6.15 KEPLER'S LAWS ‘These laws were formulated by Kepler on the basis of the systematisation of obser- vations of Tycho Brahe on the motion of planets. We can, however, derive these froen the discussion presented in this chapter. In the discussion below, the perturbations caused by other planets on the one under consideration, are ignored for the ease of treatment. 1. The first law states thatthe planets move in elliptical orbits having the sun at the focus. This is borne out by Eq. (6.97). It should be remembered that this equation is derived ‘vith one ofthe bodies atthe centre ofthe coordinate system. Therefore, the sun will be at one focus which can be taken as the centre of the coordinate system forthe ellipse. 2. Referring to Fig. 6.15, if a planet moves from P to P’, in time Ar the arca Which the radial vector r sweeps is given by AA = (W/2) r(rA6). Here, we have assumed that SPP isa triangle. which is true if A@ is small, This in turn, means that ‘AA and Av are small. The rate at which the area is swept is given by ‘The last simplification has been obtained through Eig. (6.102). Equation (6.105) is the statement of Kelper's third law according & which the square of the planet's lime period (7) divided by the cube of the major axis from the sim is the same for all planets From Kepler's Laws, one can easily deduce Newton's law of gravitation, as shown below. Assuming that the orbit of a planet around the sun is a circle of radius J, the centripetal force acting am the planes is piven by Femkut swiss = 2, and is the mass of the planet " Therefore Feme (24) - tek 0 t rf According to Kepler's third Law Tek? o exe whore i isa constant. Substituting the value of T i the above Eq. (ih, we pet podem anny ee eee when = SE come The ‘The foree of attraction acting of a planet 15, thes {)) directly proportional ix mans and (ii) inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the sum, However, since the force Of attraction is mutual and directed along the line Joining the two bodies. the force must be proportional to the mass of the other body, ‘Usa ts, the sum, Thus Mr. Giim eR wre Gis the universal gravitational conta and Mf isthe mass of sun. Newton formule he law of gravitation for any two bodies of masses Mand m. Exanmix 615 Show that the velacty of a planet or come, moving in an liptic abit around the sono ti snsng joes ba wenn an Fe Gm,m. ve wen Here + and —signs correspord 10 Fag 304 Fay spectively and m, and my, are the masses ofthe sun and the plaaet or comet. From Eq. (697), the weal energy, £ of any particle moving under a central force ‘piven by 7 Pals QUink) Ewhere m is effective mass of the system, because the mass of the planet or comet (m,) is much smaller than the mass of the sun (m,). Therefore mk (et op -) mem?m?G? Ie = @-) Now, = Zemin e?- Total energy = kinetic energy of moving body + potential energy of the system + centripetal energy Gm rm, B 7 =(1)m v2 - Se, ° #=(3) 7" Qmer : met Gemim? (2) 4 Grime : pet SEE (ety + Fora planet or comet Lins and >is large so tha the one egy i negligible. Therefore Gm, m2 2 Left Now at turning points, r becomes rig 20d ry, Which are given by Eq. (6.103) as, ‘The velocities corresponding t0 Fay ANG Fig Will DE Vai AD Vyas nd therefore, 12 pb 2 Gym? Fw Yin = Gm,me ” = Gmme [ies £2 2Gmym2 I =e [ie ee)EXAMPLE 6.16 ‘The first American satellite Explorer 1, which was launched on Jan. 31, 1958, had mass 14 kg, an apogee (maximum distance from the earth’s surface) of 2552 km and a perigee (minimum distance from the surface of the earth) of 352 km. Deter- imine the angular momentum, energy and time period of the satellite and also its ‘velocity at turning points. The radius of the earth is 6378 km. Solution ‘The satelites move around the earth in elliptical orbits as shown in Fig. 6.16 (which is, however, not drawn to scale). Sattito arth se = es7e—o}e 2550 ken im en Fig. 6:16 Elliptic orbit of explorer / wound the earth, Distances shown are in km Major axis ofthe orbit = diameter of earth + perigee + apogee or 2a = 2 x6378 + 352 +2552 km = 15660 km Therefore, Semimajor axis, a= 7830 km = 7:83 x 10%m. and ‘aax * 6378 + 2552 = 8930 km = 8.93 x 10m Minor axis, ryag = 6378 + 382 = 6730 km = 6.73 x 106m Taking masses of the earth and satelite as mand m,, we have effective mass, me etm, 4 kg is much smaller than the mass of the yam =m, because the mass of the satellite m, earth, m, = 6 x 10 kg. Further, 4 = Gmgn, = 667 x 10° x 6 x 10% x 14. Nm? = 56x 10 Nm? Now from Bg. (6.108), 2 °° ki which together with Eq. (6.97) yields mk -2EL*imk? 2B ‘Therefore, energy of the sutelite, 5.610 2a 15.66% 10" = -26 «1085 Next, solving Eq, (6.103) simultaneously for €, we have 8.93 6.73) x106 C93+6.73)x10© ous ‘tain from Eq, (6.108), we have for angular momentum L = [mnka(l ~ €))!? = [14 x 5.6 x 10% «7.83 x 10° (1 ~ 0.147)!" kg mis =7.8% 10!" kg m/s Since angular momentum is conserved for motion under the inverse square force,angular momenta at the perigee and apogee will be the same as L. Further at turning points the velocity is perpendicular to the radius vector. Accordingly, the velocity Will be maximum forthe perigee and minimum for the apogeee. Thas L= Mpa Y= Ma ‘Therefore Von = 728x100 Tex6- 73x10 = 8.28 x 10° mvs Faaeror * 1818 x 104 mis = 624 x 10° ms ‘From Eq. (6.105), the time period of a satelite is given by ‘na? \" T=2n(202) 14 (7.83106) J! area [ Again} = 6286 (12x 105)"75 14.7 minutes 6.16 SATELLITE MOTION ‘We are familiar with natural satellites in our daily life. The earth is the satellite of the sun and the moon that of the earth. It was in 1957 that the first man made or artificial satellite was hurled into space with the help of powerful rockets. The principle of motion is that the gravitational attraction on the satellite due to the larger body provides the centre-atracting centripetal force that is balanced by the fictitious centrifugal force on it, pulling it away from the centre. If mis the mass of the satellite, M the mass of the earth and r the distance between their centres, the gravitational pull of the earth on the satelite or the centripetal force = G mM/?, where G is the gravitational constant. ‘The centrifugal force on the satellite outwards = mv*/r, where v is the velocity of the satellite. If @is the angular velocity of the satellite, then v = rx. Equating the gravitational pl ofthe earth on the eselite and the centifigual force on the satellite, we get GM rah ror (MG o- fe Now r= R+ h, where R is the radius of the earth and A, the height of the satellite above the surface of the earth. Therefore, o- Pe (R+hP If is the acceleration due to gravity on the earth's surface, then MG 224 or MG = gR* Hence = [ee oO ViReie and the time period 7 Toe [Reh ak?This result, for the case of the orbit lying close to the earth, AR will Tone Toa [E Fi Tecra sed vi gin by voor = =RrJf wa =e Let us estimate the speed by putting the values: R = 64 x 10* cm and g = 980 ‘cm/s, Therefore, = 7.92 x 10° cm/s EXAMPLE 6.17 ‘Satellites always seem to stay over the sime point of the earth's surface if their angular velocity is exactly the same as that of the earth. Calculate the height at ‘which a satellite must revolve in its orbit around the earth, concentric and coplanar ‘with the equator. Solution Let r be the radius of orbit of such a satellite. Now in order to be at the same point ‘over the earth's surface, its angular velocity is the same as that of the earth. Now fora satellite, Thus Substituting G = 6.67 x 10° (in cgs units) 98 x 10" g 28 10% rad/s pw [6:67:10 x5.98x 10” ]"” (728x107) = 4.23 « 10? om Now r=(R+ h), where R is the radius of the earth and h the height ofthe satelite. Thus her-k 24.23 x 10 - 638 x 10° 159 x 10? cm ‘The satellite will revolve around the carth at « height of 3.59 x 10° em. Such satellites are called stationary and are used for communication purposes. We have6 62 a ot 6s 66 67 68 69 610 ou on on eu 616 i en 69 620 621 on ‘Why are gravitational and coulombic fores called inverse square forces? Show that these frces ae central and long-range force. ‘What are weak forces? Comment on the fact that these ae short-range forces. Justify the term ‘contact potential’ forthe weak interaction, ‘Why ate muslear interactions calle strong interactions? Discuss their spatial depen- ‘dence to bring out the fact that these ae shor-range forces. ‘What makes it necessary to introduce dimensionless caupling constants for the com- parson of various forces of nature? ‘Compare the space dependence ofthe four frces of nature. Bring out the significance of studying inverse square law forces. ‘Compare the intrinsic stengths ofthe four forces in nature Prove thatthe centre of mass of a two-body system interacting through cenal forces alsays has constant velocity Define the redaced mass of a twohody system. Does it depend onthe nature ofthe forces acting beween wo bodies? ‘Why do we reduce a two-body problem to a one-body problem by itrodcing the concept of effective mass? Discuss the motion of reduced mass under the influence ofthe inverse square aw force. ‘Show that energy conserved in equivalent one-body motion under the iluence of the inverse square force Starting from the expression for radial aceleration in planar motin, obtain the eax tionship between rand for a two-body system. Show graphically the variation of the inverse square law potential energy centripetal ‘nergy andthe sum ofthe two, with distance between two bodies. Use these curves discuss the nature of motion under inverse square forces. What i effective potential energy 7? Under what conditions is it positive and when can it be negative? “The gravitational fore is atactve in nature, but til the motion of a paticle under this fore can be unbounded Discuss. Siating for: he expressions for + and @ [Eqs (678) and (6.79). obtain the cquation {forthe tajctary ofthe particle moving under inverse square law fore. ‘What are the taming points? Find ther postions in terms of the total energy. inverse square lw fore constam and angular momentum of the two body system having fective mass ‘Shaw thatthe shape ofthe trajectory of & particle moving under the inverse square ta free, depends the relationship between tal energy and angular momentem. ‘Show that the energy ofa particle moving in an obi of eccentricity «, is given by G mim? 2m tm (Wnt: Sirophity Ea, (6.971 Discuss the motion of a particle having foal energy greater than zero and moving under the influence ofan inverse square law force. E »6623 A pustice ii the bound state with respect to another particle exerting inverse square forse on it. Discuss the nature ofits motion. Under what conditions will the trajecory be circular? 624 Surting from Eq. (683), show that radius of a circular obit under inverse square fone i given by Mem 625 The eath's pavitatona fore acting onan artificial satelite of mass mis ~ 107” kg. (634 Show thatthe semi-major axis a of an elliptical orbit is related to the energy of a plant through a=hi-28) where k= Gmm, [Hint Use Eas (697) and (6.104) ofthe text} (635. Enynciate Kepler’s laws and show how they may be deduced from Newton's law of sraitavon 636 Emoloying the firs two Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Newion’s laws of ‘movion, show thatthe ferce acting on a planet is directed toward the sun. is directly proportional to the product of the masses ofthe sun and the planet, and inversely Proportional tthe aquae ofits ditance from the sun. (637 Explain the terms: graviatonal potential and gravitational field. Obtain expressions {or the gravitational potential and gravitational eld at a point () inside and i) outside a hollow spherical she {638 Calculate the gravitational potential and gravitational fd due wo a sphere at a point (0) outside, (i) on the surface, and (it) inside the sphere. Show Gat te poteatial Inside the hollow sphere is 20 {639 (i) Show that he potential the centre ofthe spe i oe anda hal times that o is (O61 Show that the escape velocity from the surface of earth ts V7 umes the velocity of pueiesctaiahaoanog cr aro oa: Een tccm pena sen ofa nee fps show Slee pramd teen fiyuectsiaanaadaoe na sree me eh crn UE an 22 1 Cae conic emg aches ced ward oer beet Crascciae 4s Roel Ste sm ce alse aise 281 10m SS SSeS = tld th eo mies SueatsPROBLEMS (61 A particle of mass m,is approaching another particle of mass m load a the eegin ‘ofthe coordinate ssiem. Italy whee m, isa ininty, thas veloity ¥, sng a ine separated by distance from m,. The particle is deflected towards m due to gravitae ‘onal atracton and passes it at minimum distance 6, Detemine the value of 6 in terms of other parameters. by treating fhe problem as reduced one ody yer (Win: Fo angular momentum snd energy for r= = as well as r= 6 ant apply the laws of their comer ation | flim say? G2 ote?! tm sma} 62 The pus of wo partes movirg under the acto of central forces re given by 1 Ur OL eo 8) = cont ay 2 ri com Frade coresponding fre laws. Ans 1 FA = Linde 2a time 6 Find he tal eyo he cathin tsb gud the sun assuming hat mass the suns 2x 1O™ hg and tat of eats 6 10" hy. The average rads of he eas ‘oii 13 10" km ‘an. 267 10" 3 664 The ental foe pat of te macearmeracon eam be writen as Una Ke where Kand eae pstveconstins, and Ut) is called the Yukawa potential. Decive an expression for the foct coresponding t this poteial asd compare it wits the snverse square law. Discuss th nature of motion of particle of mass m moving under the mfluence of such a force. Under what conditions are circular orbits possible? tne Bam te | vi LE = km} exp (ar) (« x } nd _ —Keap(-ar)(a+ Us.) Se 65 A parole moves in a czcular orbit under the inflence of atractve inverse square force, FU) =~ KIP. Suddenly, Kis reduce to one-fourth its original value. Show that the wajeciory of the particle will become hyperbolic. {66 Depending on its tata ergy, a paicle can move ina parabolic (E = 0) or ctcalar (€ =e 21?) orb under an auracve vere square force. Show hat fr the same ‘value of angular momentam, the perihelion distance (r,,.) of the parabolic path is half the radius of the circular path. 7 In the text at has been shown that the angular momentum is conserved in motion under coal fore. The earth is moving around the sun under a gravitational force and is ‘cht has semi-major ans of 1496 x 10 km. When the earth passes clotst othe sun (ie ict a its perlion, its distance is 147 10° km and is orbital velocity is (0.303 kms, Find the eccentreity of the earth's trajectory, its velocity atthe aphelion and also the angular velocities at the two positions. ‘Ans. 0.017, 0293 km 2.06 x 107 rad, 1.93 « 107 rad + (68 Theplanct Mars hasan sphellon (maximum) distance of 2.485 x 10° km and pethe- thon misma distance of 2.06 X10" km with respect othe sun, whose own radius ‘s nearly 7 x 10 km. Determine the eccentricity of the orbit and also the values of its angular momentum and energy taking the mass of sun = 2 x 10" kg, mass of Mars = 65 «10 kg and G = 6.67 = 10"! Nmvitkg?, ‘Ans, 0093, 363 x 10" kg ms, 1.88 « 10" &‘Ans. 0.093, 3.63 10" kg mis, -185 10") 69 An avi! satelite i evolving around the earth in an oebit with eccentricity 0.50 and penod 48.6 h. Determine the apogee and perigee of the satelite from the surface ‘fe earth Given: mass of the earth 6 % 10" Kg, radlus ofthe cath 6378 kn, ae = 667 x10" Nig? ‘Ans, 122283 km, 391 km 610 The earth wevoles wound the sun in an elliptic obit with eccentricity 01017 and semi-major axis of 1496 x 10! km in 368.26 days. On the other hand, the moon revolves argund the earth inn orbit with eccentricity 0.0549 and semi-rejor axis ax [T8443 10" km in 27.32 days Find the mass ofthe sum, ifthe mass ofthe earth is ven © be 6 10" bg. Alo, determine ru, ad an fOr the wo orbits ‘Ans m, = 2.08 10" kp, am) = 152 108 eh, (rgg)g = LATE 108, a a ® 4055 1° kin (ay ® 3.633 X 10° 6.11 The period times for Mercury, Mars and Earth are 87:97, 687.08 and 36826 sidereal ys nd the major axes ofthe ors of Mercury and Mars i terms ofthat of the cath ‘ns. 0387, 1523 0.12 Obtain the expression for force on a particle of mass m, for whlch the equaton for tjecnry is given by r= asin @. Ans. Fin= 6.13. Show that N charged particles each carrying charge q esu and separated from each ‘ther of an average distance of r em have an electrostatic potential enesgy given by -4Nw-y& ev. 6.14 Wie electic fed everywhere within a uniformly chayged spherical shell zero, show without using he diferenal form of Gauss law that the electrostatic law of force is the invene square ofthe distance. 6.15 Calculate the rate of eneray radiated by the sunin contracting atthe rate of 25 km yer ‘year in radius without reducing effectively the mass. Given that mass of sun and the radius of sun Mf, 2 10” gm and the radius of sun R, = 6.95 x 10"° cm, ‘Ans. 59 510” cain, 6.16 The energy receive a the cant's surface is 17 cal per uquare cm pr in. Calculate the rat of reduction ofthe sun's radius, assuming that the whole of self-energy lst ‘due to contraction is radiaied by the sun. Given the surrcarth distance = 1.5 x 10" om. ‘aus 2Sevyeat 6.17 Calculate the electrostatic seitenerzy of a () conducting and (i) noa-conducting here of radius 20 cm carying achurge of 200 es Fira Me the case of a conducting spire, the charge resides only on its surface, ‘whereas in the case of a non-conducting sphere, the charge is distributed unstormly over is volun “Ans (i) 1,000 eg; (i) 1200 erg 6.18 The orbital velocity of sun about the centre of our galaxy is 3.x 107 envs and its stance from the axis of th galaxy is approximately 3 x10 em. Estimate the mass (of galeny. Given that G = 667 x 10" cgs units, ‘Ans. 405 x 10! pm 16.19 Calculite te mass ofthe earth fom the fobgwing data: Radius of cath = 6 x 10am; G = 66 x 10% gs us; x = 980 cm/s ‘Aas. 6 «10 g (620 Estimate the mas of sun assuming the oft ofthe eat around the sun w be a cic “Te distance betweca the sun and eath is 149 % 10" cm and G = 665 > 10 ces ums Take the year to consist of 365 days. Ans. 20 x 10" Fg 621 ‘Thg maximum and minimum dstances of a comet from the sun are 2 x 10" m and 1 10° m.reapectivey. Ifthe speed of Ux comet atthe tears pat i 60 ks, calculate the speed a the farbest point ‘Ans. 24 ks