Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
13.1 Rheology
13.1 Rheology
structure of the specimens, they permit somewhat different from those of doughs
continuous monitoring of changes in the produced by mixing; it is firmer and less
viscoelastic properties of a dough as a function of extensible, has a high initial viscosity and
time and temperature. This is really the basis of elasticity but low stability (Unbehend, 2002).
the simulating "recording baking trial" which Nevertheless, mixing is likely to remain
makes it possible to monitor the changes in the indispensable, for the air bubbles introduced
viscoelastic properties of the dough in the into the dough by mixing and in which the carbon
baker's oven (Weipert, 1987 and 1992). dioxide collects during fermentation are the
Bread baking is ultimately a process of the "starting point" for the pores that result in the
uptake and binding of water by the swelling baked volume of the products (Hoseney, 1986).
substances (such as proteins and pentosans)
in the dough and the rebinding of water by the Doughs without Mixing
pasted starch in the heated, baked dough or Efforts to minimize the energy input necessary
the crumb of the bread which results in for making up a dough have led to the devel-
changes in the viscosity or consistency of the dough opment of the new Rapidojet technique. On
or bread crumb and can therefore be demon- the basis of observations by Amend (1996),
strated well by rheometry. In other words: Noll (2002) came to the same conclusion as
rheology in general and rheometry in particular Unbehend (2002), namely that far less energy
are good tools for studying, interpreting, is needed for preparing dough than is normally
predicting and checking baking properties. used in bakeries. With the Rapidojet, Noll
developed a fast method of dough preparation
13.1.2 Viscosity and Elasticity of Dough that saves space, time and above all energy.
118 When mixed with water the flour becomes Air and water are introduced at high pressure
dough, a cohesive mass in which the gluten into a stream of flour running into a pipe.
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
forms a three-dimensional network made up Within seconds this results in a dough that has
of strands and membranes in which the starch
granules are embedded (Amend, 1996 and
Baked volume = f (gas production + gas retention)
Bloksma, 1990). The viscosity or consistency Gas production = constant (controllable)
of the dough depends on the amount of water Gas retention = f (dough viscosity)
Baked volume = f (viscosity + elasticity)
and other ingredients added, but also on the Viscosity = constant (controllable)
Baked volume / Gas retention
13.1 Rheology
viscoelastic properties similar to those of to ensure the highest possible volume yield.
doughs produced by mixing and is just as easy to Since this factor can be adjusted and controlled
make up into bread. The energy introduced by the by determining water absorption with the
pressure of the added water is much less than that Farinograph, it may also be regarded as
normally required by bakeries (Noll, 2002). constant. The viscoelastic properties of the
dough, generally known by bakers and cereal
If we view the bread-making process as an processors as "dough characteristics", vary
interaction of gas production and gas retention from soft and weak to firm and short; it is the
it may be said that gas production can be "normal" dough characteristics that bring the
adjusted, controlled and kept constant with best results in each case. The volume of the
the amount of yeast in the formulation, the baked products is therefore a function of
quantity of the fermentable sugars maltose viscosity and elasticity. If the viscosity can be
and glucose added or present and other technical adjusted (by adding water) and may therefore
measures such as fermentation temperature be regarded as a constant factor, it is ultimately
and time. There remains gas retention as a elasticity or the rheological balance between
factor that demands the baker's attention and extensibility and elasticity that determines the
technical skill (Fig. 53). If we assume that gas value of a wheat flour for baking. Too much
retention depends directly on the consistency elasticity results in short, bucky doughs; too
of the dough, we may expect gas retention to little makes the doughs soft and weak. Dough
increase in proportion to consistency. This rheology makes it possible to identify these
holds true in practice: firm doughs with a high variety-related properties – viscosity and
gas retention capacity combined with good elasticity – quickly and reliably. We also know
gas production result in a high volume yield. ways and means by which the viscoelastic 119
Conversely it is logical that the low gas retention properties can be altered and optimized to a
Rheology Rheometry
13-1-Rheology 13.11.2006 15:39 Uhr Seite 120
13.1 Rheology
To establish these properties, rheometry – a precisely complex viscosity) and its component
sub-discipline of rheology – uses a deforma- elasticity, whereas "plasticity" has to be
tion force and measures the effect of this force calculated as an imaginary part of viscosity
on the specimen (in this case the dough) as its and the difference between the measured
deformation. The deformation force may be viscosity and elasticity. A body is termed
great or small; the measurement will vary elastic if it is difficult to deform and regains its
accordingly. original shape when the deformation force has
Strength as a further property of a material is ceased to act on it. Deformation was then
easy to determine. A body, as rheologists call reversible and the deformation energy applied
the substance to be tested, is a viscous mass was stored. If, on the other hand, a body is
or a fluid if it has no yield point, flows by its easy to deform and remains deformed after the
own gravity and is therefore not dimensionally deformation force has ceased to act, the body is
stable. By contrast a solid (solid body) keeps irreversibly plastic and the deformation energy
its shape, can only be made to flow by the has been lost.
effect of a deformation force and has a yield The directly measurable and determinable
point. A solid can also be a plastic, elastic or basic properties "viscosity" and "elasticity"
viscoelastic body, depending on its structure. would therefore seem to be the most
Viscosity is an important characteristic of any important characteristics for describing a
material; it is made up of the components material and for its behaviour as a raw material,
elasticity and "pure viscosity" or plasticity. In in the process itself and finally as an end
the case of liquids, viscosity may be described product. That is why dough rheology gives
as the internal friction between the molecules special attention to these two properties. The
120 and molecular aggregates; in the case of materials known to us, including foods, have
solids it is the cohesion resulting from their mainly viscoelastic properties, and the
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
structure. When determining basic properties characteristics elasticity and plasticity occur in
it is possible to measure viscosity (more different ratios to each other.
Viscosity Elasticity
Plasticity Viscoelasticity
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 121
13.1 Rheology
13.1.3 Two Kinds of Rheometry reflect the behaviour of a raw material during
Our modern way of life is unimaginable processing and also the quality of the end pro-
without rheometry. Rheometry is used to duct. How the measurements are interpreted
predict the avalanche menace in ski-fields, to doubtless depends on the experience of the
minimize the risk of a heart attack by people who carry them out. In practice the
measuring and influencing the flow properties measurements are often performed under
of blood, to estimate the weight-bearing conditions different from those of the process.
capacity of shopping bags made from Most of the instruments used in empirical
petropolymers or bio-polymers, and even to rheometry are relics of the early days of dough
increase the service speed of tennis cracks by rheology and have scarcely been modified to
developing the right strings for their rackets. this day. They are very common, easy to use,
Rheology has a multitude of uses and is all and their results have found a permanent place
around us. In food production it is used to in the terminology of cereal technologists.
assess the quality of raw materials and end
products, and it has therefore become an The comment "but it doesn't work", said of
important and powerful aid to food technolo- fundamental rheometry years ago, has now
gists. It also aims to determine the texture of ceased to apply. In the final decades of the last
foods and thus replace sensory testing in the century, rheology in general experienced a
judgement of quality. But the latter is hardly considerable upswing with the development
likely to succeed, partly because there are no of new, versatile, sensitive, precise and
suitable measuring techniques so far, and efficient measuring instruments. These
partly because experienced technologists of instruments were used chiefly in the plastics
long standing are unlikely to allow themselves industry to demonstrate the structures of 121
to be ousted or challenged by measuring "noble" (and therefore expensive) thermo-
13.1 Rheology
is to give "the practical man" an insight into and "weak" on the one hand and "firm" on
what is going on backstage in nature and in the other by describing the dough as "sticky",
the measuring instruments and dispel his fear "pliant" or "pliable", "silky" or even "bucky" (if
of advanced science in an ivory tower. it "springs back").
These ratings describe the desirable, positive dough, and vice versa. The shape of the shred
characteristics of the dough and its undesirable, and the appearance of the roll can be predicted
negative characteristics. In their flowery terms from the known properties of the dough. A
they also describe the shred of an RMT 17 roll. dough portion shaped by flattening and rolling
The shred of an RMT roll is an important in the RMT standard baking test should open
indicator of the viscoelastic properties of the up in the oven to form a "normal" shred.
13.1 Rheology
In the case of doughs with short, dry properties In the Cold Phase of Bread Making
the shred tends to be wide open; besides Bread baking starts with mixing flour and
genetic and environmental factors the causes water to form a dough, followed by fermentation
of this may be unsuitable drying and heat ("rising") in a fermentation chamber at
damage to wheat that has been harvested controlled, slightly elevated temperatures
wet. A "sewn up" roll with a shred that is stuck similar to those used in practice. Mixing and
together and unopened is the result of a wet kneading is simulated with recording mixers
dough surface. An unopened shred in a small, under laboratory conditions; the condition of
irregularly shaped roll in which the baker's the dough during and after fermentation is
fingers have left clearly visible marks may shown and described by means of stretching
indicate weak flour quality. In conjunction with tests. The experience of the baker (laboratory
a large baked volume the unopened shred worker, production manager, shift supervisor)
shows that the flour has quality reserves; such enables him to read the measurements and
flour can be used for blending with and impro- curves thus obtained in order to determine the
ving flours of weak quality. The conclusions optimum flour for a particular product and
drawn from the quality characteristic "shred" adjust the recipe accordingly.
in the RMT standard baking test can also be
applied to loaves of bread and other baked Recording Mixers
products. Generally speaking, modern laboratories use
two types of recording mixer: the Brabender
The ratings acquired by sensory testing are Farinograph and the Swanson Working
underpinned by measurements carried out on Mixograph. These two mixers differ funda-
doughs with the Farinograph and the mentally in the way they mix and thus the 123
Extensograph. These instruments of empirical mechanical stress to which the dough is
13.1 Rheology
damage the dough to the point where it doughs with a very sticky surface; the water
completely loses its structure ("fatigue absorption capacity of these flours, which
point"). It is deformed until it becomes liquid was high already, was increased even further,
and is literally destroyed. which made the dough softer and more sticky
still. In cereal laboratories the viscosity of
Farinograph dough is often termed consistency. The
The recording, reading and analysis of a viscosity or consistency of the dough is
Farinogram, the curve of measurements stated in the Farinogram in relative units
obtained with a Farinograph, is described by (FU) specific to the Farinograph, on a scale
the recommendations of the manufacturer from 0 to 1,000 FU.
Brabender, the Farinograph manual
(D'Appolonia and Kunerth, 1984) – a study of the In practical baking, determination of viscosity
use of the Farinograph – and finally stipulated in the Farinograph serves chiefly to establish
by the standard methods (ICC; AOAC). the water absorption of a flour. This is the term
for the amount of water that has to be added
In the bowl of a Farinograph the flour is to a flour to achieve a viscosity of 500 FU. The
115
mixed with the water to form a dough; the water absorption of a flour depends on the
dough is then developed mechanically and latter's water-binding capacity and thus
weakened mechanically by over-mixing until determines the yield of the dough and
its structure is destroyed. This procedure is the amount of water to be added in the
measured and recorded as kneading resistance preparation of the dough. Besides the
in the form of torque by means of a dynamo- swelling substances in the wheat (proteins
124 meter; the recorded curve is therefore a and pentosans), the mechanically damaged
force/time diagram from which the work or starch granules also contribute to the
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
energy input can be read off and calculated. water-binding capacity of a flour. The dough
The kneading resistance is assumed to be consistency of 500 FU is an empirical value felt
the viscosity of the dough, although the to guarantee the best possible processing
remaining properties of the dough such as properties; it has been adopted in the RMT
its surface stickiness and adherence to the standard baking test for determining the
walls of the mixer and the paddles contribute amount of water to be added. Different dough
quite considerably to the measured kneading consistencies have proved most suitable for
resistance. In such tests this was most apparent some other types of baked products that
with the wheat varieties that produced require doughs of a soft or firm consistency.
ml ml
800 800
400 400
Fig. 54: Baked volume as a function of dough viscosity and water addition
(the arrows indicate optimum water absorption as determined with the Farinograph).
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 125
13.1 Rheology
The importance and benefit of determining volume yield, one and the same amount of
water absorption in practical bread baking can water led to different results in the products
be demonstrated by tests in which the amount baked with the four flours; this again confirms
of water added is increased or reduced by 5% the proposition that the viscoelastic properties
or 10% as compared to the water absorption of the dough are more important than its
determined at 500 FU for four flours with consistency.
different baking properties (Fig. 54). With all
four flours a reduction of the amount of water A method has recently been developed which
added caused a noticeable thickening of the also makes it possible to determine the water
consistency of the dough in the Farinograph absorption of rye flours (Brümmer, 1987).
and resulted in a considerable fall in the Since rye doughs react differently to mixing
volume yield of the baked product (in this case and rye flours result in a higher dough yield
the bread rolls in the RMT standard baking than wheat, the water absorption of rye flours or
test). As expected, the addition of more water their optimum dough yield is read as viscosity
resulted in a softer dough consistency, but the after a mixing time of 10 min.
effect was initially a slight rise in the volume
yield at a 5% increase in water absorption An analysis of a Farinogram shows the
followed by a slight fall in the volume yield development time of the dough (up to
at 10% additional water. The flours showed reaching the 500 FU line), stability (unchanged
differences in water absorption according to structure of the dough without a fall in
their quality, and the degree of their reactions viscosity) and softening (fall in viscosity) at
to the different amounts of added water varied the end of the mixing time. Whereas the
also. The fact that good wheat flours respon- readings on the Y axis of the Farinogram, 125
ded with increased baked volume to a higher expressed in Farinograph units, denote
FU
FU
0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14
FU
FU
FU
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
13.1 Rheology
that the width of the curve can be adjusted lopment and energy input is needed. Such
on the Farinograph itself and thus influenced; measurements support the theory of the spe-
it is not an absolute value comparable from cific energy input requirement of flours,
one instrument to another. The viscosity which makes it possible to produce good-
curve of the Farinogram gives information on quality bread from weak flour if the latter's
the structure of the dough, its tolerance to mixing requirements are taken into account
kneading or the required input of mechanical (Frazier et al., 1979).
energy and permits conclusions as to the
intensity of mixing that is tolerable or There have always been "strong" flours
necessary. whose Farinograms show a second peak 124
after the dough development time; such
Wheat flours described by bakers as "weak" cases have recently become more common,
reach the 500 FU mark quickly and show no especially with unblended flours from certain
stability worth the name before undergoing a newly bred wheat varieties. The standard
considerable decline in viscosity (Fig. 55). method recommends reading this second
The "strong" flours take longer to develop peak as dough development time, but does
before reaching the 500 FU line, where they not explain the reason for it. A glance at the
remain for some time at good stability and structure of wheat gluten shows that it consists
then show only a minor decline in viscosity. mainly of the fractions gliadin and glutenin
The width of the curve for the two flours dif- (Hoseney, 1986). These two fractions differ
fers correspondingly. After reading off the considerably in respect of their molecular
dough development time and stability it is structure and functional properties (Fig. 56
126 possible to decide how much mechanical deve- and Fig. 57).
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
Fig. 56: Schematic representation and demonstration of the structure of gluten and its fractions, gliadin and glutenin
Fig. 57: Viscoelastic behaviour of rehydrated vital wheat gluten, gliadin and glutenin. (Photographs by Mühlenchemie
GmbH & Co. KG. Commercial vital wheat gluten was suspended in 70% v/v ethanol and then centrifuged.
The liquid phase was filtered through a filter paper. Solid and liquid phase were then dried at 40°C under vacuum,
and rehydrated prior to the rheological demonstration.)
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 127
13.1 Rheology
Whereas the insoluble fraction glutenin is glutenin, which depends on the variety, and
known to form strand-like shapes called fibrils their ratio in the gluten. And here too, the
that give the gluten its firmness and elasticity, gliadin of the weak flour component results in
the gliadin fraction, which is soluble in early dough development and the glutenin of
alcohol, appears as a sticky mass and filler the strong flour component leads to stiffening.
between the fibrils and only contributes to the Although the ratio of the two gluten fractions
viscosity of the gluten. Consequently, the is of genetic origin and thus a characteristic of
viscoelastic behaviour of the gluten and the the particular variety, it may be influenced by
dough is closely bound up with the ratio of the environment; besides climatic conditions,
these two components. A weak flour (a C such influences are chiefly the result of
wheat 18 variety or a wheat lot with weak gluten) fertilizers. The properties of the gluten and the
in which the functional properties of the dough that are characteristic of the variety and
gliadin fraction prevail will bind water quickly may be influenced by the environment can
but in smaller amounts; it will form the dough be shown even more clearly with the
faster but show a rapid fall in viscosity. A Extensograph.
strong flour (an E or A variety or a wheat lot with
strong gluten) in which the functional properties Besides water absorption, a Farinogram shows
of the glutenin fraction prevail is characterized other quality characteristics of the dough such
by a longer development time and longer as development time, stability and softening;
stability. In a flour rich in protein or gluten the each of these provides important information
gliadin fraction present is initially responsible in itself, but together they represent a multitude
for the development of the dough (measured of data. To simplify the measurements the
by achievement of the dough viscosity of 500 Valorigraph value was suggested at an early 127
FU) together with part of the glutenin fraction, stage; it integrates these Farinogram charac-
13.1 Rheology
the Farinograph, the instrument works on the method (Alveograms) describe the extensional
principle of a recording mixer but with controlled work (energy in the case of the Extensogram
heating of the dough. It records the changes in and W value in the case of the Alveogram)
the viscosity (consistency) of the dough in the which is understood to be gas retention
course of mixing and heating which reflect the capacity (Faridi and Rasper, 1987, Rasper and
effect of the proteins, starches and enzymes in Preston, 1991 and Weipert, 1993). In the
the flour on the binding of water and the further interpretation the height of the curve
viscous properties of the dough. It might be (R with the Extensogram and P value with the
said that such measurement is a kind of Alveogram) is understood as resistance to
"recording baking test" (Sinaeve et al., 2001). extension and the length of the curve read on
The method is based on the tests for the the X axis (E with the Extensogram and L with
effect of additives and baking improvers on the Alveogram) is taken to be extensibility. If
dough carried out by Nagao with a modified resistance is now viewed in relation to
Farinograph (Tanaka et al., 1980). extensibility, the quotients R/E = ratio and P/L
describe the viscoelastic properties of the
Stretching Methods – Extensograph versus dough.
Alveograph
During fermentation, the dough undergoes a
127
process of inflation in which the carbon dioxi-
de enlarges the pores and gives the dough
greater volume. The gas retention capacity of
a dough is therefore considered a quality
128 characteristic and shown in the form of exten-
sion curves. As a displacement/time function
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
13.1 Rheology
13.1 Rheology
131 in the variety with genetically short dough standard methods is already to be found in the
properties. In the variety with the "normal" preparation of the dough. The Alveograph
dough properties an increase in the protein method uses a constant amount of water,
content of the flour resulted in slightly reduced which naturally results in doughs of different
resistance and increased extensibility, but in consistency; the Extensograph method assumes
both cases the Extensogram data – including that the doughs are of constant consistency
energy and the ratio – indicated good quality following determination of optimum water
which was enhanced further by the protein absorption in the Farinograph. If the two
increase. The energy values and ratios of all methods are assumed to describe the rheologi-
the Extensograms were in line with the baked cal properties of the dough for processing in
volumes achieved with these flours. The low the bakehouse, the Alveograph method
energy values in conjunction with low ratios records a condition of the dough that is far
(0.6) that indicated soft and weak doughs and removed from its actual rheological condition
the high ratios (7 and above) in conjunction at the time of processing into bread or other
with low energy values that stand for short products because of the addition of a constant
doughs were confirmed by low baked volumes. amount of water irrespective of the quality of
High energy values and ratios in the optimum the flour; this amount is in any case far too
range (about 1.5 to 3.0) in the Extensograms small for bakers' doughs. The constant
indicated a flour of good quality and high amount of water added to the Alveograph
baked volumes (Weipert, 1981, 1992 and doughs corresponds to a water absorption of
1993). 50% for all flours irrespective of their quality,
whereas today's wheat flours have a water
130 The Alveograms recorded at the same time absorption capacity between 54% and over
132
and with the same flours did not distinguish 60% and are processed into bread at these
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
so clearly between the various flour qualities. water absorptions, or at the corresponding
Although some differences were found in the dough yields. We should not forget that water
W values, the P/L ratio was virtually identical is a "plasticizer" that makes the dough softer
in all the Alveograms (0.42 - 0.56); this made but optimizes its consistency if properly dosed
it impossible to read off differences in the and ensures good baked results when combined
dough properties. A recommended procedure with flour improvers or other ingredients. With
for determining the elastic properties of a the addition of 50% or 58% water, for example,
dough directly with the Alveograph is to carry depending on its water absorption, one and
out a second test, a pressure relaxation test, the same flour yields dough with greatly differing
in which the air pressure suddenly stops after rheological properties, viscosity and elasticity
the formation of the dough bubble and the (Fig. 54).
relaxation of the dough is read off from the
resulting curve (Faridi and Rasper, 1987). This The other difference in dough preparation
measurement procedure was developed on between the two methods (nature and duration
the lines of the creep recovery or stress relaxation of mixing) is not so fundamentally important.
graphs used in fundamental rheometry and In the Alveograph the measurement itself is
recorded with a rotating viscometer or rheo- performed by bi-axial stretching, carried out
meter (Fig. 63). However, this measurement by inflating a piece of dough into a bubble
method has not established itself in practical with an air pump until it bursts. In the
testing with the Alveograph. Extensograph it is done by uni-axial, linear
stretching of a strip of dough with a hook until
129 The reasons why the extension curves of the it breaks. The speed of deformation is similar
Extensogram and the Alveogram yield different for the two methods; in the Extensograph it is
information lie in the way the tests are carried 1.5 cm/s. But although the resulting measure-
out. The most important, most fundamental ments, the recorded curves, are supposed to
and decisive difference between the two ICC provide the same information, they have come
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 131
13.1 Rheology
about differently. The Alveogram shows the as flour improvers or baking ingredients can
pressure curve of the air trapped in the dough naturally be identified better after a longer
bubble, whereas the Extensogram is a deform- time of action than after a short one. This effect
ation curve from which the resistance to is therefore only visible to a certain extent in
extension (a measure of strength or even the Alveograms (Weipert, 1981 and 1992).
elastic component) and extensibility (as the
compliant, plastic component of the dough When evaluating the extension curves of
properties) can be read off. The maximum Alveograms and Extensograms it is necessary
pressure in the Alveogram, the P value, that to take all these factors into consideration.
denotes strength, actually shows the yield Only then can the right conclusions be drawn
point of the dough, i.e. the force that has to be concerning the properties of the flours and
exerted in order to start stretching the gluten their suitability for certain baking purposes.
fibrils in a dough. This P value serves to Besides determining the viscosity of a dough
estimate the dough yield or the amount of it is also extremely important to establish its
water to be added. But a pressure curve is viscoelastic properties. An Extensogram reveals
very different from a deformation curve. A both the viscosity and the viscoelasticity of a
deformation curve can be obtained by recording flour as a genetic characteristic of the variety
the increase in volume of the expanding and as the influence of the environment –
dough bubble in a vertical direction (Fig. 62). chiefly the supply of nutrients and the use of
fertilizers (Fig. 59). It was evident that the
A further difference between the two methods Extensograms had clearly recognized and
which is often neglected lies in the time factor, expressed the dough properties of the wheat
or the duration of the test. An Alveogram is varieties, described as short, normal or soft 131
recorded 28 minutes after the start of mixing; (Weipert, 1992 and 1993). This was especially
13.1 Rheology
2 only contributes to the viscosity (consistency, characterizing flour: the flours obtained from 132
water binding capacity) of the gluten and the wheat varieties with a soft grain structure
dough. Besides nitrogen fertilization, cooler and with a low protein content and water
and wetter environmental conditions favour absorption could be described and compared
the formation of gliadin and result in softer, well from one lot to the next by means of
pliant doughs. Alveograms. But now that even in France the
trend in wheat breeding is towards varieties
The functional properties and interaction of with a hard grain structure (which may result
the two components, gliadin and glutenin, in mechanical damage to the starch grains
have been explained very clearly by Hoseney during grinding) and flours with higher protein
(1986; Fig. 56). As the photograph shows (Fig. levels and thus greater water absorption, efforts
57), the pure gliadin obtained by washing out are being made to adjust the Alveograph
and isolation is sticky and highly extensible; the method to the new wheat qualities.
pure glutenin is firm, elastic and difficult to
deform. It is the ratio and functional properties The advantages of the Extensograph method 128
of these two components of the gluten that in showing the "rheological" behaviour of
determine the latter's viscoelastic properties doughs at a consistency such as is used in the
and thus the rheological properties of the production of very different types of baked
dough. These properties can be deduced from goods have been used to define the term
the Farinogram, but they are more apparent in "rheological optimum" (Schäfer, 1972).
an extension curve like the Extensogram. Schäfer suggested taking this to mean the
state of the dough most suitable for producing a
132 Without wishing to question the usefulness of bakery item, which would naturally ensure the
the Alveograph method we have to admit, on best results during baking and an end product of
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
the basis of these examples, that the pattern the desired quality. The requirement for this
and individual characteristic data of the state is doubtless optimum quality of the
Alveograms do not reveal the dough properties flour, but it can be influenced and controlled
of the varieties and the ways in which they are by flour improvers and ingredients that act on
changed by higher protein levels in the flour – the properties of the dough. For this purpose
i.e. their current quality. The reasons for this there are product ranges offering a choice
have already been discussed. For the sake of of emulsifiers and enzyme preparations
completeness we should mention that the designed to achieve the rheological optimum
necessity of determining optimum water and enhance the final result of baking. A
absorption has been recognized even by the further practical application of the rheological
supporters of the Alveograph, and that a optimum lies in the controlled treatment of
method of determining water absorption with flours with ascorbic acid at the mill and with
the Alveograph mixer was recently presented enzyme preparations (amylase, proteases,
(see chapter on Modern Cereal Analysis). pentosanases, xylanases) and other flour-
Unfortunately it is still not possible to apply improving ingredients based on lecithin,
the water absorption determined in this way cystine, cysteine and emulsifiers, which result
as the amount of water needed to prepare the in better inflation of the dough, increased
dough for the Alveogram recording and thus to water absorption and ultimately better flavour
indicate the rheological properties of the and prolonged shelf life of the baked products.
dough with dough consistencies close to
those used in practice. The biaxial stretching In practice, a flour can be optimized in respect
test is not fundamentally unsuitable as a of its baking properties at a mill by blending
measurement method, as Dobraszcyk has flours with different dough properties. In a
shown (Dobraszcyk, 2002). At the time of its flour blend the energy values of the
development and use in France the Extensograms of the two flours making up the
Alveograph method was a suitable means of blend are combined. The energy value of the
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 133
13.1 Rheology
blend lies between the values for the compo- dough properties can be improved with a soft,
nents in accordance with their ratio in the mix- extensible gluten. It is really very surprising
ture. But the volume yield as a quality charac- that the usual addition of about 2% wheat
teristic of the baked product is higher than that gluten has such a decisive influence on the
calculated from the individual volume yields dough properties of the flour.
of the blended components (Bolling, 1980).
This effect is due to optimization of the vis- All in all it may be said that Extensograms
coelastic properties of the flour blend and is make it possible to describe the quality of a
therefore recognizable from the ratio R/E, flour clearly and with sufficient reliability. They
which is within the optimum and desired describe the viscosity or consistency of the
range of the Extensogram for the blend. This dough, which can be checked by the water
value increases with the extent of the difference absorption determined in the Farinograph. But
between the dough properties "short" and what is even more important for processing
"soft" of the components of the blend, which the flour is that they describe the viscoelastic
ultimately result in "normal" dough properties properties of the dough and make a consider-
and achievement of a rheological optimum able contribution to the quality of the final
(Schäfer, 1972). But this does not mean that baked product.
any arbitrary flour blend with two or more
components achieves the desired quality of a The rheological properties of the freshly washed
normal commercial flour: the components out wet gluten – called "gluten structure" by
must suit each other and have a high energy the cereal processors – have long been described
value as well as a sufficiently high ratio. by means of stretching by hand in a sensory
test. This sensory rating has been made more 133
130 To increase the protein content of a flour and objective by mechanical, automatic washing
13.1 Rheology
price-to-performance ratio and are suitable for solely by reduced gas formation capacity. This
measuring various different materials. has also been taken into account when
optimizing formulations (ingredients, speed of
Rheofermentometer freezing).
The Rheofermentometer (Tripette et Renaud/
Chopin, Villeneuve la Garenne, France) is an The Rheofermentometer has therefore shown
instrument that measures the interaction of itself to be a useful instrument in practical
gas production and gas retention in wheat baking. To answer specific questions the
doughs from a practical point of view. measuring program suggested by the
Maximum CO2 formation and the moment at manufacturer of the equipment can and must
which gas is released from the dough during be altered.
fermentation can be read off from a gas
formation curve, and the ratio of the amount Maturograph and Oven-Rise Instrument
of gas retained to the overall amount of gas For some time the gas formation and gas
can be calculated. Corresponding to this, a retention capacity of a dough made with yeast
curve for the height of the dough is recorded; has been measured with a combination of two
it shows the maximum height and the stability rheometric devices, the Brabender
of the dough (before the CO2 is released), also Maturograph and the Oven-Rise Instrument.
during fermentation. A simultaneous analysis The Maturograph records the change in volume
of the two curves reveals the fermentation of a dough fermenting with yeast by tracing
properties of a yeast and a dough under given the shape of the dough specimen with and
conditions and permits conclusions with regard without pressure; in this way it determines
to the characteristics of the raw materials both the viscoelastic properties of the dough
(various flours, yeasts, sugar) and the measures and the time of greatest activity of the yeast or
that have to be taken to optimize the production the end point of fermentation. At this time a
process. This viewpoint distinguishes the sample of dough from the same batch is
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 135
13.1 Rheology
"baked" in oil heated to a controlled temperature, hand its versatility enables the user to make
and the oven rise of the yeast is described simple, quick and objective measurements of
under conditions similar to those of an oven viscosity with materials of different consistencies
by recording the amount of rise or the loss in and structures such as whipped cream,
weight of the sample. These two methods mustard, ketchup, starch gel and also wet gluten,
form a bridge between the cold phase of the dough, and the crumb of baked products. It is
dough in the fermentation chamber and the even possible to measure the fracture
hot baking phase in the oven in the form of a strength of crispbread and biscuits. On the
recording laboratory test without the need for other hand, a feature of the universal nature of
a baker's oven or a direct baking trial. the instrument is that the free choice of loads
makes it possible to describe the flow properties
The two devices can be used successfully and of a substance in the sense of fundamental
helpfully for practical and scientific purposes rheometry.
in cereal laboratories. They make it possible to
examine a number of raw materials (wheat, Being a tensile instrument it is similar to a
flour, yeast), to optimize flour blends and Mini-Extensograph that can record the structures
methods of flour improvement, to develop, (viscoelastic properties) of the wet gluten and
make up and test ready-mixed flours for special the dough strands by measuring their extension
products, and ultimately to adjust flour qualities (using a small sample and the Kieffer rig). This
to the existing production process or the makes it possible to describe both the quality
production process to existing flour qualities. of the wheat or flour as raw materials and the
Inclusion of the Do-Corder, a recording mixer effect of the additives and ingredients on the
with adjustable mixing intensity, in the measu- properties of the dough. 135
ring procedure with the Maturograph and Used in the compression mode the instrument
13.1 Rheology
substances of the flour, particularly the proteins, Amylograph and Falling Number
it is starch and its pasting behaviour that The Amylograph is a rotational viscometer
dominate tests to show the behaviour of with a measuring system consisting of a round
doughs in the hot phase, i.e. the actual vessel, in which the flour-and-water slurry is
baking. Starch only starts to swell intensively heated under controlled conditions, and a
at elevated temperatures; it binds water and sensor to record the changes in viscosity
gelatinizes, losing its crystalline structure. But during the measuring time. The pins of the
the gelatinizing and already gelatinized starch measuring device cause turbulences in the
is exposed to enzymatic breakdown through slurry; these are necessary to prevent
the activity of α-amylase. In the quick break- sedimentation of the starch, but they make
down process of the enzymes the starch loses it impossible to calculate the viscosity
its ability to bind and hold water; this results precisely in absolute physical units. The
in bread with an inelastic, soft, wet and very viscosity of the slurry is therefore stated as
often unchewable crumb which makes the torque in Brabender or Amylogram units.
product inedible. On the other hand, optimum The measurements that can be read off
enzyme activity is necessary for optimum include the temperature and the viscosity at
results in the baked product. So it is essential maximum gelatinization; these provide more
to determine the activity of the α-amylase in a differentiated information than a viscosity
flour or any other ground product in order to value alone.
achieve the desired result. If the enzyme
activity is too high, activity-inhibiting agents The Amylogram, a viscosity curve showing 111
are added or suitable measures taken; if it is the gelatinization of the starch in the flour-
136 too low it can be optimized by adding enzyme and-water slurry, reflects the changes in
preparations. water binding capacity of the swelling and
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
13.1 Rheology
Falling Number determination is a simple and enzyme-active components with low data
quick method in which the viscosity of a flour- depend on the height of the data of the low-
and-water slurry is stated as the number of enzyme components; as a rule these percen-
seconds a pestle takes to penetrate the starch tages tend to be low.
gel. Measurement of the viscosity in a Falling
Number tube does not start until 60 seconds Rapid Visco Analyzer
after stirring, when the viscous properties of Whatever the advantages for which the
the gelatinized starch slurry have already been Brabender Amylograph (and the Viscograph,
changed by the α-amylase present in the flour intended chiefly for the starch industry) is
and the mechanical force of stirring. The appreciated, it has disadvantages too. Firstly
Falling Number is therefore a one-point measure- it requires a very large sample for testing, and
ment of the residual viscosity of the starch gel, secondly the recording of a pasting curve is
not a continuous measurement like that of the time-consuming. Several attempts have
Amylograph. The Falling Number method can recently been made to develop and market a
be used for both wheat and rye, although the "micro-Amylograph". The development of the
limits of the measurements differ. This results Rapid Visco Analyzer (Newport Scientific,
not least from the different water binding Sydney, Australia) was and is still the biggest
capacities of the swelling substances of wheat and most successful step towards simplifying
and rye. In rye flours too, the Falling Number and broadening the investigation and descrip-
can be used with sufficient accuracy for indirect tion of the pasting properties of starch and
determination of α-amylase activity and the products containing starch (Weipert, 1998a).
suitability of a flour for baking. Because of its versatility it is in general use in
the field of food analysis (milk, soups, sauces, 137
There is not a close enough relationship salad dressings etc.).
13.1 Rheology
Interpretation of Brabender viscograms and "stirring number" method, similar to the Falling
the RVA rapid pasting curves: Number (Fig. 60). To save time by shortening
the measuring period may mean a loss of
information (Weipert, 1998a), especially if the
quality data from the time-consuming
Amylograph method are still used on the
grounds of experience. Nevertheless, a "quick
test" of this kind may serve as an initial
guide. Farther-reaching decisions require the
introduction of new critical values for each of
the suggested temperature profiles in the
course of measurement. The Rapid Visco
Analyzer can measure both fast and slowly.
13.1 Rheology
it is up to the person interpreting the results to A comprehensive work by several authors has
choose the type of curve he prefers. The two been published on the subject of food rheology
types of curve show the flow properties of the in general and the advantages of fundamental
substance tested; in particular they indicate rheometry, including dough rheology, in particular.
any shear-dependent or time-dependent It deals with the importance of rheology for
anomalies of flow behaviour that may occur in explaining and improving the quality of foods
the test. The viscosity curve of a dough yields (Weipert and Tscheuschner, 1993).
very important information on the rheological
properties of the dough under different deform- The deformation curve of an Extensogram and
ation forces. It shows that the dough has a the stress strain curve are similar in appearance
yield point, and that its viscosity (consistency) and take a similar course (Fig. 62). It is hoped
falls as the load increases. This property is that this fact will lead to greater acceptance of
known as structural viscosity or shear-thinning fundamental rheometry in cereal laboratories.
and is caused and explained by the orientation There is no similarity to the Alveogram, since it
of the molecules and aggregates in the flow is a pressure curve and not a deformation
field. It means that when exposed to only a curve. If a ruler is placed behind the expanding
low deformation force, such as stretching by dough bubble so that the increase in the size
the fermentation processes during the resting of the dough bubble can be measured, the
time, a dough has a higher viscosity than resulting deformation curve made up of the
during transportation through the pipes or measured points also shows similarity to the
testing with the Farinograph or Extensograph Extensogram.
(Fig. 61). This justifiably raises the question of
how to describe the state of a dough at the low Viscometer 139
deformation forces in the process with a The instruments used in rheometry differ in
Destruction
A little large
60
Viscosity
Shearing strain (Pa•10 2)
40
B BT-
20 Deformation
C CT-
little large
Fig. 61: Stress strain curves of wheat flour doughs with different dough properties recorded with a rotational
viscometer (left) and a viscosity curve showing "yield point" and "shear thinning" (right)
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 140
13.1 Rheology
curve makes it possible to assign a numerical of shearing simply by rotation in one direction
value to the surface stickiness of a dough they perform an oscillating measuring
(Weipert, 1987a, 1992, 1998 and 1998b). So it deformation in which the amplitude of the
is no wonder that such a method, which oscillations (excursion) and their frequency
requires very little specimen material (10 g (movements within a unit of time) can be
flour), is used successfully in the breeding of controlled (Fig. 64). Viscosity is measured as
wheat (Fig. 61). torque according to the familiar method and
Diameter
Shear stress
Resistance
R5 Rmax
P
0 0 0
Time / Extension Shear velocity
Fig. 62: Comparison of recorded curves: Extensogram, Alveogram and stress-strain curve
13-1-Rheology 20.10.2006 13:50 Uhr Seite 141
13.1 Rheology
BE
Stress Relaxation
800 Burgers
H2 elastic
KV (N1 H1) (reversible) H1 N1
Model
600
N2 H
N2 viscous KV= N
(irreversible) N2
KV
H2
0 H2
Shearing time Bu=KV-M F
H1
immediate retarded ( )
= N1 -(H2-N2)
shown as complex viscosity, but the "stiffness" This highly efficient, sensitive and elegant
of the material is also recorded as stored method of recording and displaying the "true"
elastic energy. The result of the measurement rheological properties of foods has made a
is a sinusoid ("wavy") curve. A comparison of great contribution to understanding the specific
the curve thus produced with the controlled characteristics and behaviour of raw materials
deformation curve reveals a phase shift and foods during processing and ultimately to
measured in angular units between 0° and explaining why consumers like one product 141
90°. The smaller the phase shift, the "stiffer" and dislike another. The definite advantages
13.1 Rheology
At the beginning of such a test the loss modulus Measurements with such instruments of
G II was greater than the storage modulus G I, fundamental rheology have opened up new
showing that the starch slurry had the proper- ways and means of analyzing the structure
ties of a liquid at low temperatures (Fig. 64). At and properties of doughs. By carrying out a
higher temperatures, following increased frequency sweep (in which the amplitude
water absorption and gelatinization of the remains constant and only the frequency is
starch, the situation was reversed: the storage changed as required) or an amplitude sweep
142 modulus G I was greater than the loss modulus (in which the frequency remains constant and
G II, indicating that the properties of the starch the amplitude varies) it is possible to record
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
gel were becoming more solid. These changes the flow properties of a dough at different
were expressed even more clearly by the course deformation forces. Both the viscosity and the
of tan delta, which was well above 1 at the elasticity or viscoelasticity of the dough are
beginning of the test and well below 1 after recorded synchronously and simultaneously
gelatinization of the starch. This means that in a single measurement. This is a simple,
starch gel has predominately the elastic quick and elegant way of differentiating
properties of a "solid". These observations between doughs with a firm elastic or soft and
concerning the changes in the viscoelastic plastic structure (Fig. 65). It has also been
properties of the starch slurry were accom-
panied by measurements of the temperature
of the heating medium and of the slurry itself.
It was found that the temperature curve of the 10-8
Eta*
13.1 Rheology
observed that at an extremely low deforma- structural viscosity as its viscosity decreases
tion load wheat dough shows a plateau of under increasing deformation forces. This
elastic behaviour, since its structure is not observation has been used to develop a "non-
damaged during this part of the measure- destructive" testing method, in fact one which
ment; the dough does not show the expected scarcely touches the dough, in the form of a
"recording baking test" in which the dough is
monitored over the desired length of time at
1Rad/S 0.2 % STRAN RALLE 0.5% YEAST 150min RESTING TIME rising baking temperatures and falling cooling
10 7 120 temperatures under conditions simulating the
GI process in the baker's oven (Weipert, 1987a
GII
and 1992). The viscosity and elasticity curves
(Pa)
10 6 Temp.
are related to the curve of an Amylogram,
Temperature ( C) since they show the gelatinization properties
of the starch in interaction with other flour
GII
10 5
constituents and additives. But in this case we
have a dough of the consistency usual in
10 4 bread making, and so they show the properties
GI
30
beginning of the process, in the oven stage
mm
20
and as a final result after baking. The measure- 143
ments after cooling show the properties of the
105
elastic than the dough, but the crumb of a
wheat flour with soft dough properties is
GII
13.1 Rheology
7 °C or 17.5 °C/min respectively). It was also there are limits to its uses. A rotational rheo-
possible to simulate the process of producing meter working on the principle of shearing is
bread rolls from frozen dough portions. In the well able to show the rheological properties of
measuring device of the rheometer a dough fluids (in coaxial cylinders) and pasty substan-
was frozen to -18 °C, heated to +100 °C and ces (by the plate/cone or plate/plate system),
cooled down to +30 °C in one cycle during but it fails with solids (Weipert, 1987a, 1992,
which the changes in viscosity and the visco- 1997 and 1998b). On the other hand, a rheo-
elastic properties were recorded continuously. meter working in the compression mode might
So far the recording baking test is the only be unable to show the rheological properties
method by which doughs can be tested rheo- of fluids, but its measurement range covers
logically in their full formulation, including pasty substances (such as dough) and solids
yeast (Weipert, 1987a, 1992, 1995 and 1998b). of different consistencies (bread crumb, cereal
grains) (Weipert, 1997). In the compression
But despite the versatility of the rheometer, mode the measured moduli are termed E* for
the complex modulus, E I for the stored modu-
lus and E II for the loss modulus. Both dynamic
oscillating measuring principles, the shearing
10 8 100 120
mode and the compression mode, are equally
Temperature
Tan Delta suitable for expressing the rheological proper-
Temperature C
13.1 Rheology
13.1 Rheology
• Muller HG, 1964. Teigrheologische Studien I. Backfähigkeit von Roggenmehl (Teil II). Bäcker
Frühgeschichte bis 1900. Brot Gebäck 18(6):117-121. Konditor 13(3):89-92.
• Muller HG, 1966. Teigrheologische Studien II. • Unbehend L, 2002. Physiko-chemische und
Empirische Konsistenzmessungen. Brot Gebäck mikroskopische Untersuchungen an Mehl-Wasser-
20(3):51-54. Systemen. Dissertation, Technische Universität
Berlin.
• Noll B, 2002. Vorstellung des RAPIDOJET-
Verfahrens: Schnelle, energiesparende und staub- • Wassermann L, 1993. Historische Aspekte der
freie Teigbereitung mittels eines Hochdrucks- Lebensmittelrheologie. In: Weipert D, Tscheuschner
wasserstrahls. 53. Tagung für Bäckerei-Technologie, HD and Windhab E (eds.): Rheologie der
Detmold, 5.-6. November 2002. Lebensmittel. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg.
• Rasper VF and Preston KR, 1991. The Extensograph • Weipert D, 1981. Teigrheologische Unter-
handbook. AACC, St. Paul, MN, USA. suchungsmethoden – ihre Einsatzmöglichkeiten im
• Schäfer W, 1972. Studien zum rheologischen Mühlenlaboratorium. Getreide Mehl Brot 35(1):5-9.
Optimum. Theorie und Produktprogramm. Mühle • Weipert D, 1987a. Rheologie der Brotteige –
Mischfuttertechnik 109(36):565-567. Stand und neue Möglichkeiten. Getreide Mehl Brot
41(11):325-330.
• Schofield JR and Scott Blair GW, 1932-1937. The
relationship between viscosity, elasticity and plastic • Weipert D, 1987b. Beurteilung der Knetintensität
strength of soft materials by some mechanical der in der Teigrheologie eingesetzten registrierenden
properties of flour doughs I-IV. Proceedings of the Royal Kneter. Mühle Mischfuttertechnik 124(12):147-151.
Society of London A138 (1932):707-708; A139 • Weipert D, 1987c. Optimierung von Roggen-
(1933):507-566; A141 (1933):72-85; A160 (1937):87-94. mischungen anhand von Fallzahl- und Amylogramm-
• Schrader B, 1984. Analytische, teigrheologische daten. Getreide Mehl Brot 41(3):69-75.
und backtechnische Studien zur Optimierung des • Weipert D and Zwingelberg H, 1992. Verwendung
146 Weizenbackversuches, Rapid-Mix-Test (Analytical, von Trockenkleber in der Müllerei. Getreide Mehl
rheological and baking studies to optimize the Brot 46(2):36-42.
Fudamentals of Rheology and Spectrometry
baking test Rapid-Mix-Test for wheat). Diss. • Weipert D, 1992. Descriptive and fundamental
Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelm-University, Bonn. rheometry in a new light. Cereal Foods World
• Seibel W and Cromentuyn A, 1963. Erfahrungen 37(1):15-24.
mit dem Maturographen und Ofentriebgerät. Brot • Weipert D, Tscheuschner HD and Windhab E
Gebäck 17, 139-150. (eds.), 1993: Rheologie der Lebensmittel. Behr's
• Seibel W and Crommentuyn A, 1965. Verlag, Hamburg.
Verwendungsmöglichkeiten von Maturographen • Weipert D, 1993. Teigphysik kontra Teigrheologie.
und Ofentriebgerät (On the use of Maturograph and Mühle Mischfuttertechnik 130(22):263-268;
Oven Rise Instrument). Mühle Mischfutter-technik (25):303-306.
102(22):408-409. • Weipert, D, 1995. Dynamic mechanical thermal
• Sinaeve G, Aelvoest M and Willems L, 2001. analysis of starch slurries. In: Meuser F, Manners DJ
Qualitätsbeurteilung von Weizen und Weizen- and Seibel W (eds.). Progress in plant polymeric
mehlen mit dem Rheotec-Multigraphen. Mühle carbohydrate research. Behr's Verlag, Hamburg.
Mischfuttertechnik 138(26):876-881. • Weipert D, 1997. Determining rheological
properties of cereal products using dynamic
• Tanaka K, Endo S and Nagao S, 1980. Effect of
potassium bromate, potassium iodate and L-ascorbic mechanical analysis in compression mode. Cereal
acid on the consistency of heated dough. Cereal Foods World 42(3):132-137.
Chemistry 57(3):169-174. • Weipert D, 1998a. Methodische Innovationen bei
• Tscheuschner HD and Auerman IJ, 1964. Die penetro- der Feststellung der Kleber- und Stärkebeschaffenheit
metrische Bestimmung der Backfähigkeit von von Brotgetreide. Getreide Mehl Brot 52(1):8-17.
Roggenmehl (Teil I). Bäcker Konditor 12(10):312-314. • Weipert D, 1998b. New physical methods in
• Tscheuschner HD and Auerman IJ, 1965. structural analysis of functional properties of the
Methoden zur penetrometrischen Bestimmung der biopolymer dough. Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 7(2S):245-250.