Aalto University

School of Engineering
Kul-24.4120 Ship Structural Design (P)

Lecture 10 – Fatigue and Fracture Strength

Kul-24.4120 Ship Structures
Strength

Design Framework Lecture 9:
Buckling and Ultimate
Strength

Loads

Response Strength

Lecture 10:
Fatigue and Fracture Strength
 Contents
•  Lecture aims to give understanding on
–  Fatigue and fracture phenomenon
–  Principles and methods for fatigue and fracture assessment of ship structures
•  Motivation
•  Fatigue phenomenon
•  Fatigue Strength Modelling of Ship Structures
•  Methods for fatigue assessment
•  Basic concepts and transition temperatures of steel
•  Application of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
•  Charphy V-fracture toughness test
•  Classification society requirements for material selection
•  Ductile fracture and application to ship collisions
•  Literature
1.  DNV, Fatique Assessment of Ship Structures, Classification Notes No. 30.7, Jan.. 2001.
2.  Maddox, S. J., Fatique Strength of Welded Structures. Abington Pub. 1998.
3.  Hughes, O.F.; Ship Structural Design. SNAME, 1988.
4.  Ochi, M., Applied Probabilty &Stochastic Processes in Engineering & Physical Sciences.
John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
5.  Broek, D., Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1984.
6.  Ikonen, K. ja Kantola, K., Murtumismekaniikka. Otakustantamo, 844. 1986.
7.  Matsubuchi, K., Analysis of Welded Structures. Pergamon Press. 1980.
8.  DnV, Hull Structural Rules.
9.  Ylinen, A., Kimmo- ja lujuuoppi, Osa I.
 Motivation
•  Today, most fractures in ship structures
are due to fatigue
–  Structural optimisation aiming cost-efficient
structure
–  Application of high strength steel

•  Fatigue design of ship has special

challenges
–  Big and complex structure – loading
–  Thousands of steel parts – probability of defects
–  Hundreds kilometres of weld seams – probability
of defects

•  Fatigue crack at critical length can break

the ship in unstable, brittle fashion
 Longitudinals and plate Fatigue stress

Weekly Exercise t
[mm]
Profile Added
Mass
[kg/m2]
Longitudinal
[MPa]
Plate
[MPa]

Deck 1 5 HP100x7 50 70 60

Exercise 10: Fatigue and Fracture … …. …

Strength - Given 17.03.2015 09:00, … …

Return 23.03.2015 09:00

•  Determine the fatigue stress levels
for different decks and identify if you
will have fatigue problems
•  Define the material grades of your
ship when brittle fracture is taken
into accounts.
•  Report and discuss the work.
 History
•  1837: Wilhelm Albert publishes the first article on fatigue. He devised a test machine for
conveyor chains used in the Clausthal mines."
•  1839: Jean-Victor Poncelet describes metals as being tired in his lectures at the military
school at Metz.!
•  1860: Systematic fatigue testing undertaken by Sir William Fairbairn and August Wöhler."
•  1870: Wöhler summarises his work on railroad axles. He concludes that cyclic stress range
is more important than peak stress and introduces the concept of endurance limit."
•  1910: O. H. Basquin proposes a log-log relationship for SN curves, using Wöhler's test
data."
•  1945: A. M. Miner popularises A. Palmgren's (1924) linear damage hypothesis as a
practical design tool."
•  1954: L. F. Coffin and S. S. Manson explain fatigue crack-growth in terms of plastic strain
in the tip of cracks."
•  1961: P. C. Paris proposes methods for predicting the rate of growth of individual fatigue
cracks in the face of initial scepticism and popular defence of Miner's phenomenological
approach."
 Fatigue Phenomenom
•  Fatigue is material failure due to
time varying stresses:
–  Stress below of yield limit
–  Accumulated damage, i.e. progressive
process during several millions of load
cycles
•  Fatigue is localised and initiates at
geometrical discontinuities
•  Fatigue failure composed of
–  Crack initiation
–  Propagation
–  Final fracture
 Fatigue
Terminology 160
140

jännitys [N/mm^2]
Stress σ
120

•  Main parameter affect on 100

80
jakso Smax ΔS

the fatigue is stress (S) 60

range
40
20 Sm

0
-5 -20 5 15 25 35 45
Smin

Δσ = σmax - σmin
-40
-60
Time
aika [s]

•  It is equal to two times of

stress amplitude
Δσ = 2·σa

Stress σ
•  Mean stress gets
σm = (σmax + σmin) / 2 Time
 Types of Fatigue
σ

•  Low cycle fatigue (L)

εp
–  High stress range, maximum stress
over yield limit ε
σ y < σ < σ ult
–  Number of load cycles is small N pieni

–  Submarine Low cycle fatigue

σ

•  High cycle fatigue (H)

–  Maximum stress in elastic range
–  Number of load cycles is high σ < σy
ε

N suuri
–  Welded structures such as ship
High cycle fatigue
Fatigue Strength

•  Fatigue strength of structures

is described with the help of S-
N (Wöhler) curve
–  Number of load cycles N is
presented as a function of stress
range in double logarithms scale
•  S-N combined of
–  Plastic part; L= low cycle fatigue
NSm = C
–  Linear part; H = high cycle fatigue or

–  Constant part; I = infinite life m log S = -log N + log C
C = Fatigue capacity
m = Slope of S-N curve
 Principle of Fatigue Design

•  Design based on constant part (I) i.e.

endurance limit
–  Infinite fatigue life
–  A high weight of structure
•  Design based on linear range (H)
–  Finite fatigue life
–  Fatigue crack has to be observed after it is
critical causing final failure
–  Low weight of structure
•  Fatigue design of ship hull is based on the
latter case
Endurance limit S!

–  Feature of wave loads
Maximum value of stress range without
–  Number of load cycles is high
material failure for infinite life N → ∞.

–  Structures are weight critical
 Design SN-Curve
•  Values of fatigue capacity

–  Based on experiments
NS m = C
–  For welded joint, m=3
logC 97, 5% = logC 50% − 2s
–  Value of C at failure probability
of 2,5 %
⎛ C ⎞
1
m
FAT = ⎜ ⎟
•  In design rules, structures ⎝ 2 ⋅10 6 ⎠

are categorised using FAT

classes

–  FAT = stress range at number FAT

of load cycles of 2*106.
Main Factors

•  Load history
400
300

jännitysheilahdus [N/mm^2]
–  Stress range, maximum
200

stress, load frequency

100

50

•  Geometry of structure and

joint 10
105 106 107
väsymisikä, kuormanvaihtoluku N
108

–  Production technology
•  Material
•  Environment
 Typical Fatigue Failures
•  Fatigue failures exist typically
in
–  Amidships
–  Geometrical discontinuity i.e.
intersection of structural member
–  Welded joints
Typical Fatigue Failures
Main Challenges

•  Fatigue design differs from other structural design

–  Extremely localised phenomenon
–  Accumulated during whole life time
–  Highly affected on production technology such as crack like
defects
 Role of Experimental Work
•  Due to complexity of fatigue
phenomenon, design utilizes
experimental observations
–  Small scale testing
–  Large scale testing
•  Fatigue tests aims to determine
–  S-N curves for different joints
and structures
Fatigue Assessment of Ship Structures

Wave-induced load and hull girder response Local notch stress and strain
Weld bead
σln

Weld
Nominal stress notch
σn om
Cyclic stress of joint Structural
Fatigue resistance of
stress σs material in joint
σn om Weld toe σn om
Top surface

Stress range
S-N curve

Base plate Weld

Bottom surface Fatigue life in load cycles N

Weld root
 Modelling the Long Term Response
Full Spectral Analysis
•  If we allow also other parameter vary we get
Most probable value for
–  Ship speed v, subscript l
significant wave height Hsi

–  Angle of encounter µ, subscript k

Modal period ωmj=fj(Hs)
–  Load case L, subscript m

⎛ x 2 ⎞
Q( X > x) = ∑∑∑∑∑ nijklm exp⎜ − ⎟ p( H i , T j ) p(µ k ) p(vl ) p( Lm )
i =1 j =1 k =1 l =1 m =1
⎜ Rij ⎟ Wave spectrum Sxx(ω)
⎝ ⎠
•  So we have to calculate the response for all cases
Response
spectrum Sxxj(ωmj)

•  and the weighing factor becomes

Response
spectrum Syyijklm(ω)

N 0 + ( H i , T j , µ k , vl , Lm ) i
j

nij = Moments of response spectrum
∑∑∑∑∑ N 0 + ( H i , T j , µ k , vl , Lm ) p( H i , T j ) p( µ k ) p(vl ) p( Lm ) m0ijklm, m2jjklm
i =1 j =1 k =1 l =1 m =1 k
l
m

P(y>yw)ijklm

P(y>yw)w

Design Value
yw

n
Modelling of the Loading
Weibull-distribution (Simplified Analysis)

•  Long term distribution of stress range

follows Weibull distribution f(s) Wave-induced load and hull girder response Local n

k −1 ⎛ s ⎞ k
ks −⎜ ⎟
⎝ a ⎠
f (s) = k
e
a
•  With cumulative distribution Weld
Nominal stress notch
S s
−( ) k σn om
a
F(s) = 1 − Q(s) = ∫ f(s)ds = 1− e
Cyclic stress of joint Structural
0 Fat
1
stress σs
σn om Weld toe σn om
0,8 Top surface

Stress range
k = 1,3
0,6
s Base plate
k = 0,7
Weld k = 1,0

SC Sc is maximum stress
Sc
0,4

a= 1
range in probability level Q 0,2 Bottom surface
Weld root
Fatigu
(ln N) k
= 1/N, typically Q = 1 / 108 0
-8 -6 -4 -2 0
log Q
 Modelling of the Fatigue Loading
Weibull-distribution
•  The most probable stress during life time SC, when Change of lograrithm base
ship encounters N=108 waves has probability Q=1/N.
Then the cumulative distribution gives
1
lnQ
S s
−( ) k lgQ =
F ( s) = 1 − Q( s) = ∫ f ( s)ds = 1 − e a S C = a(ln N) k ln10
0
•  We can solve a from SN-curve gives
SC
a= 1 € 1 1

(ln N) k s ⎡ ln10 ⎤ k k

= ⎢ ⎥ [− lgQ(s) ]
•  Substitution to Weibull distribution gives SC ⎣ ln N ⎦
k
⎡ ⎛ s
Q( s) = exp ⎢− (ln N )⎜⎜
⎞
⎟
⎤
⎥ which describes the stress spectrum
⎟
⎢
⎣ ⎝ S C ⎠ ⎥
⎦ during the lifetime of the ship.
•  Solving stress gives
1
s ⎡ ln Q ⎤ k
= − ⎢ ⎥
SC ⎣ ln N ⎦
Modelling the Fatigue Strength

•  To consider variable amplitude

loading (spectrum load) in fatigue
assessment, Miner rule is commonly
applied
B
ni
η = ∑ ≤ ηL
i =1 N i

–  Damage ratio η (1 … 0.3)

–  Number of cycles n
–  Number of cycles causing failure N
Combining the Load and the Strenght

Miner sum S-N curve Weibull distribution

⎛ k
B s ⎞
ni m
k −1
ks −⎜ ⎟ SC
η = ∑ ≤ ηL N i Si = C f (s) = k e ⎝ a ⎠
a=
i =1 N i
1
a (ln N) k

ni = N f(si) Δs
B
N f ( si )Δs
η =∑ m
i =1 C / s i

N m −
m m
η = S C (lnN) k Γ(1+ )
C k
Methods for Stress Analysis

•  According to consideration Notch stress

of response and strength, it Nominal stress
can be applied three Hot-spot stress

different methods:
–  Nominal stress approach
–  Hot-spot stress approach
–  Notch stress approach
•  Each method has own SN-
curves F M
Nominal stress: σ nom = + ⋅y
–  Notch stress most time A I
consuming and generic
–  Nominal stress simplest to use Hot-spot stress: σ hs = K s ⋅ σ nom
but most expensive to produce

Notch stress: σ ln = Kt ⋅ σ nom

Rules for Fatigue (DNV)
 Case Study
Fatigue Strength of Steel Sandwich Panels
Wave loading for Stresses in
20 years
ship hull

Fatigue strength Fatigue life

of the welded analysis
joint

Caribbean Caribbean
Sea and Sea
Atlantic

Deck Fatigue life Fatigue life

Tf [years] Tf [years]

4. deck 85.7 127.1

5. deck 92.6 199.4
6. deck 17.0 33.6
8. deck 5.0 8.4
 Capsize of the oil platform Alexander
Kielland http://www.exponent.com/multimedia/

•  Alexander Kielland, Norwegian semi-

submersible rig, capsized in March
1980
–  the worst disaster in Norwegian waters
since World War II killing 123 people
•  In 1981, the investigations concluded
that
–  Capsize due to a fatigue crack in one of
its six bracings (bracing D-6), which
leads rig collapse
•  The load-bearing flange plate was
welded to D-6 bracing
–  This plate was used to hold a sonar
device used during drilling operations.
 Capsize of the oil platform Alexander
Kielland http://www.exponent.com/multimedia/

•  Alexander Kielland, Norwegian semi-

submersible rig, capsized in March
1980
–  the worst disaster in Norwegian waters
since World War II killing 123 people
•  In 1981, the investigations concluded
that
–  Capsize due to a fatigue crack in one of
its six bracings (bracing D-6), which
leads rig collapse
•  The load-bearing flange plate was
welded to D-6 bracing
–  This plate was used to hold a sonar
device used during drilling operations.
Brittle Fracture
•  The requirements for structural steels in shipbuilding were
created after number of brittle fractures during 1950’s
iskusitkeys [J]
–  From riveted to welded structures
muutos-
σ vyöhyke
–  About 1000 from built 5000 ships had failures

•  The main reasons were

sitkeäalue
–  Unkilled steel material
ε ductile
haurasalue
–  Bad constructions (notch effect)
brittle σ
–  Poor welding and plate cutting

•  Brittle fracture occurs when ductile properties of the ε

material are lost → low amount of external energy is
needed for crack propagation

lämpötila T
•  The factors causing brittle fracture (transition from ductile
alhainen korkea
to brittle)

–  Low temperature
jännityksen kolmiakselisuus σ3 / σ1
–  Impact type loading

suuri pieni
–  Three-axial stress state

kuormitusnopeus v
suuri pieni
Transition Temperatures for Steel
•  The attached picture contains the transition
temperatures for steels

–  Material behavior changes from ductile to brittle

–  Impact strength of the structure drops significantly

•  Specimens with fatigue load applied before

the tests are also included. It can be seen that
fatigue load lowers the impact strength.

•  The steel from 2nd World War changes has
transition temperature at – 8 0C

–  Applied in the Liberty Class ships

–  T2 tankers

•  In modern steels (Nb-alloyed) the impact

tougness based grades D and have transition
temperature at –40 0C.

 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM)

•  Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
investigates the crack in brittle material

•  The aim is to predict crack propagation and
when it starts

•  The basic property is stress intensity factor K
since with that the occurrance of brittle
fracture can be assessed. It is divided to three
classes based on loading mode

–  KI crack opening in plane strain condition

–  KII in-plane shear

–  KIII out of plane shear

•  In mode I when the load direction changes
crack growth stops. In other two modes this
does not happen.

 Definition of Stress Intensity Factor K

•  Investigation of crack with length 2a in infinite plate is considered. The
plate is loaded at infinity with constant normal stress σ so we have •  The stresses along x-axis, i.e. θ = 0 are

loading Mode I.

•  In the neighbourhood of the crack tip P(r, θ) the stress components are KI
σx =σy =
approximately:
2πr
σ a θ ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞ τ xy = 0
σx = cos ⎜1 − sin sin ⎟
2 r 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
•  So we see that the stress is inversely
σ a θ ⎛ θ 3θ ⎞
σy = cos ⎜1 + sin sin ⎟ proportional to square root of distance from
2 r 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
the crack tip having infinitely large value at
σ a θ θ 3θ
τ xy = cos sin cos crack tip (singularity)

2 r 2 2 2
σ
σ z = 0(plane stress )
σ z = ν (σ x + σ y )(plane strain )
σy
•  In this case any scenario can be described by separation of load (stress)
and the crack length. Then we can define the stress intensity factor byKI, σy y dy σx
which is alone able to describe the crack behavior:
z dx
r
θ
K I = σ πa
x
2a

σ
 Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics
(LEFM)

•  In linear system the optential energy Π, deformation energy U and the work
done by external loads WU are equal by absolute values:

•  U = WU = - Π

•  The change in potential energy dΠ based on growth of crack area dA = t Δa can
be written wih help of crack intensity factor as

dΠ K 2I
=−
dA E
•  This property is called driving force of crack and denoted by G

dΠ
G=−
dA
Example
Splitted Beam

•  The breadth is t
P
•  Loaded by point loads P
a

•  The displacement δ is due to bending,

•  When crack length is a > 10 h the linear
relation is

2δ
h
Pa 3
δ=
3EI
t

•  E and I the Young’s modulus and second

moment of area respectively. The work done P
by external load is WU

2 3
⎛ 1 ⎞ P a
WU = 2⎜ Pδ ⎟ =
⎝ 2 ⎠ 3EI
•  The linear system gives

dΠ dW P2a2 K2 Pa
=− U =− =− I KI =
dA tda EIt E It
 Griffith’s Theory for Fracture

•  When the stress intensity parameter K gets certain tresshold value KC the structure fails by fracture. The critical
tresshold value is called fracture toughness and it is material parameter.

•  Griffith presented in 1921 theory for fracture of brittle materials. In infinite plate with crack

K IC = σ C πa = 2 Eγ S , MPa m ,[ ]
–  Where γS is specific energy per area.

–  Glass γS = 5,43 10-7 Nm/mm2

–  For steels 10 – 300 MPa√m.

•  The structure much fulfill the criteria K < KC to be safe with respect to brittle fracture. In design:

–  The left hand side is influenced by load level and length of crack which has not been detected

–  The right hand side is influenced by material selection (depends also on temperature, thickness of material and loading speed)

•  Linear elastic fracture mechanics can be applied if the plastic region in the crack tip is small with respect to critical
crack length. The plate thickness has to fulfill the following condition

2
K IC
t>
σ m2
•  When the crack tip plasticity is large the facture is ductile
Plastic zone
Determination of Fracture Toughness

iskusitkeys [J]
•  The brittle fracture happens when
the ductility of the material is lost
σ muutos-
vyöhyke
•  Then small amount of external sitkeäalue
energy is needed to propagate the ε ductile
haurasalue
crack
brittle σ

•  The items that increase the danger

–  Impact type loading
ε

–  Low temperature

–  Thick plates with 3-axial stress state
lämpötila T
alhainen korkea

jännityksen kolmiakselisuus σ3 / σ1

suuri pieni

kuormitusnopeus v
suuri pieni
Charphy V-Test

•  Charphy-test forms most popular way
to determine the energy for fracture
(CVN) measured in Joules [J].

•  The test basis on

–  Pendulum

–  Predefined notch with V-shape (Charpy-V)

•  When the pendulum hits the specimen
the energy absorbed by the structure
depends on the ductility

•  The method is NOT based on theory of
fracture mechanics but on the energy
absorbed by the material

The Relation between KC and CVN

K 2IC
[kN / m]
E
250

•  Experimentally found relation between

200

KC and CVN is

150
2
K IC
= 1,81(CVN )[kN / m]
E 100

•  So for steel with E = 2,06 105 MPa this 50

gets
0
0 20 40 60 80 100

CVN[J]
K IC [MPa m]

200
K IC = 1,81⋅10−3 E(CVN ) = 19,3 CVN [MPa m ]
150

100

50

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
CVN[J]
 DNV Charphy V-Test Requirements
•  Table shows the energy levels and corresponding steel grades

•  Note that for HS (High Strength) and EHS (Extra High Strength) the minimum
energy depend on the yield strength

•  It is presented that the Charphy-V given 20 J at transition temperature forms the
minimum requirements for welded steel in ships.

lujuusluokka iskusitkeys
laatu-luokka Koestusläm- Iskuenergia [J], kun t Ł 50 mm
pötila OC
pitkittäinen poikittainen
normaaliteräs A - - -
(NS) B 0 27 20
Minimimyötöraja D - 20 27 20
235 N/mm2 E - 40 27 20
korkealujateräs A 0 27 œ41 20 œ27
(HS) D - 20 27 œ41 20 œ27
minimimyötörajat E - 40 27 œ41 20 œ27
265 -390 N/mm2 F - 60 27 - 41 20 - 27
erikois korkea- D - 20 42 œ69 28 œ46
lujateräs (EHS) E - 40 42 œ69 28 œ46
minimimyötörajat F - 60 42 - 69 28 œ46
420 -690 N/mm2
 DNV Requirements
Steel
•  The grade requirement is based is based on plate thickness and material class

•  DNV has five classes and they are used to secure that the impact toughness KC
is constant

•  Highest classes are required at

–  Sheer strake

–  Bilge

–  Strength deck edge plates

•  The increasing plate thickness increases the rquirements since the stress state
changes from plane stress to three axial stress state

Mechanical Properties
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture

•  Brittle fracture can be controlled with proper

material selection – result of bad quality

•  Ductile fracture usually means that the fracture
does not propagate extremely fast – typical in
ship collisions and groundings

Example – Ship Collisions
•  Colliding ships experience contact load resulting
from the impact between the striking ship and
the struck ship
•  This force induces ship motions, which in turn
cause forces exerted by the surrounding water
•  While the striking ship is often handled as a
rigid body, struck ship motions consist of rigid
body motions and vibratory response of the hull
girder
•  Furthermore, in the presence of partially filled
fluid tanks, the ship motions are affected by
sloshing forces arising from the wave action at
the free surface
•  Usually the material behaves as ductile, but if
the opening size increases dramatically the final
fracture can be brittle
Internal mechanics versus external dynamics
•  The analysis of ship collision interaction can be split into two parts:
–  external dynamics and internal mechanics.
•  Those two parts are often studied separately and linked together by the
common contact force.
•  Internal mechanics are used to evaluate the collision force as a function of
penetration.
•  Based on that curve and the collision scenario the ship motions and the extent
of the deformation can be evaluated by external dynamics.
6
x 10
FORCE [N] 7

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
PENETRATION [m]
 Collision of RMS Titanic with iceberg

•  Northern Atlantic during the maiden voyage on the

15th April 1912
 Historical Collision - RMS Titanic with iceberg

Ship type "Post passenger"

Shipyard"Harland & Wolff, Belfast, "
Ordered"July 1908"
Delivered "2. March 1912"
Length o.a. "269.8 m"
Breadth "28.9 m"
Draught "10.5 m"
Displacement "52 310 tons "
Gross tonnage "46 328 grt"
Main engines "2 piston steam and"
" " " 1 Parsons-turbine"
Axel power "40 MW"
Speed " "22 kn (43 km/h)"
Places in cabins 3547 persons
 Collision of RMS Titanic with iceberg
•  Ship speed prior to collision ~22 knots
•  Collision caused about 90 m long rupture in under-water part of outer shell in fore
ship
•  Due to progressive flooding the ship sunk in three hours and 1500 persons lost
life caused by shortage of life boats
Design of crashworthy ship

•  Subject is either
–  crashworthy structure and/or
–  the whole ship concept.
•  Enlarge the structural
design scope from
operational loads to Increase in performence

accidental loads

Page 48
How can we make ships stronger?

The main aim is to

prevent flooding or oil
out-flow

Page 49
Buffer Bow Design for the Improved Safety of Ships
Kitamura (V), Nagasaki R&D Center, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd., Japan
Hierarchy of the analysis of crashworthy ship

Ship Structure Other inputs

THEORETICAL MODELING OF COLLISION

AND GROUNDING

EXTERNAL DYNAMICS INNNER MECHANICS

STRUCTURAL
DAMAGE

MODELING OF CONSEQUENCES

Human losses Environmental damage Material damage

 Non-linear finite element based
benchmarking
•  Comparative fracture propagation plots

Page 52
Summary

•  Fatigue is cumulative process that can be controlled by

–  Proper manufacturing quality and design of details – quality
–  Monitoring and controlling the load experienced – routing
–  Monitoring the damage accumulation – maintenance
•  Brittle and ductile fracture are often sudden phenomena initiated by
–  Cumulative damage to until critical crack length
–  Sudden excessive loading due to accident (collision, grounding, explosion)
•  Brittle and ductile fracture can be controlled by proper selection of
materials
–  Ductile is better as it does not lead to catastrophic failure
–  Low temperature, high loading speed and high triaxiality of stress can
cause brittle fracture
–  Material grade makes a difference
•  For crashworthiness we should aim for “soft” structures that deform
a lot so that they absorb more energy by bending and folding