American Mineralogist, Volume 86, pages 438–447, 2001

Thermodynamics of ion-exchanged and natural clinoptilolite

SANYUAN YANG,1,* ALEXANDRA NAVROTSKY,1 AND RICK WILKIN2

1
Thermochemistry Facility, Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California at Davis, Davis, California
95616, U.S.A.
2
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, P.O. Box 1198, Ada, Oklahoma 74821, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT
Natural clinoptilolite (Cpt: Na0.085K0.037Ca0.010Mg0.020Al0.182Si0.818O2 ·0.528H2O) from Castle Creek,
Idaho, and its cation-exchanged variants (Na-Cpt, NaK-Cpt, K-Cpt, and Ca-Cpt) were studied by
high-temperature calorimetry. The hydration enthalpy for all the clinoptilolites is about –30 kJ/mol
H2O (liquid water reference state) at 25 °C. The energetic stabilization effect of hydration on each
clinoptilolite can be largely correlated to its hydration capacity. The higher the average ionic poten-
tial of the extra-framework cations, the larger the hydration capacity of the clinoptilolite. This trend
may be attributed to the small size as well as the efficient water-cation packing of high field strength
cations in the zeolite structure. The hydration properties of these clinoptilolites are compared with
those previously reported in the literature. The dehydration conditions as well as the measurement
direction (dehydration of the initially hydrated sample or rehydration of the dehydrated zeolites) are
important factors to control to obtain consistent thermodynamic properties for hydration.
The standard enthalpy for formation of the clinoptilolites from the constituent elements at 25 °C
based on two framework O atoms was obtained from the calorimetric data: –1117.57 ± 0.95 kJ/mol
Cpt, –1130.05 ± 1.00 kJ/mol Na-Cpt, –1109.49 ± 1.04 kJ/mol NaK-Cpt, –1094.21 ± 1.12 kJ/mol K-
Cpt, and –1153.78 ± 1.07 kJ/mol Ca-Cpt. Their molar entropy was determined by a summation
method based on the thermodynamic properties of the component oxides. Thus the standard free
energy based on two framework O atoms was derived: –1034.01 ± 1.05 kJ/mol Cpt, –1044.19 ± 1.10
kJ/mol Na-Cpt, –1027.26 ± 1.13 kJ/mol NaK-Cpt, –1014.89 ± 1.21 kJ/mol K-Cpt, and –1064.95 ±
1.16 kJ/mol Ca-Cpt.

INTRODUCTION channels: one 8-membered channel and one 10-membered chan-

Heulandite group zeolites, including mineral clinoptilolite
and heulandite and their synthetic analogues, have the same
framework topology (structure code HEU). According to
Coombs et al. (1997), clinoptilolite is distinguished from heu-
landite based on Si/Al ratio, i.e., clinoptilolite if Si/Al > 4 and
heulandite if Si/Al < 4. It is well known that the thermal stabil-
ity of heulandite group zeolites is strongly influenced by ex-
tra-framework cations (Mason and Sand 1960; Mumpton 1960;
Boles 1972; Zhao et al. 1998). This property warrants the heu-
landite group zeolites to be a preferred system for investiga-
tion of the cationic effects on thermodynamic (in contrast to
thermal) stability.
The framework structure of various HEU type species and
the site distributions of the exchangeable cations and water
molecules have been extensively studied by X-ray and neutron
diffraction techniques (e.g., Mason and Sand 1960; Mumpton
1960; Alietti 1972; Alberti 1975; Koyama and Takéuchi 1977;
Hambley and Taylor 1984; Armbruster 1993; Yang and
Armbruster 1996; Yang et al. 1997). There are three types of
* E-mail: syyang@ucdavis.edu
0003-004X/01/0004–438$05.00
nel are parallel with the c-axis, the other 8-membered channel
is parallel with the a-axis. Although HEU-type zeolites have
been difficult to synthesize (Chi and Sand 1983; Satokawa and
Itabashi 1997; Zhao et al. 1998), they are the most abundant
zeolites in nature (Gottardi and Galli 1985).
The Yucca Mountain site in southeast Nevada is being de-
veloped as a geological repository for high-level radioactive
waste (Kerr 2000). Primary volcanic glass at Yucca Mountain
is partially altered to clinoptilolite, mordenite, analcime, and a
variety of other zeolites. Clinoptilolite is the most abundant
species among these zeolites. Over the past decade, numerous
studies concern evaluation of the thermodynamic properties of
clinoptilolites and their implications for the suitability of the
Yucca Mountain site as a nuclear waste repository (e.g., Johnson
et al. 1991; Glassley et al. 1994; Murphy et al. 1996; Carey
and Bish 1996, 1997; Chipera and Bish 1997; Wilkin and Barnes
1998, 1999; Pabalan and Bertetti 1999; Benning et al. 2000).
The role of clinoptilolite as a barrier to radionuclide migration
is an important factor on these considerations.
HEU type zeolites have also been used in many other appli-
cations such as catalysis, soil amendment, formulation of
nonphosphate detergents, contaminant remediation, and nuclear
438
 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE
waste treatment. To understand chemical processes involving
clinoptilolites in both nature and applied technologies, their
thermodynamic data are indispensable. The hydration proper-
ties of several clinoptilolites have been previously investigated
using HF solution calorimetry (Johnson et al. 1991), immer-
sion calorimetry (Barrer and Cram 1971; Petrova and Kirov
1995; Carey and Bish 1997), and equilibrium measurements
(Carey and Bish 1996; Wilkin and Barnes 1999). There are
considerable disagreements among the reported enthalpies of
hydration, which cannot be explained only by the composi-
tional differences of the samples used for the measurements.
Most reported thermodynamic properties, such as enthalpy and
free energy of formation, were measured for a few individual
clinoptilolites rather than for a series showing systematic com-
positional variation (e.g., Hemingway and Robie 1984; Johnson
et al. 1991; Murphy et al. 1996; Wilkin and Barnes 1998;
Benning et al. 2000). At present, it is difficult to parameterize
the thermodynamic properties of clinoptilolite as a function of
composition (Si/Al ratio, extra-framework cation and water
content) because of the lack of consistent experimental data.
This investigation focuses on the effect of the exchange-
able cations on the thermodynamic properties of clinoptilolites.
Our objectives are: (1) high-temperature calorimetric measure-
ments of the energetics of hydration and formation of some
selected clinoptilolites; (2) comparison of the new results with
those reported in the literature for similar clinoptilolites and
analysis of the major factors influencing the experimental re-
sults; and (3) identification of trends and systematics of the
thermodynamic properties of clinoptilolite as a function of the
exchangeable cations. We studied natural clinoptilolite (Cpt)
and its four ion-exchanged variants (Na-Cpt, NaK-Cpt, K-Cpt,
and Ca-Cpt). The thermodynamic properties of the same Na-
Cpt, K-Cpt, and Ca-Cpt materials have been previously stud-
ied by solubility measurements (Wilkin and Barnes 1998;
Benning et al. 2000) and hydration titration measurements
(Wilkin and Barnes 1999), allowing direct comparison of the
results obtained from different methods.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Clinoptilolite samples: origin, (de)hydration conditions,
and handling procedures
Crystals of natural clinoptilolite (Table 1) denoted as Cpt
are standard reference material from Castle Creek, Idaho. The
purification and ion exchange procedures and the chemical
analyses were reported elsewhere (Wilkin and Barnes 1998).
Most of the 5% impurities present in the collected sample were
removed by the repeated purification treatments (Wilkin and
Barnes 1998). The clinoptilolite samples are regarded as pure
species here. The chemical formulas of the ion-exchanged and
natural clinoptilolites are based on two framework O atoms
(Table 1) for two reasons. First, the thermodynamic data of
heulandite group zeolites reported in literature are based on 18
(Johnson et al. 1985), 36 (Johnson et al. 1991), or 72
(Hemingway and Robie 1984) oxygen formulas, it is more con-
venient to convert and compare the data based on the same
number of framework oxygen than on widely different num-
bers. Second, data based on two oxygen formulas are more
439
TABLE 1. Molar formula of clinoptilolites based on two framework
O atoms
Zeolite Molar formula on TO2 MW (g)
Cpt Na0.085K0.037Ca0.010Mg0.020Al0.182Si0.818O2·0.528H2O 73.7
Na-Cpt Na0.182Al0.182Si0.818O2·0.572H2O 74.4
NaK-Cpt Na0.097K0.085Al0.182Si0.818O2·0.495H2O 74.4
K-Cpt K0.182Al0.182Si0.818O2·0.433H2O 74.8
Ca-Cpt Ca0.084Mg0.008Al0.182Si0.818O2·0.646H2O 75.0
comparable to the standard data of the constituent oxides and
zeolites of different structures.
Ion-exchanged clinoptilolites are denoted as Na-Cpt, NaK-
Cpt, K-Cpt, and Ca-Cpt to reflect their major cations. A pre-
requisite for accurate calorimetric studies is that the water
content of each zeolite sample must be maintained at a con-
stant and reproducible level. For this reason, the (de)hydration
conditions of the zeolite samples and the handling procedure
are described in detail.
The hydrated samples are referred to their equilibrium states
with an atmosphere of 50% relative humidity at room tempera-
ture (25 °C). Accordingly our zeolite samples were placed in a
desiccator containing a saturated solution of Ca(NO3)2 for at
least a week before use. The same condition had been applied
to the hydrated clinoptilolites before their water contents were
determined (Wilkin and Barnes 1998). Our calorimetry labo-
ratory is controlled to have a relative humidity of 50 ± 3% and
a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C (Yang and Navrotsky 2000). The
procedure for taking powder sample out of desiccator, making
pellets and weighing them for calorimetric measurements is
always performed in the same controlled area and takes less
than 10 minutes.
The dehydrated samples are prepared as follows. The hy-
drated zeolite sample is first treated at 400 °C for 9 hours fol-
lowed by 500 °C for 3 hours. Because Ca-Cpt almost completely
loses its XRD crystallinity after such treatment (see Results),
dehydrated Ca-Cpt was also prepared under less severe condi-
tions. The dehydrated sample is designated as Ca-CptA after
treatment at 300 °C for 15 hours followed by additional treat-
ment at 400 °C for 3 hours, and Ca-CptB after treatment at 300
°C for 7 hours followed by additional treatment at 350 °C for 1
hour and at 400 °C for 1 hour. Dehydration is apparently com-
plete because the mass loss under prolonged heating (500 °C)
or at higher temperature (550 °C) is negligible. However, about
1.5% of residual water content is found in Ca-CptB dehydrated
under less severe conditions. The residual water content of the
dehydrated samples is determined as the additional weight loss
after using the handling procedure for anhydrous sample (see
below). This procedure is consistent with that for determina-
tion of the water content of the hydrated samples (Wilkin and
Barnes 1998).
We used specially modified deep Pyrex vials (Yang and
Navrotsky 2000). The upper inner wall was coated with a layer
of paste containing a mixture of NaY zeolite and kaolin clay,
to prevent the dehydrated pellets from rehydrating during
sample handling. Zeolite pellets and their vial containers are
heated together for dehydration. Immediately after heating, the
vials containing the zeolite pellets are placed in a desiccator
(desiccant: freshly generated commercial zeolite-type beads).
Next the desiccator is transferred into a glove-box (moisture
440 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE

< 1 ppm) where the samples are handled, including weighing

and capping the vials. Less than 1 minute elapses between the
time the zeolite sample is removed from the glove-box and the
time it is dropped into the calorimeter. During this period, the
dehydrated zeolite is kept in dry Ar atmosphere in a capped
vial. Air exposure occurs only when the pellet leaves the dry
Ar atmosphere and enters the top end of the dropping tube (~0.1
second or ~5 cm path in free fall). Furthermore, because the
flushing gas (also dry Ar) passing through the calorimeter mixes
with air at the top end of the dropping tube, the dehydrated
sample is actually exposed to an atmosphere drier than ambi-
ent air during this 0.1-second exposure. Our experience indi-
cates that handling highly hygroscopic materials, such as
dehydrated zeolites, is a delicate process and every step must
be carefully controlled to obtain consist and reliable results.

Calorimetry
A custom-built Tian-Calvet twin high temperature micro-
calorimeter operating at 700 °C was used (Navrotsky 1997).
About 30 g of 2PbO·B2O3 solvent was used for sequential drops
of 5–10 pellets, 15–20 mg each, of zeolite. The calorimeter
was calibrated by measurement of comparable mass corundum
pellets dropped into an empty crucible. The experimental pro-
cedure is similar to that used previously (Yang and Navrotsky
2000).
The enthalpy of drop solution of a hydrated zeolite, ∆HDS-hyd, FIGURE 1. Powder XRD patterns of the clinoptilolite samples (Cpt,
can be expressed by the following chemical process, Na-Cpt, NaK-Cpt, and K-Cpt) before and after their dehydration
treatment.
∆HDS-hyd MaM'bAlxSiyO2·nH2O (crystalline, 25 °C) →
0.5aM2O (soln, 700 °C) + bM'O (soln, 700 °C) +
0.5xAl2O3 (soln, 700 °C) + ySiO2 (soln, 700 °C) +
nH2O (g, 700 °C) (1)

where MaM'bAlxSiyO2·nH2O is the composition of the hydrated

zeolite on a TO2 basis [one mole of (Si + Al)], M stands for
monovalent cations such as Na and K, and M’ for divalent cat-
ions such as Ca and Mg.
When the measurement is performed on a dehydrated
sample, ∆HDS-deh, can be expressed by the following chemical
process,

∆HDS-deh MaM'bAlxSiiyO2 (dehydrated phase, 25 °C) →

0.5aM2O (soln, 700 °C) + bM'O (soln, 700 °C) +
0.5xAl2O3 (soln, 700 °C) + ySiO2 (soln, 700 °C) (2)

RESULTS

Characterization of the exchanged clinoptilolite samples

Before and after dehydration, the framework integrity of
the zeolite samples was examined by powder X-ray diffraction
(XRD). The crystallinity established by XRD is mostly retained
after the standard dehydration treatment for all the clinoptilolites
except Ca-Cpt, which becomes a nearly amorphous phase (Figs.
1 and 2). Therefore the dehydrated samples for all the compo-
sitions but Ca-Cpt are considered to be anhydrous clinoptilolite
in their respective cationic forms. The dehydrated sample of FIGURE 2. Powder XRD patterns of the Ca-Cpt before and after
Ca-Cpt is considered as an anhydrous amorphous phase. Calo- dehydration treatments under three different conditions. An asterick
rimetric measurement was nonetheless performed for this (*) marks an impurity phase obtained during dehydration.
 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE 441

sample because of the inaccessibility of a completely dehy- The space occupancy of water molecules and cations in the
drated Ca-form of clinoptilolite. Because the energetic differ- fully hydrated clinoptilolites can be estimated by calculation
ence between Na-aluminosilicate framework structures (Yang and Navrotsky 2000). The overall volume occupied by
(Petrovic and Navrotsky 1997) and glass of the same composi- the extra-framework species (i.e., water molecules and cations)
tion (Navrotsky et al. 1980, 1982) is quite small (often less decreases as the average cation size increases and/or the total
than 3 kJ per TO2), the energetic effects associated with the number of cations increases (Table 3). Yang and Armbruster
minor structural changes in the dehydrated Cpt, Na-Cpt, NaK- (1996) concluded that increasing cation radius leads to the de-
Cpt, and K-Cpt are negligible. The enthalpy of the crystal-glass crease of the number of H2O molecules in HEU structure due
transition for the dehydrated Ca-Cpt is less than –3 kJ/mol TO2. to the space limitations. Our results suggest that the change of
To preserve the crystal structure of Ca-Cpt while achieving the volume occupied by cations is only partially compensated
dehydration, lower temperature and shorter heating time were by the change of the volume occupied by water molecules.
also applied. Even though the crystallinity of the zeolite struc- Considering the low average hydration number (water mol-
ture is largely retained based on XRD under these less severe ecules per cation) of the hydrated K-Cpt (only about 2.4, see
dehydration conditions, a small portion of the clinoptilolite in below), one cannot attribute its low occupancy of extra-frame-
both Ca-CptA and Ca-CptB is transformed to another crystal- work space to the water-cation bond strength. Therefore, one
line phase (Fig. 2). Furthermore the dehydration under these possible explanation is that the packing of the extra-framework
new conditions is not complete, about 1.5% water persists in species (i.e., cation and water) is less effective in the
the dehydrated crystal structure of Ca-CptB. clinoptilolite structure for larger extra-framework cations. This
The rehydration capacity of the dehydrated samples was may be expected considering that the size of these extra-frame-
measured by the mass change after equilibration with water work species is not too much smaller than the pore size of the
vapor of 50% relative humidity at room temperature (Table 2). framework.
The data suggest that the thermal treatment during dehydra-
tion reduces the sorption capacity and the structure has changed. Hydration enthalpy
This effect varies with the type of exchanged cations. The de- Drop solution calorimetry was performed for both hydrated
crease of the rehydration capacities for the dehydrated Ca-Cpt and dehydrated clinoptilolites. The calorimetric data are pre-
at the same or less severe conditions is more pronounced than sented both on the original mass basis and on the molar basis
for the samples with other cations. This observation is consis- of two framework O atoms (Table 4). Because the dehydrated
tent with the more pronounced structure changes of the Ca- Ca-Cpt became amorphous, a sample (Ca-CptB) dehydrated at
exchanged clinoptilolite as discussed above, and agrees with less severe conditions was also measured.
the previous conclusion that Ca-Cpt, similar to heulandite, has
lower thermal stability as compared with monovalent cationic TABLE 3. Space occupancy of the extra framework water mol-
clinoptilolite (Mason and Sand 1960; Petrova and Kirov 1995). ecules and cations in the natural and ion-exchanged
clinoptilolites equilibrated with water vapor of 50% rela-
Carey and Bish (1996) investigated the effect of thermal treat- tive humidity at 25 °C
ment on the rehydration capacity of clinoptilolites, and reported
Zeolite n* VH2O (Å3)† r (Å)‡ VCation (Å3) VCation + H2O (Å3)
that reversibility of rehydration for K- and Ca-exchanged Ca-Cpt 0.646 19.37 0.98 0.36 19.73
clinoptilolite could not be retained after heating the sample Na-Cpt 0.572 17.12 1.02 0.81 17.93
above temperatures as low as 250 °C. The irreversibility of Cpt 0.528 15.92 1.07 0.85 16.77
NaK-Cpt 0.495 14.82 1.19 1.36 16.17
dehydration-hydration for their Na-exchanged clinoptilolite K-Cpt 0.433 12.96 1.38 2.00 14.96
occurred at even lower temperature, 220 °C. The onset of irre- Notes: data are based on two framework O atoms.
versibility of dehydration-hydration may indicate some irre- * Molar numbers of water molecules based on two framework O atoms.
† Volume of water based on two framework O atoms. The water density
versible structure change. is taken as 1.0 g/mL.
‡ Population-weighted average ionic radius of the extra-framework cations.

TABLE 2. Water contents of the hydrated and rehydrated

clinoptilolites (both equilibrated with water vapor of 50% TABLE 4. Drop solution enthalpies of the natural and ion-exchanged
relative humidity at 25 °C) before and after treatment at clinoptilolites measured by high temperature calorimetry
400 °C for 9 hours then followed by at 500 °C for 3 hours Zeolite ∆HDS-hyd (Hydrated zeolite) ∆HDS-deh (Deydrated zeolite)
Zeolite H2O wt% H2O wt% DHC (%)* J/g kJ/mol* J/g kJ/mol*
(initial) (rehydration) Ca-Cpt† 1323.3 ± 8.1 (5) 99.31 ± 0.60 587.1 ± 4.1 (5) 37.23 ± 0.26
Ca-Cpt 15.50 6.34 59.1 Ca-CptB‡ – – 707.7 ± 14.1 (7) 45.68 ± 0.91
Ca-CptA† 15.50 11.28 27.2 Cpt 1315.0 ± 5.0 (6) 96.90 ± 0.37 682.1 ± 8.9 (5) 43.78 ± 0.57
Ca-CptB‡ 15.50 11.82 23.7 Na-Cpt 1375.4 ± 6.5 (5) 102.29 ± 0.49 711.8 ± 5.5 (5) 45.61 ± 0.35
Cpt 12.90 10.54 18.3 NaK-Cpt 1305.5 ± 7.4 (6) 97.08 ± 0.55 747.8 ± 10.6 (5) 48.93 ± 0.69
Na-Cpt 13.85 11.23 18.9 K-Cpt 1254.7 ± 9.1 (6) 93.87 ± 0.68 755.7 ± 5.9 (5) 50.64 ± 0.39
NaK-Cpt 12.00 10.95 8.7 Notes: errors are expressed as two standard deviations of the mean,
K-Cpt 10.43 9.72 6.8 value in parentheses is number of measurements.
* Decrease of hydration capacity = [H2O% (initial) – H2O% (rehydrated)/ * On a TO2 basis.
H2O% (initial). † Most of the XRD crystallinity is lost after dehydration (see also Fig. 2).
† Dehydration at 300 °C for 15 hours followed by at 400 °C for 3 hours. ‡ While the XRD crystallinity is largely retained after dehydration under
‡ Dehydration at 300 °C for 7 hours followed by at 350 °C for 1 hour and less severe condition, about 1.5% of water content is found in the dehy-
at 400 ºC for 1 hour. drated zeolite (see text and Fig. 2).
442 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE

The hydration process of a zeolite can be written as
∆Hhyd MaM'bAlxSiyO2 (crystalline, 25 °C) + nH2O (liquid, 25 °C) →
MaM'bAlxSiyO2·nH2O (crystalline, 25 °C) (3)
where ∆Hhyd is the molar hydration enthalpy based on a TO2
formula unit relative to liquid water at 25 °C. Then
dehydrated zeolitic Ca-Cpt and the anhydrous amorphous Ca-
Cpt. The former is, of course, experimentally inaccessible by
the present method.
Enthalpy of formation
Formation of a hydrated zeolite from its constituent oxides
can be generalized by the following chemical reaction

∆Hhyd-z = ∆HDS-deh + n·∆Hwater – ∆HDS-hyd
where ∆Hwater is the heat content for transformation of one mole
of liquid water from 25 °C to gas at 700 °C at 1 bar (Robie and
Hemingway 1995). The (∆Hhyd-z in Table 5) integral molar en-
thalpy of hydration of a zeolite is based on a TO2 formula unit
reflecting the stabilization effect of the zeolite structure by
hydration.
The molar hydration enthalpy based on one mole of water,
∆Hhyd-w, is calculated by ∆Hhyd-w = ∆Hhyd-z/n (Table 6). This value
shows the average bond energy between water molecules and
the zeolite structure. Note the hydration state of the zeolites.
The hydrated sample has been equilibrated with water vapor at
50% relative humidity at 25 °C. The dehydrated samples cor-
respond to the standard dehydration conditions applied in this
work, in which Cpt, Na-Cpt, Na/K-Cpt, and K-Cpt are dehy-
drated clinoptilolites in their respective cation forms. For Ca-
Cpt, the hydration enthalpies (Table 6) correspond to the
energetic differences between the hydrated Ca-Cpt and the de-
hydrated amorphous sample. In all cases, the reference state
for H2O is liquid water. Because the energetics associated with
the crystal-glass transition of the dehydrated Ca-Cpt is small
(~3 kJ/mol TO2 as discussed earlier), the hydration enthalpy
obtained for Ca-Cpt can be taken as a reasonable estimate even
if we ignore the energetic difference between the hypothetical
(4) ∆Hf-hyd 0.5aM2O (c, 25 °C) + bM'O (c, 25 °C) + 0.5xAl2O3
(c, 25 °C) + ySiO2 (c, 25 °C)
+ nH2O (l, 25 °C) → MaM'bAlxSiyO2·nH2O (zeolite, 25 °C) (5)
where ∆Hf-hydis the enthalpy of formation, which can be de-
rived from the following thermodynamic cycle:
∆H6M2O (c, 25 °C) → M2O (soln, 700 °C) (6)
∆H7M’O (c, 25 °C) → M'O (soln, 700 °C) (7)
∆H8Al2O3 (c, 25 °C) → Al2O3 (soln, 700 °C) (8)
∆H9SiO2 (c, 25 °C) → SiO2 (soln, 700 °C) (9)
∆H10H2O (c, 25 °C) → H2O (g, 700 °C) (10)
∆Hf= 0.5a·∆H6 + b·∆H7 + 0.5x·∆H8 + y·∆H9 + n·∆H10 – ∆H1 (11)
∆H6, ∆H7, ∆H8, ∆H9, and ∆H10 correspond to the drop solution
enthalpy of the respective oxides and water. These values have
been established previously (Table 7). Using Equation 11 and
the thermodynamic properties for the constituent oxides (Table
7), we obtained the molar enthalpies of formation based on a
TO2 formula unit for the hydrated clinoptilolites as well as for
the dehydrated samples (Table 5). Because water is referred to
the liquid state at 25 °C, the difference of the ∆Hf values for
the hydrated and the dehydrated clinoptilolites is in fact the
hydration enthalpy of the zeolite.
The standard molar enthalpy of formation of the exchanged

TABLE 5. Enthalpy of hydration (∆Hhyd-z) and enthalpy of formation (∆Hf) of clinoptilolite at 25 °C

Zeolite n Z/r* Water/Cation† ∆Hhyd-z (kJ/mol‡) ∆Hf from oxides, kJ/mol‡
Hydrated Dehydrated
Ca-Cpt 0.646 2.07 7.0 –17.59 ± 0.77 –14.18 ± 0.67 3.41 ± 0.38§
Cpt 0.572 1.21 3.5 –16.76 ± 0.78 –26.66 ± 0.46 –9.90 ± 0.64
Na-Cpt 0.528 0.98 3.1 –17.29 ± 0.72 –31.40 ± 0.56 –14.11 ± 0.45
NaK-Cpt 0.495 0.86 2.7 –14.02 ± 0.96 –34.88 ± 0.62 –20.86 ± 0.74
K-Cpt 0.433 0.72 2.4 –13.39 ± 0.88 –39.88 ± 0.74 –26.50 ± 0.48
* Population weighted average ionic potential.
† Average number of water molecules per cation.
‡ Based on TO2.
§ Most of the XRD crystallinity is lost after dehydration under the standard conditions (see text and Fig. 2).

TABLE 6. Integral enthalpies of hydration of clinoptilolite (∆Hhyd-w, kJ/mol – H2O 25 °C, based on liquid water) measured in this work and
reported in the literature
Calorimetric methods Equilibrium measurements
Zeolite This work Carey and Johnson et al. Barrer and Cram Wilkin and Barnes Carey and Bish
Bish (1997) (1991) (1971) (1999) (1996)
(Si/Al = 4.5) (Si/Al = 4.3) (Si/Al = 4.2) (Si/Al = 5.0) (Si/Al = 4.5)* (Si/Al = 4.3)
Ca-Cpt –27.25 ± 1.19† –30.3 ± 2.0 – – – –32.92 ± 2.88
Cpt –31.77 ± 1.48 – –23.5 – – –
Na-Cpt –30.24 ± 1.25 –23.4 ± 0.6 – –21.8 –40.8 ± 9.7 –30.19 ± 3.46
NaK-Cpt –28.30 ± 1.94 – – – – –
K-Cpt –30.91 ± 2.03 –22.4 ± 0.8 – – –37.0 ± 7.5 –23.78 ± 1.25
* Same clinoptilolite as used in this work.
† The value may be more exothermic because the energetics of crystal-glass transition of the dehydrated Ca-Cpt is neglected (see text for explanation).
 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE
TABLE 7. Drop solution enthalpies (∆HDS) of the constituent ox-
ides from room temperature at 25 °C into molten
2PbO·B2O3 at 700 °C and their standard formation en-
thalpies (∆H0f) from the constituent elements at 25 °C
Component ∆H0f (kJ/mol) * ∆HDS (kJ/mol)
Al2O3 corundum –1675.7 ± 1.3 107.9 ± 1.0†
SiO2 quartz –910.7 ± 1.0 39.1 ± 0.3†
Na2O –414.8 ± 0.3 –113.1 ± 0.8‡
K 2O –363.2 ± 2.1 –193.7 ± 1.1‡
CaO –635.1 ± 0.9 –17.4 ± 0.9†
MgO –601.6 ± 0.3 36.5 ± 1.0§
H2O liquid –285.8 ± 0.1 68.9 ± 0.1*
* Robie and Hemingway (1995).
† Kiseleva et al. (1996a).
‡ Kiseleva et al. (1996b).
§ Smelik et al. (1994).
clinoptilolites from the constituent elements can also be ob-
tained by combining the calorimetric results of this work with
the known standard formation enthalpies of the constituent
oxides (Table 7). The molar enthalpy of formation for the hy-
drated samples including Ca-Cpt measured by drop solution
calorimetry will not be affected by the structure change during
dehydration.
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of exchanged cations on hydration of clinoptilolites
For all the ion-exchanged clinoptilolites in this study, the
integral enthalpies of hydration based on one mole of water
(∆Hhyd-w) are about –30 kJ/mol with a span of 3.5 kJ/mol, which
is close to the error range of the measurements (Table 6). Be-
cause the water molecules in zeolites are bonded to different
sites, the integral hydration enthalpy yields a value averaged
over these sites. The similar ∆Hhyd-w values imply that the aver-
age bonding strength felt by each zeolitic water molecule in
these different cationic clinoptilolites is approximately the same.
This hydration behavior was also found for the various ion-
exchanged FAU zeolites (Yang and Navrotsky 2000) and a se-
ries of ion-exchanged CHA zeolites (Shim et al. 1999). This
behavior may result from a balance of two competing effects
when the extra-framework cations are exchanged. First, the
higher the ionic potential of the extra-framework cations, i.e.,
the smaller their size and/or the higher their charge, the stron-
ger their attraction to water molecules. Second, for a given zeo-
lite structure, the higher the ionic potential of the cations, the
more water molecules can be packed in the structure because
these cations occupy less space and the water-cation packing
is more efficient. Hence, the stronger attraction of these cat-
ions to water is shared by a larger number of water molecules.
Another consequence of these competing effects is that the ef-
fect of the extra-framework cations on the molar enthalpy of
hydration of a zeolite (∆Hhyd-z) will be largely determined by
their effect on the hydration capacity (Table 5). This type of
behavior of hydration enthalpy may be expected for other open
framework zeolites.
Using immersion calorimetry, Petrova and Kirov (1995)
measured the integral heats of hydration at various hydration
degrees for several ion-exchanged clinoptilolites (Si/Al ~5.0).
The ∆Hhyd-w values estimated from their plots (integral heats of
443
hydration vs. hydration degree) are about –25 to –30 kJ/mol
H2O at the highest hydration degrees (60 to 80%) of the differ-
ent cationic clinoptilolites. Their results show similar trends to
ours but close comparison is difficult because of impurities
(20%) in their samples and lack of experimental details such
as hydration-dehydration conditions.
Carey and Bish (1997) and Barrer and Cram (1971) used
immersion calorimetry and Johnson et al. (1991) used HF so-
lution calorimetry to measure hydration enthalpies (Table 6).
Their ∆Hhyd-w values are considerably less exothermic than ours
for similar cationic clinoptilolites. The difference in the frame-
work Si/Al ratio of the different clinoptilolites may affect the
water content as well as the ∆Hhyd-w value. However the varia-
tion of the framework Si/Al ratios among the samples is small
and is unlikely to account for the large changes in the ∆Hhyd-w
values. Carey and Bish (1997) used a temperature of 250 °C
under water vapor pressure of 0.4 mbar, Johnson et al. (1991)
used 350 °C, and Barrer and Cram (1971) used 360 °C under
vacuum for the dehydration of their samples. Residual water
would persist after dehydration at these temperatures as com-
pared with zeolites treated at higher temperature (500 °C in
this study), e.g., Carey and Bish (1997) reported that about 2–
20% of the initial water content remained in their most dehy-
drated clinoptilolites. Because of the significantly higher
differential molar hydration enthalpy at low coverage, even a
small amount of residual water may cause the integral molar
hydration enthalpy to be significantly less exothermic. Indeed,
we obtained only –14.1 ± 1.7 kJ/mol H2O for Ca-CptB, which
is dehydrated under less severe conditions and has a water con-
tent of about 1.5 wt% (Table 2). In addition, Carey and Bish
(1997) and Barrer and Cram (1971) measured hydration prop-
erties at 100% (in contrast to 50% in this study) relative hu-
midity. Therefore the different dehydration conditions used by
the various researchers represent one major factor accounting
for the different ∆Hhyd-w values.
Dehydration of HEU zeolites induces cation migration and
structure distortion (Dyer and White 1999; Hambley and Tay-
lor 1984; Merkle and Slaughter 1968; Armbruster 1993; Valueva
1995; Yang and Armbruster 1996; Yang et al. 1997; Zhao et al.
1997) and sample shrinkage (Kranz et al. 1989; Dell’Agli et
al. 1999). A high degree of dehydration and/or high tempera-
ture treatment often lead to irreversible structural changes or
even complete structure collapse (Armbruster and Gunter 1991).
Heulandites, i.e., Al-rich and/or Ca-rich members of HEU type
zeolites, undergo structural collapse by 350 °C (e.g., Gottardi
and Galli 1985). The decrease of hydration capacity after high
temperature dehydration or irreversibility of hydration-dehy-
dration reactions at high temperature will give rise to different
∆Hhyd-w values depending on the measurement procedure, i.e.,
dehydration of the initial hydrated zeolite or the hydration of
dehydrated zeolite. Less exothermic ∆Hhyd-w values may be
obtained from the latter procedure than from the former one.
This may be the second major factor for the less exothermic
∆Hhyd-w values obtained by Barrer and Cram (1971).
Non-calorimetric methods also give ∆Hhyd-w (Table 6). Carey
and Bish (1996) used equilibrium water content measurements
of clinoptilolite-H2O from 25 to 250 °C and 0.2 to 35 mbar
water vapor pressure. Their ∆Hhyd-w values are similar to ours
444 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE
for Na-Cpt and Ca-Cpt but are less exothermic for K-Cpt.
Wilkin and Barnes (1999) used a pressure titration technique
to 300 °C and PH2O < 30 bars for study of hydration. Their val-
ues have a comparatively large uncertainty but are more exo-
thermic for the same Na-Cpt and K-Cpt than those obtained
here. Although the equilibrium method provides useful infor-
mation about the dehydration behavior as a function of tem-
perature, water vapor pressure PH2O and hydration level, the
derived integral ∆Hhyd-w values may be less certain relative to
calorimetric results for the following reasons. First, these ex-
perimental data were measured only over part of the hydration
range. To obtain an integral enthalpy of hydration by extrapo-
lation, these data are usually fit into a Langmuir-type sorption
model. Such a data processing procedure simplifies or neglects
the heterogeneous nature of zeolite-water reactions because the
properties of zeolitic water vary with the degree of filling of
the channel and cavities, i.e., the hydration level (e.g.,
Hemingway and Robie 1984). Second, the hydration level be-
comes increasingly difficult to measure at low coverage and
cannot be experimentally controlled at very low coverage.
Nonetheless these low-coverage and high-energy water mol-
ecules contribute most in terms of enthalpy of molar hydra-
tion. Third, as discussed by Barrer and Cram (1971), true
hydration-dehydration equilibrium may not be readily attain-
able at very low hydration levels. Therefore, the direct mea-
surement of hydration enthalpy by calorimetry may provide
useful constraints on modeling zeolite-water reaction based on
the equilibrium measurements.
In conclusion, a highly dehydrated zeolite is unlikely to have
a truly intact framework structure and therefore the hydration-
dehydration reaction is not ideally reversible. The major fac-
tors influencing the measured hydration enthalpy are the
dehydration conditions and the direction of the measurement.
These experimental-procedure-related factors may account for
the different hydration enthalpies measured by calorimetric
methods in this work and those reported by others (Carey and
Bish 1997; Johnson et al. 1991; Barrer and Cram 1971). There-
fore explicitly defined experimental conditions for hydration
and dehydration are highly desirable and they should be care-
fully taken into account when the hydration enthalpy values
are put into use. For a real zeolite, hydration enthalpy may be
difficult to define uniquely and unambiguously.
Effect of extra-framework cations on energetics of
clinoptilolites
The enthalpy of formation of the dehydrated clinoptilolites
from the constituent oxides becomes less exothermic as the
average ionic potential of the extra-framework cations increases
(Fig. 3). The plot has two linear segments: a steep section at
low Z/r for the monovalent clinoptilolites (K-Cpt, Na/K-Cpt,
and Na-Cpt) and a shallow section at high Z/r for the mixed
monovalent/divalent cationic forms (Na-Cpt, Cpt, and Ca-Cpt).
The trend of the plot can be related to the basicity of the oxides
of the corresponding ion-exchanged cations for the acid-base
interaction in the substitution reaction, Si4+ → Al3+ + M+ or
0.5M2+ (Navrotsky 1994). A similar shift of the linear depen-
dence of ∆Hf on Z/r from monovalent cationic zeolites to mul-
tivalent cationic zeolites was also found for ion-exchanged FAU
F IGURE 3. Plot of the molar enthalpies of formation of the
clinoptilolites from the constituent oxides based on two framework O
atoms vs. the population-weighted average ionic potential of their extra
framework cations.
zeolites (Yang and Navrotsky 2000). This systematic trend is a
useful tool for predicting the energetics of ion-exchanged forms
in the fast growing field of molecular sieves.
In natural HEU species, the cation composition often var-
ies with Si/Al ratio. Using the systematics of Figure 3, we esti-
mate other energetic contributions by separating the energetic
effect of cation differences. For example, from the ∆Hf value
of a Siberia heulandite (Ca0.86Na0.37K0.06Al2.14Si6.86·6.1H2O, Si/
Al = 3.2), –26.52 ± 0.54 kJ/mol-TO2, recently measured by
Kiseleva et al. (2000), the ∆Hf value of the clinoptilolite coun-
terpart with equivalent cation composition can be estimated to
be – 20.62 kJ/mol-TO2. Therefore, the energetic cost for the Si/
Al ratio change from 3.2 to 4.5 is estimated to be endothermic
at about 5.90 kJ/mol-TO2.
The standard molar enthalpies of formation of the ion-ex-
changed clinoptilolites from the constituent elements at 25 °C
are in Table 8. We are aware of only one other set of directly
measured data for a natural clinoptilolite by Johnson et al.
(1991) using HF solution calorimetry. The ∆H0f values for the
hydrated and dehydrated clinoptilolites of Johnson et al. is
–1146.94 ± 0.75 kJ/mol-TO2 and –959.30 ± 0.74 kJ/mol-TO2
respectively. Because ∆H 0f values are strongly dependent on
the composition of the zeolite, we convert their data to the en-
thalpies of formation from the constituent oxides so that we
can more easily compare their results with the Figure 3. Using
the standard thermodynamic properties of the respective ox-
ides and liquid water (Robie and Hemingway 1995), the corre-
sponding enthalpies of formation from the constituent oxides
and liquid water at 25 °C for Johnson et al.’s hydrated and de-
hydrated samples are –26.64 ± 1.11 kJ/mol-TO2 and –12.45
± 1.11 kJ/mol-TO2, respectively. Placing these experimental
results on Figure 3 and considering that the slightly lower Si/
Al ratio of their sample compared to ours would cause their
results to be slightly more exothermic as discussed above. Yet
the ∆Hf value for their hydrated sample agrees reasonably with
 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE 445

the trend predicted by the systematics illustrated in Figure 3.
However, the ∆Hf value for the dehydrated clinoptilolite is off-
set from the trend of our values considerably, being about 5 kJ/
mol-TO2 more exothermic (Fig. 3). This exothermic offset is
consistent with the less exothermic enthalpy of hydration arising
from their use of a relatively low temperature for dehydration (see
the foregoing discussion about hydration enthalpy). That is, their
dehydrated sample may not have been completely anhydrous.
Entropy and free energy of the ion-exchanged
clinoptilolite at 25 °C
Two sets of entropy data for hydrous clinoptilolites (S0zeo,
corresponding to S0(298 K) – S0(0 K) because of unknown con-
figuration disorder) exist (Johnson et al. 1991; Hemingway and
Robie 1984). The S0zeo value of hydrous heulandite (Johnson et
al. 1985) is also listed in Table 9 as a “reference clinoptilolite”
with “radical difference in composition.” These three sets of
S0zeo data were obtained by low temperature adiabatic calori-
metric measurements. The sum of the S0zeo values for the com-
ponent oxides (ΣS0oxide) of the three HEU zeolites is calculated
by using the thermodynamic data tabulated by Robie and
Hemingway (1995). The entropy difference between these zeo-
lites and their component oxides (H2O as liquid water), S0zeo –
ΣS0oxide, are between –4 to –6 J/mol·K (Table 9). Apparently the
S0zeo value of these hydrous HEU zeolites can be related to the
ΣS0oxide by the following empirical equation:
S0zeo (J/mol·K TO2) = ΣS0oxides – (5.0 ± 1.5)
The correction factor, –5.0 mol·K, and the estimated error,
±1.5 J/mol·K, are determined from the analysis of the data in
Table 9. Despite the different origins of these zeolites and the
wide range of their compositions (such as Si/Al ratio and cat-
ion constituents and water contents), the entropy difference (S0zeo
– ΣS0oxide) is consistently negative about –5.0 mol·K within the
errors of ± 1.5 J/mol·K. The entropy of hydration measured by
Carey and Bish (1996) is also negative. This negative entropy
change suggests that the water present in the hydration spheres
of the extra-framework cations is more constrained than in the
liquid state. Negative enthalpies of hydration are compensated
by negative entropies of hydration. This point will be discussed
further in future communication.
As discussed by Hemingway and Robie (1984), the heat
capacity of the average zeolitic water in clinoptilolites will be
somewhat greater than the heat capacity of ice at 100 K and
somewhat less than that for pure water at 298 K. So the en-
tropy contribution of the zeolitic water in clinoptilolites will
be less than the same amount of pure water. However, there are
some trade-offs for the lower mobility of zeolitic water mol-
ecules as compared to pure water at 25 °C: as the zeolitic water
content increases the mobility of the exchangeable cations in-
creases (Abdoulaye et al. 2000) and water-cation mixing dis-
order increases. Relative to pure liquid water and cations in the
pure oxides the lower entropy contribution associated with the
lower mobility of zeolitic water molecules is then partially com-
pensated by the larger entropy contribution related to the higher
mobility of the cations and to the higher mixing disorder. For
the same zeolite structure (HEU) and the same hydration con-
ditions (equilibrated to 50% humidity at 25 °C), the overall net
entropy difference between different HEU zeolites and their
components may be expected both to be small and similar in
magnitude. Such a rationalization may qualitatively explain the
behavior of the ∆S for the HEU zeolites seen in Table 9.
(12) The difference of S0zeo and S0H2O, where S0H2O represents the
entropy of the same quantity of pure water, gives rather close
values (last column in Table 9). The parallel values of S0zeo and
S0H2O for the different HEU zeolites suggest that the slightly dif-
ferent water contents in these HEU-type zeolites are mainly
responsible for their different S0zeo values. For the different struc-
ture types of zeolites, however, the thermodynamic properties
of the zeolitic water may be significantly different, e.g., the
zeolitic water more closely represents the properties of pure

TABLE 8. Thermodynamic properties of the natural and ion-exchanged clinoptilolites at 25 °C

Zeolite ∆Hf0, kJ/mol S0zeo, J/mol·K ∆Gf0, kJ/mol 445 ∆Gf0, kJ/mol S0zeo, J/mol·K
(Calorimetric results (Summation results (This work) (Solubility (Derived data)†
of this work) of this work) measurement)*
Ca-Cpt –1153.78 ± 1.07 82.16 ± 1.50 –1064.95 ± 1.16 –1064.3 ± 1.7 79.8 ± 6.7
Cpt –1117.57 ± 0.95 76.41 ± 1.50 –1034.01 ± 1.05 – –
Na-Cpt –1130.05 ± 1.00 80.46 ± 1.50 –1044.19 ± 1.10 –1044.7 ± 1.7 81.9 ± 6.5
NaK-Cpt –1109.49 ± 1.04 75.91 ± 1.50 –1027.26 ± 1.13 – –
K-Cpt –1094.21 ± 1.12 72.47 ± 1.50 –1014.89 ± 1.21 –1017.8 ± 1.7 82.1 ± 6.8
Notes: All values are based on two framework O atoms.
* Data of Benning et al. (2000) for Ca-Cpt, Wilkin and Barnes (1998) for Na-Cpt and K-Cpt.
† Derived from the experimental data: the ∆Hf0 values in column 2 and the ∆Gf0 values in column 5.

TABLE 9. Comparison of the published experimental entropies (S0zeo) of HEU type zeolites and the sum of the entropies of the constituent
oxides ( ΣS0oxide)
Zeolite Entropy at 25 °C, J/mol·K Effect of water content on entropy (J/mol·K)
S0zeo ΣS0oxide S0zeo-ΣS0oxide n
H2 O S0H2O (liquid H2O) S0zeo-S0H2O
Cpt-I* 82.39 86.48 ± 0.14 –4.09 0.607 42.47 39.92
Cpt-II† 79.79 ± 0.25 85.68 ± 0.13 –5.89 ± 0.28 0.611 42.78 37.01
Heu‡ 85.24 ± 0.09 90.67 ± 0.12 –5.43 ± 0.12 0.667 46.67 38.58
Notes: All values in the table are based on two framework O atoms.
* The original formula of the clinoptilolite (Johnson et al. 1991): Sr0.036Mg0.124Ca0.761Mn0.002Ba0.062K0.543Na0.954Al3.450Fe0.017Si14.533O36·10.922H2O.
† The original formula of the clinoptilolite (Hemingway and Robie 1984): Na0.56K0.98Ca1.50Mg1.23Al6.7Fe0.3Si29O72·22H2O.
‡ The original formula of the heulandite (Johnson et al. 1985): Ba0.065Sr0.175Ca0.585K0.132Na0.383Al2.165Si6.835O18·6.00H2O.
446 YANG ET AL.: THERMODYNAMICS OF CLINOPTILOLITE
water in the FAU type structure (zeolite X) type than in the
phillipsite type structure; clinoptilolite and analcime show even
greater deviations from the properties of pure water than
phillipsite does (e.g., Hemingway and Robie 1984; Johnson et
al. 1985). Therefore, Equation 12 may have different correc-
tion factors for other types of zeolites.
Using Equation 12, we calculated the S0zeo values for our
hydrous clinoptilolites (Table 8). This calculation is similar to
the summation procedure used for estimation of the ∆H0f and
∆G0f values of zeolites from the thermodynamic properties of
the component oxides or hydroxides (Tardy and Garrels 1974;
Nriagu 1975; La Iglesia and Aznar 1986; Chermak and Rimstidt
1989; Mattigod and McGrail 1999). Combining the calculated
entropy values with the enthalpy values based on the experi-
mental measurements of this work, we obtain the standard free
energy (∆G0f) of the ion-exchanged clinoptilolites (Table 8). The
small correction factor (–5.0 J/mol·K) used in the calculation
of entropy only translates to a contribution of 1.5 kJ/mol-TO2
to the resulting ∆G0f value.
The standard thermodynamic properties of the ion-ex-
changed clinoptilolites are in Table 8. The ∆G0f values agree
well with the respective values for the same Na-Cpt and K-Cpt
(Wilkin and Barnes 1998) and the same Ca-Cpt (Benning et al.
2000) derived from solubility measurements. The S0zeo values
of these three zeolites can also be calculated from the experi-
mental ∆G0f values of Wilkin and Barnes (1998) and Benning
et al. (2000) and the experimental ∆H0f values of this work. The
difference between these calculated S0zeo values and those cal-
culated using Equation 12 are of the same magnitude as the
associated errors (Table 8). Such an agreement further vali-
dates the use of Equation 12 for the estimation of the S0zeo val-
ues for the hydrated clinoptilolite.
Several factors may account for the good agreement be-
tween our ∆G0f values and those reported by Wilkin and Barnes
(1998) and Benning et al. (2000). Our careful calorimetric
measurement provides high quality data for enthalpy of for-
mation of hydrated zeolite. In addition, those results pertain
only to the hydrated samples, the uncertainties associated with
dehydration are irrelevant. The oxide summation method pro-
vides an excellent estimation for entropy of the hydrated zeo-
lites. Because the entropy contribution to the Gibbs free energy
of a hydrated zeolite is much smaller than the enthalpy contri-
bution, the quality of the derived Gibbs free energy will be
primarily determined by the calorimetric enthalpy data. Third,
the identical zeolite samples used in these measurements favor
consistent results.
The thermodynamic properties of three natural clinoptilolites
were also reported by Murphy et al. (1996), Johnson et al.
(1991), and also by Bowers and Burns (1990) using the heat
capacity and entropy data of Hemingway and Robie (1984).
As discussed by Wilkin and Barnes (1998), the ∆G0f values for
these clinoptilolites cannot be readily compared because of the
compositional difference among the clinoptilolites.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Bill Carey, Micky Gunter, and Bruce Hemingway for their help-
ful comments and discussion. This work was supported by the National Science
Foundation, Grants DMR-97-31782.
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MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED MAY 15, 2000
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED DECEMBER 7, 2000
PAPER HANDLED BY RICK RYERSON