ties were determined based on petrographic studies. According
to the criteria introduced by Sneider (1987) and Vavra et al
(1992) for the segregation of reservoir and non-reservoir rocks
(table 3), the only non-reservoir class is pore facies 6. Pore
facies 1 is the best reservoir facies in this classification, which
means that interparticle porosity is the most important pore
type in reservoir quality. The second pore facies (facies 2)
contains well-sorted medium to coarse grained reservoir rock
samples, but the pore system quality and pore throat sorting
are decreased due to the cement content. Distinction between
these two pore facies (1 and 2) indicates that the dependence
of pore system quality on grain size and sorting (depositional
texture) decreases with increasing intergranular cement con-
tent. Rock samples with similar depositional textures and
different amounts of intergranular cement produce different
MICP curves. Increases in the cement content and the variety
of pore throats leads to lower pore throat sorting in the MICP
(higher slope) and PTSD curves. The difference in the petro-
physical properties in the grainstone samples of pore facies 3
and 4 is the result of the increase in the cement content which
has occluded the pore system. Molds and their pore throats
17
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
Well_02
Well_01
1 00
have been filled irregularly by the cement, which has caused a
greater reduction in pore system sorting in pore facies 4 than
in pore facies 3. Although the average entry pressure in pore
facies 5 is low, the unsorted pore throat system differentiates
this facies from the others. Each pore facies has a defined
combination of rock fabrics, pore types and cement content.
The effect and the intensity of the controlling parameters on
the reservoir and pore system quality are different due to the
variety in depositional and diagenetic histories. Concerning
the influence of depositional fabrics and diagenetic features
on MICP and PTSD curves, the variations in these parameters
show predictable trends among pore facies.
According to the results, rock samples with the highest pore
system quality are mainly from K4, K2, and lower K2-upper
K3, respectively. The results are similar to previous studies
in the Dalan and Kangan formations (Moradpour et al 2008;
Esrafili-Dizaji and Rahimpour-Bonab 2009; Rahimpour-
Bonab et al 2010; Tavakoli et al 2011). But the reservoir is
variable in each unit. Although K4 shows the highest reservoir
quality, many of the rock samples with poor quality in pore
facies 4, 5 and 6 are from this unit.
The MICP curves clearly reflect the pore geometry of
reservoir rock samples. The collection of rock samples in a
pore facies is representative of one type of pore geometry in
the classification, and it could be expanded into the reservoir
body even where insufficient MICP data is available. For this
reason, integrated petrographic analysis needs to be carried
out on the reservoir rock samples in defined pore facies. The
controlling parameters (depositional and diagenetic features)
in pore geometry quality become clear through an integrated
study of the variations in the petrographic properties and their
effect on MICP curves in carbonates. The important point is
that these controlling parameters and their effects on the car-
bonate reservoir quality are different in various reservoirs. The
geological parameters are complicated as each reservoir shows
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
different depositional and diagenetic histories. Thus, there are
many questions and doubts in providing general quantities for
these features (i.e. the cement content or porosity percentage)
in classifications and they may not be applicable in other res-
ervoir rocks in different fields. Many of the classifications for
pore types or depositional fabrics are qualitative and are not
directly applicable in all carbonate reservoirs.
In the next step, other reservoir rock samples can be clas-
sified according to their determined petrographic features.
More detailed classification obviously leads to closer results
for pore facies analysis. Differences in pore throat geometry
characteristics are the result of variations in geological fea-
tures, but finding these relationships is difficult because of
the difference in methods, scales, and the aims of using these
methods. Thus most of the studies for making a relationship
between capillary pressure curves and rock fabrics mainly use
a limited number of samples which indicate very different and
prominent geological features, and correlate them with cor-
responding MICP curves.
Eventually, the new type of classification which is based on
the combinational geological features (depositional fabric and
diagenetic features) can be proposed by petrographic analysis
for classifying the reservoir rocks in complicated carbonate res-
ervoirs. The fundamentals of this type of classification are inter-
preted in table 4. According to the table, the interparticle and
intercrystalline porosities are in a similar class when the inter-
granular cement is very low (class 1). The pore system quality
and pore throat sorting decrease by increasing the intergranular
cement content (class 2). The decrease in the pore throat sorting
in the MICP curves is representative of the increase of the inter-
granular cement in class 2. Porosity sorting has not been con-
sidered as a controlling parameter in the reservoir rock samples
with a high cement content (class 3) because their pore system
is mainly plugged (in table 5 the average entry pressure is over
100 psi in this class). Classes 4 and 5 both include grainstone
samples with moldic porosity, but class 4 has a higher grain
content (in the original fabric), which leads to a well-sorted oo-
moldic porosity in rock samples, and shows a better reservoir
quality. The pore system (including moldic porosity and the
pore throats) has been occluded irregularly by the pore-filling
cements in class 5, which has increased the capillary pressure,
and has reduced the pore throat size and sorting. The porosity
and pore throat sorting is never similar in rock samples with
interparticle and moldic porosities thus different pore types
should not be compared with each other. Mudstone samples
were also classified into two classes because of the diagenetic
features which have changed the original pore geometry in
both classes. The result of the classification of reservoir rocks
according to the petrographic analysis and the average values
of the petrophysical parameters in each class are present in
figure 9 and table 5, respectively. The similarity in the MICP
curves in each class (figure 9 and table 5) shows that it is pos-
sible to differentiate reservoir rocks from non-reservoir rocks,
and to predict the approximate pore throat characteristics using
this method. Clearly the classification of MICP curves based
on petrographic analysis is unnecessary, but figure shows that
the classification of rock samples can be more accurate when
18
H Rahimpour-Bonab and E Aliakbardoust
considering the pore system quality. At least we are able to clas-
sify reservoir, non-reservoir and intermediate rocks and avoid
the common mistakes in these studies. Finding a proper method
for characterization and classification of reservoir rocks which
can be used effectively in facies analysis and reservoir model-
ling is very difficult in carbonate reservoirs.
This study proposes an approach for carbonate reservoir rock
characterization and classification based on MICP curves, and
using this approach for the classification of rock samples when
enough MICP data is not available. Using common methods
(for example porosity and permeability correlation) which only
consider the depositional rock fabric is not helpful for the clas-
sification of reservoir rocks in these reservoirs (figure 10).
Using capillary pressure curves and pore types for classifica-
tion is reliable because the pore system controls fluid movement
and thus dictates the reservoir quality of a rock sample. Thus the
proposed scheme which shows the general variations of the pet-
rographic properties in rock samples and their effect on the pore
geometry characteristics is helpful for reservoir rock classification.
9. Conclusions
The classification of carbonate reservoir rock samples and
their MICP curves shows that pore geometry controls the
reservoir quality and is very sensitive to variations in dep-
ositional fabric, diagenetic overprints and pore types. For
example, dolo-grainstones with interparticle porosity and
similar depositional fabrics show different reservoir qualities
in various pore facies, and have totally different MICP curves.
Therefore, any changes that cause variations in the pore types
may lead to large differences in the reservoir quality and pore
throat geometry. Accordingly, by classifying reservoir rock
based on the pore throat system characteristics, the main rock
properties that control the reservoir quality are considered.
The main results of this study are as follows:
(a) The most effective porosity type in the reservoir quality
is interparticle porosity (intergrain and intercrystalline
porosity). Interparticle porosity is the main pore type in
pore facies 1 and 2, and includes the best reservoir rocks
(where the intergranular cement content is low).
(b) The reservoir quality in pore geometry-based classes
decreases when the major pore type changes from
interparticle porosity to moldic and vuggy porosities (the
variations in pore types can be studied based on petro-
graphic analysis) in pore facies classification. These pore
types increase the irregularity of the pore system (based
on the shape of MICP and PTSD curves), as well as the
porosity volume. Moldic and vuggy porosities are mainly
isolated in petrographic studies.
(c) An increase in the cement volume leads to the decline in res-
ervoir quality (confirmed in many studies). However, based
on petrographic analysis, different types of cement affect the
pore system irregularly. For example, in a grainstone with
moldic porosity some molds are completely or partially
filled by cement. Based on the PTSD and MICP curves
J. Geophys. Eng. 11 (2014) 035008
related to these samples, the suggestion is that the increase
in the cement content decreases the reservoir quality not
only by occluding the pore throats (decrease in pore throats
connection) but also by decreasing the pore throat sorting.
(d) The reservoir quality in pore facies 4 is similar in the
grainstone and mudstone samples, due to the increase in the
cement content.As the most destructive feature to the reser-
voir quality, cementation is considered as two types. These
are intergranular and pore-filling cements. As a result, res-
ervoir rock samples with similar depositional fabrics might
have different pore geometry (based on the MICP curves).
Tiny pore throats which are pathways for fluid movement
can frequently be subjected to cementation.
(e) The absolute porosity values play a negligible role in this
classification because of the weak correlation between
permeability and porosity in the rock samples, particu-
larly in rock samples with moldic porosity.
(f) The present pore system characteristics are the results of
geological processes, thus reservoir rock samples can be
classified according to the geological properties which
control the reservoir quality. These properties were
revealed by the pore facies analysis.
(g) The classification of reservoir samples according to the pro-
posed method can be used for facies analysis. This method
is useful particularly in complicated carbonate reservoirs
where other methods are not sufficient and the results of the
different methods are incompatible due to the complexity of
pore structures. Carbonate reservoirs with such complexity
in pore systems cannot be classified properly based on
methods that only consider a single property of the rock.
Therefore, the results of this study could benefit both res-
ervoir geologists and engineers during reservoir modelling,
by extending and correlating their limited MICP data to the
calibrated pore facies introduced in this study. This method
can have some drawbacks, for example use of this method
in homogenous sandstone reservoirs could be unnecessary.
Also the clustering method is not 100% secure because the
software and mathematical methods do not have a geological
vision. However, every method has some drawbacks and any
single method cannot be applicable in all reservoir studies.
Semi-quantitative data could be extracted from the total
reservoir interval (which in most parts lack MICP data), by
using the calibrated pore facies scheme, but quantities will
certainly be different in different reservoirs.
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