Design and construction of a thermoacoustically driven

thermoacoustic refrigerator
(August 2017)
A.C Alcock, L.K Tartibu, T.C Jen

The gas is compressed and heat is absorbed by the gas. The

Abstract— This work describes the design and construction of a gas is then sucked back into the pores expanding along its
standing wave Thermoacoustically Driven Thermoacoustic travels back through the pores rejecting heat. This cycle is a
Refrigerator (TADTAR). The thermoacoustic cooler is proposed in movement of transverse particles known a standing sound
this study as an alternative sustainable solution to current issues with
wave [3].
vapor compression refrigerators, due to its environmentally
friendlier attributes and its solar energy driven capabilities.
However, one of the main hindrances to the expansion of this
technology is its current lack of efficiency and performance closely
related to the designing of the device. Hence, a model has been
designed and constructed to perform an experimental investigation
of the device’s performance at the University of Johannesburg. This
model will mainly be used to investigate the dynamics of the
TADTAR arrangement. The TADTAR consists of two
thermoacoustic systems namely a thermoacoustic engine coupled to
a thermoacoustic refrigerator. The thermoacoustic engine consists of
a heat source and a cordierite honeycomb stack which converts heat
into acoustic energy. The heat pumping takes place within a
thermoacoustic refrigerator. Guidance on the material selection,
Fig. 1. Standing wave thermoacoustic refrigerator
constraints and calculation of the geometrical configuration
describing the device constitute the main contribution of this work.
Index Terms—Design, thermoacoustic refrigeration, TADTAR

1 INTRODUCTION
Thermoacoustics is the interaction of heat and sound.
Thermoacoustic effect is the energy transformation of
acoustic work absorbed to transport heat (thermoacoustic
refrigerator) or the conversion of heat supplied to create
sound (thermoacoustic engine) [1]. A typical thermoacoustic
refrigerator (TAR) uses a sound source, stack and two heat
exchangers, (Fig. 1). Gas compresses and expands inside the
pores of the stack due to the driving membrane of the speaker. Fig. 2. Standing wave thermoacoustic heat engine
A temperature gradient forms along the stack, heat
exchangers harness the heating or cooling loads on either side These two systems can be coupled together, (Fig. 3) to
of the stack [2]. A typical thermoacoustic engine (TAE) form a more complex standing wave system known as a
consists of a heat source, stack, and two heat exchangers, thermoacoustically driven thermoacoustic refrigerator
(Fig. 2). (TADTAR) [4].
The heat source excites the gas inside the resonator tube and
travels through the pores of the stack towards the cold heat
exchanger.

Acknowledgement: This research was supported by the Faculty of

Engineering at the University of Johannesburg.
A.C. Alcock, Mechanical Engineering Technology Department,
University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg
2028, South Africa (e-mail: 201105848@student.uj.ac.za).
L.K. Tartibu, Mechanical Engineering Technology Department,
University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg
2028, South Africa (e-mail: ltartibu@uj.ac.za)
T.C. Jen, Mechanical Engineering Science Department, University
of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Campus, Johannesburg 2006, South Fig. 3. Standing wave TADTAR
Africa (email: tjen@uj.ac.za)
 Thermoacoustic refrigeration is a relatively new field of . Mild steel melts at 1370℃ and can withstand very high
study when compared to traditional refrigeration; hence most pressure (140𝑀𝑃𝑎). The disadvantage of steel is a high
of the study focuses on improving the efficiency and the thermal conduction (54W/mk), which means heat will be lost
performance of these devices in order for them to compete to the metal unless insulation covers the pipes. Losses due to
with the more traditional refrigerators [5]. The lack of moving viscosity would be minimal since the wall of the resonator
parts as well as its solar driven capabilities is strong tube would cause minimal shearing in the moving fluid.
incentives for studying TADTAR [6]. Stainless steel is very expensive and unfortunately must be
The stack is known as the ‘heart’ of all thermoacoustics eliminated as a choice for this reason
devices. This is the main component that can be found in the
resonator tube of the TAE and TAR, (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).
Therefore, two stacks can be found in the TADTAR, as Table I Design selection: Material choice
shown in Fig. 3. Heat transfer takes place within the stack Metal Description
following an approximate Brayton cycle [7]. Coupling both
systems allows the TADTAR to be driven by heat, outputting Mild steel Melting point 1370℃
a cooling load. Maximum losses occur at the stack due to
viscous resistance and thermal losses [8].
Zoontjens et al [9] investigated possible alternatives to Stack:
automotive air conditioning. The use of a TADTAR There are many types of stack profiles and material. Fig. 4
configuration was suggested. The heat source to drive the shows the COP as a function of the ratio between hydraulic
TAE came from the exhaust. Adeff et al [10] designed and radius (𝑟ℎ ) and thermal penetration depth (𝛿𝑘 ) of different
built a TADTAR prototype. The heat source was solar stack profiles. According to Fig. 4, pin array stack profiles
powered and operated at 475℃. The refrigerator produces performed better, however the machining costs are very high
2.5watts of cooling power at 5℃. In their experiment, it was [12]. The next best performing profile is parallel plates.
found that increasing the internal pressure increases the
magnitude of thermal exchange. Based on this finding the
TADTAR considered in this work was designed to withstand
a relatively higher pressure. In addition, Adeff et al. [10] have
observed that a higher heat input results in a more efficient
TAE. Adeff et al [10] concluded that TADTAR are worth
investigating further and are potentially viable technology
solution for countries that have sunlight all year around.
Syeda et al [11] found that TADTAR efficiency depends on
the position of the TAE stack. Maximum efficiency occurs
when the TAE is approximately 𝜆/20 from the pressure
antinode (where 𝜆 represents the wavelength).
2 DESIGN STRATEGY
The objective of this paper is to provide guidance on the
designing of an adjustable TADTAR prototype. Details of the
procedure followed to justify the selection made, form part of
the contribution of this work. The coefficient of performance Fig. 4. Rott function vs hydraulic radius and thermal penetration
depth for stack profile (adapted from reference [reference 12])
(COP) and thermal efficiency have been used as indicators of
performance for the TAR and TAE respectively. Three
Mylar is the typical choice for the stack material as it can
conceptual designs have been described and details about the
be stacked together in sheets, however the melting point of
selection of the adopted geometrical configuration are
Mylar is 232℃ [13]. This is not a desirable stack material as
provided.
the expected operating temperature of the TAE exceeds this
Material Choice temperature. The next material choice is therefore
Three different materials have been evaluated for the honeycomb ceramic, (Fig. 5) which can withstand
construction of the TADTAR namely aluminum, mild steel, temperatures of 1600℃ [13]. Honeycomb ceramic substrates
and stainless steel. Aluminum is the lightest metal of the three (with porosities of 230 and 300 CPSI (cells per square inch))
and the easiest to machine, however the melting point of are readily available at the University.
aluminum is 585℃. Unfortunately, the TADTAR would melt
at maximum operating temperature (expected to be
around600℃) conditions if this metal was used. Stainless
steel would yield the best operating conditions as the finish
of the metal is clean and has the lowest thermal conductivity.
 Viscous penetration depth Equation (3), is the thickness
where viscosity is predominant. The viscosity effect occurs
inside the pores the stack and is a non-desirable effect. The
higher the viscous penetration depth the lower the kinetic
energy of the moving particles [17]. Viscous penetration
depends on the kinematic viscosity 𝑣, and the angular
frequency 𝜔, of the oscillating fluid particles. The viscous
penetrations given as follows

2𝑣
𝛿𝑣 = √ 𝜔 (3)

The selection of the gas is normally done based on the

Prandtl number which is defined as the ratio between the
Fig. 5. Honeycomb ceramic stack
thermal and viscous penetration depth, (Equation 4)
Table II Design selection: Stack 𝛿 2
Stack Description 𝜎 = (𝛿 𝑣 ) (4)
𝑘
Honeycomb ceramic Melting point 1600℃, A low Prandtl number is a preferable property for gases.
Porosity 230&300 CPSI
Table IV Design selection: Working gas
Diameter 103mm
Working gas Prandtl Number (20℃)
Length 160mm
Air 0.72

Mean pressure Helium 0.687

Acoustic power density (W) is proportional to pressure
experienced inside the stack (𝑝1 ).From Equation (1), the
acoustic power is proportional to pressure. Mechanical Resonator tube
strength of the resonator is the limiting factor for the mean Resonator tube criteria are dependent on the boundary
pressure due to hoop stress. conditions that yield maximum temperature difference across
4Π.𝛿𝑘 .𝐿𝑠 .(𝛾−1).𝑝12 the stack. The TADTAR will be designed as half wave length
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝. 𝑑𝑣 ≈ 2𝑝1 . 𝛿𝑉 ≈ 𝜔 (1) prototype, this means that TAR will be closed at the pressure
𝜌𝑚 .𝑎2
antinode.
Π , 𝛿𝑘 , 𝐿𝑠, 𝜔, 𝑎 represent the perimeter of the stack, thermal A Hofler [19] and Garret [20] buffer tube,(Fig. 6) will be
penetration, length of the stack and the speed of sound used at the refrigerator side because the spherical bulb
respectively. We have adopted a mean pressure of 10Bar to contains enough volume to simulate an open boundary
conduct tests [17]. condition whilst holding pressure [17].
Table III Design selection: Pressure An optimized taper of 9 degrees has been used as it has the
least amount of velocity turbulence according to Tijani [12]
Pressure Description A converging diverging resonator will be used, similar to
Adeff [10].
Minimum 100KPa

Maximum 1MPa

Working gas
The thermal penetration depth, equation (2) is a thickness
layer by which heat can be diffused in one half cycle of
oscillation for a sound wave [17]. The pore sizes have to be
large enough in order to minimize the effect of viscosity and
small enough in order to improve the heat transfer between
the surface of the honeycomb ceramic pores and the gas. The
thermal penetration depth is obtained as follows: Fig. 6. Spherical Bulb with 90 taper
2𝐾 In this section, the small diameter 𝐷1 (Fig. 7), shows where
𝛿𝑘 = √𝜌 (2)
𝑚 .𝜔.𝐶𝑝 minimal losses due to viscosity and thermal losses will occur.
𝐷2 , 𝐷1 represent the large diameter and small diameter
Where, 𝐾, 𝐶𝑝 represent the thermal conductivity and respectively, as seen in Fig. 7.
constant pressure respectively.

Fig. 7. 𝐷2 and 𝐷1 for a given taper
In Fig. 8, a ratio of 𝐷2 /𝐷1 =0.54 corresponds to minimal
losses. Therefore, the smaller diameter will be 56mm as the
larger diameter has already been set in section 2.2 (stack
diameter of 103mm).
Heat exchanger
Literature does not give enough details to approximate the
length of thermoacoustic heat exchangers. In addition, the
only heat exchanger experimentally tested was a square- fin
type heat exchanger [21]. This heat exchanger is difficult to
seal in a circular tube. A pipe shell fin type heat exchanger
was designed as seen in Fig. 9 .This heat exchanger is difficult
to machine and has sealing issues .Gas will leak around the
copper tubes as there is no way to seal these pipes into the
steel flange.

Copper pipes

Steel flange

Fig. 9. Pipe fin type heat exchanger

Due to the issues listed previously, it was decided to use a

shell and tube heat exchanger, (Fig. 10). This heat exchanger
is circular and can bolt to a steal pipe flange.
Fig. 8. Losses vs the diameter ration

The resonator length needs to be variable to change the

frequency output of the TAE, (Equation 5). Resonant
frequency that matches the TAE and TAR can be found to
yield maximum performance experimentally. According to
previous experimentation of a TAR with similar stack
samples [15], resonant frequency ranging from 130-140 Hz
was recorded. The minimum resonator length required is ≈
700mm.
𝑎
𝑓= (5)
4𝐿

Table V Designs selection: Resonator

Dimensions Description Fig. 10. Shell and tube heat exchanger

Large diameter 103mm Copper tubes were used as shown in Fig. 10 because of
their high thermal conductivity. Very little is known about its
Small diameter 56mm performance in thermoacoustic application. Tijani [17] also
mentions that for the heat exchanger to work effectively the
Diameter ratio 0.54
blockage ratio of the heat exchanger should be similar to the
Spherical bulb taper 9° blockage ratio of the stack.. Therefore, the heat exchanger
was designed with an intent to match its blockage ratio
Resonator length 700-1400mm (0.221) with the blockage ratio of the 300 CPSI stack
(evaluated to be ≈ 0.9) to be used in the TADTAR.
Table VI Design selection: Heat exchanger Table VII Design selection: Heating coil
Heat Exchanger Description Dimensions Description

Type Shell and tube Volume heated 1.67 × 10−3 𝑚3

Length 100mm Work required 987J

Fluid tubes Copper
Power 1000W
Housing Steel
Maximum temperature coil 600℃
Blockage ratio heat exchanger 0.221

Blockage ratio stack 0.9 Wall thickness

For high pressures experienced in pipes, a fundamental
calculation needs to be performed. Hoop stress (Equation 7),
TAE stack position is the highest stress experienced in thin walled tubes due to
Fig. 11 provides the TADTAR schematic drawing mean pressure. The weakest of the pipes is the pipe with the
considered in this study. largest diameter and the thinnest wall thickness. In the
TADTAR the largest pipe is where the stacks are positioned.
A maximum pressure of 10 Bar will be investigated regarding
yield stress and factor of safety (FOS) for mild steel. Hoop
stress is defined by:

Fig. 11. TADTAR schematic drawing
In order to investigate the performance of different stack
position without moving the stack, flange couplings will be
used as fitting components to lengthen the 103mm diameter
section of the pipe during experimental investigation. This
will allow the testing of different geometrical configurations.
According to Swift [18] the TAE stack needs to be positioned
𝜆
at ≈ from the closed end in order for the performance of
20
the TADTAR to be maximum.
Fig. 11 provides an illustration of the dimensions of
different section of the TADTAR. For a resonator length
(including heat exchangers) x=2520mm, the TAE stack is
𝜆 advantages and disadvantages. The main objective of this
positioned ≈ 132𝑚𝑚 from the closed end of the
20
resonator.
Heat source
A heat source is required in a TAE in order to produce a
sound wave. According to Syeda [11] and Adeff et al [10],
the minimum temperature of the coil is approximately 400℃.
Performance of the TAE improves as the induced temperature
increases therefore; the heating source has been carefully
selected in order to investigate a wide range of temperatures.
The heating source has been selected in order to reach a
maximum temperature of 600oC. The heat required by the
coil is defined as follows:
Q  m.c p . T (6)
Where 𝑚, 𝛿𝑇 is defined as the mass of the fluid and change
in temperature respectively.
pd
c  (7)
2t
Where 𝑝, 𝑑, 𝑡 is equal to pressure, diameter and thickness
respectively
Table VII Design selection: Factor of safety and hoop stress for
larger pipe resonator
Pressure Hoop stress(MPa) FOS
Atmospheric 1.71 93.57
10 Bar 17.17 9.32
3 CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
In the previous section, the basic dimensions and
operational parameters were determined for the TADTAR. In
this chapter, designs will be assessed based on their
section is to determine what mechanism will allow the
resonator length to vary. For all the designs the TAR is
positioned on the right and the TAE on the left.
Concept Drawing 1
Fig. 12 shows the middle section of the resonator pipe is
threaded on the outside diameter and split into two resonator
tubes, namely the TAE and TAR. The hub is threaded on the
inside diameter which both resonator pipes thread into. When
the hub is turned at the handle the pitch of the thread draws
the TAE resonator towards the refrigerator resonator or
outwards depending on the direction of the rotation. The TAR
is constrained and the TAE sits on a linear bearing system.
The advantage of this design is the movement done by the
thread has a mechanical advantage; this means the resonator
tube will be sealed at all time .The disadvantage of this design
is the machining cost. Threading the hub and resonator will
be expensive. The resonator length is limited due to fouling
with the hub and tapers.
 Concept drawing 3

Fig. 12. Conceptual idea. Thread drive system

Fig. 13 shows the TAE and TAR are both constrained. The
stack on both systems sits inside a housing that can slide
inside the resonator tube, thus effectively changing the
resonator length and stack position. The advantage of this
design is the time to conduct the experiment will be short and
simple. The disadvantages are sealing issues, measurement of
the temperatures and difficulties to accommodate the heat
exchangers.
Concept drawing 2
Fig. 14. Conceptual idea 3- Piston slider system
Of the three concept drawings, the third seems more
plausible. Concept 3 has been selected and constructed. In
order to perform different experiments, some components of
the TADTAR have been flanged to facilitate the adjustments
and replacements during experiments (Fig. 15).
4 CONSTRUCTION

Fig, 13. Conceptual drawing 2- Stack slider system

Fig. 15. Three-dimensional CAD drawing of TADTAR
Fig. 14 shows a mechanism similar (in dynamics) to a
hydraulic piston. TAR is constrained and the TAE sits on a Fig. 16 shows the prototype 80% completed, issues have
linear bearing system. The TAE is allowed to travel occurred during this period. The machining of the inner and
transversely in and out of the TAR changing the resonator outer sliding tubes has caused issues. The size of the tube is
length. The advantages of the design are simplicity and too long for standard CNC machines. The pipes had to be
adjustability. The design can accommodate heat exchangers, outsourced to a specialized boring and honing company.
different types of stack geometries and thermocouples. The
entire resonator can be sealed similar to a hydraulic piston
.Two rubber seals and a teflon seal have been used during the
sliding of the movable portion (TAE). The design has the
least amount of components in comparison to the two
previous concepts. The disadvantage of third design concept
is precision. Tolerances between the inner and outer resonator
tubes have to be precise (nearest 100th of millimeter) to seal
the working fluid.

Fig. 16. Construction of TADTAR at machine shop

 Specialized seals had to be found to compensate for the [20] S.L. Garrett, J.A. Adeff, and T.J. Hofler, 1993. Thermoacoustic
refrigerator for space applications. Journal of thermophysics and heat
high temperatures at the TAE, standard rubber seals melt at
transfer, 7(4), pp.595-599.
low temperatures. The inner and outer resonator tubes have [21] E.C. Nsofor, S. Celik. and X. Wang, 2007. Experimental study on the
had issues with concentricity, due to deformities from heat transfer at the heat exchanger of the thermoacoustic refrigerating
welding. Extra supports for the prototype have been system. Applied Thermal Engineering, 27(14), pp.2435-2442.
incorporated since the weight of the prototype was 6 AUTHORS BIO
misjudged. All these factors have been addressed and counter
measures have been enforced to solve the issues.
A. Adam Alcock is a Masters student
5 CONCLUSION at the University of Johannesburg. He
obtained is Bachelors of Technology
This work describes the designing of a TADTAR presented at the University of Johannesburg.
as one of the suitable replacements of traditional refrigerators. This paper forms part of his work and
The TADTAR has auspicious contributions to the expertise related to thermoacoustics.
refrigeration field which is the main motivation of the study.
Details related to the material selection, the operation
parameters, the required heating load, the heat exchangers
and the geometrical configuration of the resonator constitute
the main contribution reported in this work.
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