Communication system is a combination of following components −

 Information source.

 Transmitter.

 Channel.

 Noise.

 Receiver.

 User information.

Working
In a communication system, information source generates a message signal that is to
be communicated, this message signal is passed over to the transmitter.

Transmitter is a system that strengthens the message signal so that it can travel to a
long distance.

The transmitted signal then travels through a medium known as channel. Channel can
be of two types – Wired or Wireless.

The aim of the transmitter is to convert the message signal produced by the
information source into a form which is suitable for transmission through the channel.

If the output of the information source is a non-electrical signal like a voice or video
signal, a transducer is used which converts it into electrical form before giving it as an
input to the transmitter.

When a transmitted signal travels along the channel it may get distorted/altered due to
noise i.e. unwanted signals inside the channel.

The receiver works opposite to that of the transmitter, it filters out the original message
signal from the transmitted signal.

Receiver then forwards this original message signal to the destination i.e. user
information.

Types of communication
Point to point communication
In point to point communication, communication takes place between a single
transmitter and a single receiver.

Example − Telephone

Broadcast
In broadcast communication, communication takes place between a single transmitter
and multiple receivers. It is free to anyone.

Transducer is a device which changes one form of energy into other i.e. it changes one
type of physical variation to another type of variation, and vice versa.

An electrical transducer will convert physical variation such as pressure, light,

temperature, etc. to variation of Electrical Voltage, and vice versa.

Example − Microphone, speaker, camera, monitor, etc.

Example scenario

When a politician is addressing a huge crowd he uses a system of microphone and

speakers. When the politician speaks, his sound is converted to electrical variation by
the microphone and then these electrical variations are transmitted to the speakers. As
soon as the electrical variations are received by the speaker, they are again converted
to sound so that the crowd can listen and understand what the politician is saying. In
this scenario microphone and speakers are transducer.

In communication system information may be a physical variation of sound, a physical variation of

light or physical variation of data. When these physical variations are converted to variation of
voltage with the help of transducer, they are known as signal i.e. signal is the variation of voltage
over time converted from information.
Signal consist of single value of voltage at any time.

There are two types of signals −

 Analog signal

 Digital signal

Analog Signals
Analog signal is continuous variation of voltage or current over time. They are single valued
function of time i.e. sin waves.

Digital Signals
Digital signals are those which can have only discrete stepwise values. They are Box waves.

Digital signals are more clear than analog signals.

Digital Binary signal
When only two levels are used in digital signal it is known as binary signal.

These two levels of Voltage are −

 ‘0’ corresponds to a low level of voltage/current and

 ‘1’ corresponds to a high level of voltage/ current.

Codification is used in binary signal transmission for understanding the data received.

There are two types of codification used −

 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) System

This system has a unique 7 digit code for each letters in the English language.

 BCD (Binary Code Decimals) System

This system has a unique code for every real number.

Example −

Code Count

0000 0

0001 1

0010 2
 0011 3

0100 4

1000 8

Noise is a variation of voltage which has entered the communication system and which
is undesired or not required.

The source generating the noise may be located inside or outside the communication
system.

Noise can enter the communication system at any stage such as −

 Transmission

 Reception or

 When the data is moving through the channel.

 A transmitter combines the incoming message signal i.e. low frequency with
carrier signal i.e. high frequency, so as to make it suitable for transmission
through a channel and subsequent reception.

 The combination of message signal and carrier signal is given amplification, it is

filtered for frequencies, noise, etc. and then it is transmitted on wired or wireless
system.

When the carrier signal of high frequency containing the message signal travel through
the channel and reach the receiver, then receiver performs the following tasks −

 Detect required frequency

Detection of frequency is done by resonance and this process is known tuning.

 Amplify

As the incoming signal is weak, receiver gives strength to the signal and this process is
called amplification.

 Filter

Filter for undesired noise in the signal received.

  Demodulation

Demodulation is the process of separating carrier wave (high frequency) and carry low
frequency message signal.

Attenuation by word means − To get weak.

When a signal travels through a medium its energy is lost, resulting in decrease in the amplitude of
the wave i.e. with the distance of propagation the strength of the signals becomes weak and this
phenomenon is known as attenuation.

Attenuation is a natural phenomenon that cannot be prevented while transmitting signals but we
can use repeater to amplify the signal again.

Range − Maximum distance upto which we can receive signal with appreciable strength.

Amplification is the process of increasing the amplitude of a signal multiple times using an amplifier.
Amplification is required in communication system to overcome the attenuation of the signal. When
the signal travels a long distance, it losses its strength resulting in decrease in amplitude of the
signal, to continue the transmission of signal further, amplification is required so that the weak
signal can gain higher amplitude and can travel ahead.

Modulation
Modulation is the process to give strength to the message signal so that it can travel a
long distance i.e. loading a low frequency low power message signal on a high
frequency high power carrier wave is known as modulation.

Modulation is required while transmitting a signal.

Demodulation
The reverse process of modulation i.e. separating low frequency low power message
from high frequency carrier is called demodulation.

Demodulation is required during the process of receiving the signal.

Repeater
When a signal travels through a medium its energy is lost, resulting in decrease in the amplitude of
the wave, for the wave to travel longer distance there is a need to regenerate the signal which can
be transmitted forward. This is done using a repeater.

A repeater is a combination of a receiver, amplifier and a transmitter. A repeater, receives the

signal, amplifies it and then retransmits it forward.
Repeaters are used to extend the range of a communication system.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the total range of frequencies associated with a signal or a device or a
channel.

Bandwidth of Analog signal

In a communication system, the message signal can be voice, music, and picture or
data. Each of these signals has different ranges of frequencies. The type of
communication system needed for a given signal depends on the band of frequencies.

Speech/human voice signals

For speech/human voice signals, frequency ranges from 300 Hz to 3100 Hz. Therefore
speech signal has a bandwidth of 2800 Hz.

For communication over telephone, device and channel that are fit for carrying 2800Hz
bandwidth signals should be used.

Music signals
Music signals are generated from variety of instruments, so the bandwidth of music
signal depends upon the human ear i.e. human ear can hear a signal upto 20 kHz
bandwidth hence, the frequency range of music signal is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz i.e. it
has a bandwidth of 20 KHz approximately.

Video signals
Video signals for transmission of pictures require 4.2 MHz of bandwidth.

A TV signal contains both voice and picture therefore, it has a bandwidth of 6 MHz for
one station.

Bandwidth of digital signals

Digital signals are represented in the form of box waves.
Box wave is generated by the superposition of multiple harmonics such as
v0,2v0,4v0,6v0,….. i.e. for digital signals very high frequency range is required i.e. very
high bandwidth is required because it contains many harmonics of multiple
frequencies.

In communication system the message signal is transmitted through a channel also

known as medium. There are different types of transmission mediums which offer
different bandwidths.

The commonly used transmission media are wire (coaxial cable and fibre optics cable)
and free space.

Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable is commonly used wire medium, it has a bandwidth of 750 MHz

Handling frequency for coaxial cable is 18 GHz.

Radio waves
Communication through free space uses radio waves. It has a bandwidth from a few
hundred kHz to a few GHz. This range of frequencies are divided and used for different
services.
 Service Frequency Range Used for

Standard AM broadcast 540 - 1600 kHz AM Radios walkie-talkie

FM broadcast 88 - 108 MHz FM Radios walkie-talkie

54 - 72 MHz VHF (very high frequencies) Audio

76 - 88 MHz TV Video
Television
174 - 216 MHz UHF (ultra-high frequencies) Audio

420 - 890 MHz TV Video

896 - 901 MHz Mobile to base station

Cellular Mobile Radio
840 - 935 MHz Base station to mobile

5.925 - 6.425 GHz Uplink

Satellite Communication
3.7 - 4.2 GHz Downlink

Optical fibre
Communication through optical fibres has a bandwidth from 1 THz to 1000 THz i.e.
from microwaves to ultraviolet.

Optical fibre is the most favoured medium for communication in the modern world.

In communication system wireless transmission is done using electro-magnetic waves

and the signals after due modulation are converted to carrier waves which are send
from transmitter to the receiver through a channel.

Antenna is used at both the ends, transmitter end and receiver end.
The size of an antenna should be λ4, where λ is the wavelength of the signal.
There are three possible ways for the transmission of electromagnetic waves −

 Ground wave propagation

 Sky wave propagation

 Space propagation and Satellite propagation.

Ground wave propagation

Ground wave propagation is used for transmitting low frequency signals. In this
propagation the signal wave is parallel to ground. While this transmission there is
oscillation of wave, so they induce another wave in the surface of the earth as in figure.

The induced wave in the ground attenuate electromagnetic wave at a short range,
hence ground wave propagation is only used for short range communication.

The attenuation of surface waves increases very rapidly with increase in frequency,
hence ground wave propagation is used for low frequency and large wavelength i.e.
AM waves.

The range of frequency is from a few KHz to few MHz (5 MHz).

Advantages
As the ground wave propagation support large wavelength, the wave can bend round
the corners/obstructions more efficiently.

Disadvantages
 Ground wave propagation can only be used for short range.

 As it is amplitude modulated, it gathers noise while transmission.

  As the frequency range is also small only a limited number of transmitters can be used.

As ground wave propagation works with low frequency range and short distance, so it
is not suitable for radio signal transmission hence, the use of ground wave propagation
is very limited.

When cosmic rays coming from the sun hits the atmosphere of earth ionisation takes place. The
incoming cosmic ray hit an atom of air molecule resulting in elimination of electron from the
outermost shell of the atom and making it a free electron. The degree of ionisation varies with the
height.

The density of atmosphere decreases with height. At great heights there are only few molecules so
number of cosmic rays penetrate deeper to the next layer, here the number of molecules is greater
as density is increased, so the number of ions produced is high.

Close to the earth, even though the number of molecules is very high, the number of cosmic rays is
very low as maximum number of rays are consumed by upper layers, so that the ionisation is again
low.

Hence, at some intermediate heights, ionisation is very large and this layer is known as ionosphere.

The ionosphere is divided into different layers as shown is figure. It extends from a height of 65 Km
to 300 Km above the earth’s surface.

Sky wave Propagation

In communication system electromagnetic waves are used. When these electromagnetic waves hits
the ionosphere containing ions they are reflected back towards the surface of the earth.
Lower frequency electromagnetic wave is reflected by a lower layer with less ionisation strength,
while higher frequency electromagnetic wave is reflected by a higher layer with high ionisation
strength. Upto a certain value of frequency the wave can be reflected back and the wave beyond
that frequency will not be reflected instead it escape in space.

The frequency range for sky wave propagation is from 3 MHz to 32 MHz

The phenomenon responsible for sky wave propagation is reflection due to ionosphere and the type
of reflection is total internal reflection.

Advantages
Sky wave propagation can be used for long distance communication.

The high frequency electromagnetic wave is not reflected back by the ionosphere, so
to use high frequency electromagnetic wave in communication we used space wave
propagation.

Space waves are used in two types of communication −

 Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation.

 Satellite communication

Line-of-sight (LOS) propagation

In line of sight propagation a space wave travels in a straight line from transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna. At frequencies below 40 MHz . For this type of
propagation there should be no obstacle between the transmitting antenna and the
receiving antenna.

In line-of-sight propagation, space waves are very powerful, the signals are very clear,
the bandwidth is very large and a huge amount of information can be transmitted.

In line-of-sight propagation, direct waves get blocked at some point by the curvature of
the earth. If the signal is to be received beyond the horizon then the receiving antenna
must be high enough to intercept the line-of-sight waves. Range of transmission is
dependent upon the height of the antenna, relation between range and height of
antenna is given by −

From figure −

(R + h)2 = R2 + r2

∴ R2 + 2hR + h2 = R2 + r2

As we know, radius of earth is approximately 6400km while the height of the antenna is
few meters. So we can neglect h2
 ∴ 2hR = r2

∴ r = √2hR

Where,

r = range

h = height of antenna

R = radius of earth

Observation
For a greater range of electromagnetic wave, an antenna of large height is required.

Distance between two antennas for line-of-sight propagation is given by −

r1 = √2h1R

r2 = √2h2R

∴ (r1 + r2) = √2R(h1 + h2)

Where,

r1 = range of antenna 1

r2 = range of antenna 2

h1 = height of antenna 1

h2 = height of antenna 2

R = radius of earth

Area covered by a transmitting antenna is given by −

Area = π r2

We have, r2 = 2hR
 ∴ Area = π 2hR

For a frequency more than 40 MHz, ground wave propagation and sky wave propagation cannot be
used. So this high frequency signals are transmitted at a particular angle from the surface of the
earth towards the satellite. After hitting the satellite the signal wave is reflected back if the satellite
is an inert satellite but the reflected wave is very weak so it is not possible to receive it back.

Instead of inert satellite, active satellite is used for satellite communication.

Active satellite should have the following characteristics −

 It should be a geo-stationary satellite.

 The satellite has a repeater system i.e. it includes a receiver, amplifier, transmitter.

Working of satellite communication

In satellite communication the process of transmitting signal wave towards the satellite is known as
uplinking. The satellite has a receiver that receives the incoming message signal and then amplifies
the signal and the frequency of the signal is also changed, after which the message signal is
transmitted back to the earth. This type of propagation is known as space wave propagation and as
satellite is used the communication is called as satellite communication.
The range for receiving the signal transmitted form the satellite is more than 13 rd of the earth.
If it is required that the message signal should reach to a distance larger than the range of the
satellite, then global communication system is used which is a combination of three different
satellites.

When the message signal is to be transmitted beyond the range of a satellite that particular satellite
sends the message signal to another satellite via a special frequency and the message signal is
delivered.

When information signals are transmitted they carry original frequency but original frequency of
audio, music, etc. is very less i.e. of few KHz. Due to this low frequency, communication is not
possible as low frequency signals will attenuate on the way and it will not reach to the receiver.

There are three problem areas while transmitting low frequency signals −

Size of antenna
The minimum size of antenna should be λ 4 for transmission of a wave with wavelength as λ. For
low frequency wave, the wavelength is very high requiring a very large size antenna which is not
practically possible.

The power transmitted

The power transmitted by an antenna is given by −
 P = (1 λ )2
Again, as low frequency wave has very high wavelength so, power transmitted is very small.

Overlapping of transmitters
As the range of frequency is less, many transmitters have the same frequency range and if similar
type of message signal is to be transmitted by two different transmitters having same range of
frequency, then the receiver will receive both the message signal and this will distort the message.
So it is not possible to use many transmitters situated in a small area for communication.

To solve the above issues, there is a need to use high frequency signals and to convert low
frequency signal to high frequency signal we can use the process of modulation.

The process of giving strength to the message signal so that it can travel a long distance i.e.
combining a low frequency message signal wave with high frequency carrier wave is known as
modulation.

Modulation is the process of giving strength to the message signal so that it can travel
a long distance i.e. combining a low frequency message signal wave with high
frequency carrier wave.

There are three types of modulation techniques −

 Amplitude modulation

 Frequency modulation

 Phase modulation

Amplitude modulation
When the modulation is done by combining the amplitude of high frequency carrier
wave with the amplitude of low frequency message wave, then it is known as amplitude
modulation.

For an electromagnetic wave displacement at any time is given by −

Y = A0 sin(ω t + ∅)

Where,

A0 = Amplitude
ω = Frequency

∅ = Phase

While modulation, a high frequency carrier wave is combined with low frequency
message wave.

Displacement for high frequency carrier wave is −

YC = AC sin(ωC t + ∅)

Displacement for low frequency message wave is −

Ym = Am sin(ωm t + ∅)

When both the waves are combined and put over a single conductor, their amplitudes
are summed up and the resultant amplitude is higher than the amplitude of message
signal as shown.
The resultant wave after modulation has characteristics of both the waves. It has the
same frequency as that of the carrier wave and the amplitude of resultant wave is
modulated depending upon the amplitude of message signal, hence it is known as
amplitude modulated wave.

Therefore, displacement for amplitude modulated wave is −

YA.M = (AC + Am) sin(ωC t + ∅)

Frequency modulation
When the modulation is done by combining the frequency of high frequency carrier
wave with the frequency of low frequency message wave, then it is known as
frequency modulation.

In frequency modulation, there is redistribution of frequency, the frequency of resultant

wave increases whenever there is a crest of the message signal and the frequency
decreases whenever there is a trough of the message signal.

When the frequency modulated wave reaches the receiver, the receiver has to retrieve
the message wave from it. To retrieve the message signal, the receiver is instructed
that whenever frequency value greater than the normal frequency is received, a crest
should be generated and whenever frequency value smaller than the normal frequency
is received, a trough should be generated.

Phase modulation
When the modulation is done by combining the phase of high frequency carrier wave
with the phase of low frequency message wave, then it is known as phase modulation.

In phase modulation, frequency and amplitude of the waves are not changed only
phase of both the waves are combined.

When the phase modulated wave reaches the receiver, the receiver has to retrieve the
message wave from it. To retrieve the message signal, the receiver is instructed that
whenever there is a phase change from crest to crest, a crest should be generated and
whenever there is a phase change from trough to trough, a trough should be
generated.

When the modulation is done by combining the amplitude of high frequency carrier
wave with the amplitude of low frequency message wave, then it is known as amplitude
modulation.
Voltage of carrier wave at time `t` is given by −

C(t) = AC sinωCt

Voltage of massage wave at time `t` is given by −

m(t) = Am sinωmt

When both the waves are combined and put over a single conductor, their amplitudes
are summed up and the resultant amplitude is higher than the amplitude of message
signal as shown.

The resultant wave after modulation has characteristics of both the waves. It has the
same frequency as that of the carrier wave and the amplitude of resultant wave is
modulated depending upon the amplitude of message signal, hence it is known as
amplitude modulated wave.

Therefore, Voltage for amplitude modulated wave at time `t` is given by −

Cm(t) = (AC + Am sinωmt) sinωCt

 ∴ Cm(t) = AC(1 + AmAC sinωmt) sinωCt
Let,

AmAC = μ
Where,

μ = Modulation index

∴ Cm(t) = AC(1 + μ sinωmt) sinωCt

∴ Cm(t) = AC sinωCt + μAC sinωmt . sinωCt

As we know, the equation of a wave contains a single harmonic function, so simplifying

the above equation, we get −

∴ Cm(t) = AC sinωCt + μ AC2 cos(ωC - ωm)t - μ AC2 cos(ωC + ωm)t

As we can observe, it is a combination of 3 waves moving together with
frequencies ωC, (ωC − ωm) and (ωC + ωm).

Bandwidth of amplitude modulated wave is 2ωm.

Massage signals are located in side bands.

Operating frequency of amplitude modulated wave is ωC

In amplitude modulation the ratio between the amplitude of message wave and the
amplitude of carrier wave is known as modulation index, which is given by −

μ Am AC
Modulation index specifies the amount of energy of carrier wave used in the
modulation.

If original amplitude of carrier wave and message wave is denoted by A C and

Am respectively, then

Maximum amplitude of amplitude modulated wave is −

Amax = AC + Am

Minimum amplitude of amplitude modulated wave is −

Amin = AC - Am

We can derive some results by observing the above two equations.

AC = Amax + Amin 2
Am = Amax - Amin 2
μ = Amax - Amin Amax + Amin
In amplitude modulation, amplitude of carrier wave should be higher than the amplitude
of message wave. To obtain optimal results amplitude of message wave should be half
of the amplitude of carrier wave.

For the production of amplitude modulated wave, the first step is to gain message
signal from the source of communication and carrier wave from another source.

Once both the waves are received, they are combined i.e. both the waves are passed
to a single conductor. After combination we obtain only the half wave, so to acquire the
complete wave, squaring of the wave is required which is done using squared law
device.

When the wave is squared, many additional waves are also generate which either have
a very large frequency or a very low frequency. Therefore the output wave of squared
law device is passed through a band pass filter which is cantered at the frequency of
carrier wave.

The wave obtained after passing through the filter is amplitude modulated wave but
due to all these operation the wave losses its power, hence it is passed through a
power amplifier and after amplification of power the amplitude modulated wave is
generated and ready for transmission.

Detection is the process of recovering the amplitude modulated wave from the channel.
For detecting the wave an antenna is used which catches the wave. Once the wave is
received, it is passed through an amplifier.

While transmission the amplitude modulated wave is attenuated, hence amplification of

the wave is mandatory. Amplification is followed by intermediate filter stage, which
filters out all the unwanted signals from the wave. After filter stage, amplitude
modulated wave is forwarded to a detector (tuner) which tunes the wave to the
required frequency.

After tuning, the wave is again amplified and passed over to the rectifier. Rectifier is a
device which allows the current to follow only in one direction i.e. rectifier allows the
propagation of wave only in the positive direction and will eliminate the wave in
negative direction. The output wave from the rectifier only contains the positive cycle of
the wave.

After rectification, the wave reaches to envelop detector. Envelop detector is a

capacitor with high resistance. Capacitor allows the high frequency wave to pass
through and will block the low frequency wave. When the high frequency wave will
pass through the capacitor, it will be short circuited and the low frequency wave will
pass through the resistance and that gives the original message wave as the output.