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Table of Contents

Chapter No. Page #


1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Objective……….. …………………………………………………. 2
1.2 Methodology……………………….…………………………….. 2
2.0 Theories 3
2.1 Variable Angle Truss model (VATM) ……….……………………. 3
2.2 Skew Bending Theory …………..…………………………………… 3
2.3 Space Truss Analogy………………………………….. .…………. 3
2.4 Elastic Theory by St. Venant………………………………............ 3
2.5 Bredts’ Thin tube Theory…… ……………………………..……… 4
2.6 Softened Membrane Model for Torsion………………………….…. 4
3.0 Zones 6
3.1 Zone 1 ………………………………………………………..……… 6
3.2 Zone 2…………………. …………………………………………… 8
3.3 Zone 3…………………… ………………………………………….. 9
3.4 Transition between Linear and non Linear Analysis………………... 10
3.5 Steps of T-θ Curve……………………………………….……… 11
4.0 Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Results 12
4.1 Graphs……………………….……………………………………. 12
4.1.1 Comparison of Plain RC Beams…………………………… 12
4.1.2 Comparison of Hollow RC Beams………………………… 13
5.0 Conclusions and Recommendations 16
5.1 Conclusions…………………… ……………………………………. 16
1.2 Recommendations…..…………..…………………………………... 16

Appendices
Appendix A References 17

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Table of Figures
Fig. No. Page #
1.1 Space truss analogy……………………………….……………….……. 1
2.1 Sudden fall of T-θ curve using SMMT………………………………. 5
3.1 Typical Torque Twist curve for rc beam………………….……….…… 6
3.2 Shear flow zone and cross-section of rc beam……………..…………. 7
3.3 Torque-Twist curve for linear cracked and uncracked phase………..… 8
3.4 Variable angle truss model………………………………………….…... 9
3.5 Stress-Strain curve considering softening effect...…………………… 10
3.6 Ductile failure…………………………………..……………..…….. 10
3.7 Fragile failure………………………………………………….……. 11

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Table of Graphs
Graph. No. Page #
1 Graph 1………..…………………………………………….………. 12
2 Graph 2………………………………. …………………………….…. 13
3 Graph 3…………………………….………………………….……… 13
4 Graph 4……………………………………..………….……………. 13
5 Graph 5……………………………………………………….……..… 14
6 Graph 6………………………………………………………………... 14
7 Graph 7……………………………………….....…………….……… 14
8 Graph 8……………………………………………..………………….. 15

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Abstract
Reinforced concrete beams are flexure members. Other than shear and flexure, these
beams also experience torsional force. Therefore beams must also be designed to overcome
torsion. Forces that cause a member to twist about a longitudinal axis are called
torsional loads. Torsion is produced by a couple or moment in a plane perpendicular to the
axis. In civil engineering infrastructures, torsion can be of significant action as it is
experienced by Curved bridges, spandrel beams under gravity loads.
A search is done to calculate Torque – twist curve of a normal strength rc beam subjected
to torsion. In this search different theories regarding torsion (st. venant’s elastic theory, Skew
bending theory, space truss analogy, and variable angle truss model theory) were studied and used
for analytical calculation of T-θ curve. The results obtained from these calculations were
compared with the experimental results.
In order to explain briefly, theoretical model of reinforced concrete beams under
torsion is explained to understand the actual behavior of beams in various phases of loading.
Three zones are explained with the help of different theories and transition criteria from one
phase to another phase are also explained. Main conclusion is that this theoretical model
gives good prediction about behavior of rc beam under torsion when compared with the
experimental results[1]. The theories explained to understand the three zones are st. venant
elastic theory, skew bending theory, rauch truss analogy, variable angle truss model and
Softened membrane model for torsion (SMMT). SMMT is able to predict the overall
response of rc beam under torsion[2].
Recently, Generalized Softened Variable Angle Truss Model theory (GSVATM) is
presented by Bernardo and Lampert to predict overall T-θ curve of rc beam under torsion[2].

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CHAPTER 1
1) Introduction
Rauch presented space truss analogy to explain the behavior of beams under torsion
in 1929[3]. According to Rauch, a member can be considered as a space truss consisting of
spiral concrete diagonals that are able to take load only in a parallel direction and not in a
normal direction to the torsional cracks, transverse tension rebars that are provided by closed
stirrups or ties, and tension chords that are provided by longitudinal rebars[3].
In a rectangular cross section as shown in figure below, torsional resistance provided
by a member is equal to the sum of the shears acting on each wall of the equivalent hollow
tube.

Figure 1.1: space truss analogy


The shear V4 acting in the right-hand wall of the tube vertically is contributing to
torsional resistance as T4 = V4Xo/2[3]
Space truss analogy is currently the base of American code since 1995 and also
European code since 1978. After Rauch, many modifications have been done in his original
theory and further developments were made to explain theoretically the behavior of beam
under torsion. These authors who modify the theory include Anderson, Cowan, Lampert,
Thurlimann, Elfgren, Collins and Mitchells.
Variable angle Truss Model (VATM) theory is also the updated version of Rauch’s
STA. This theory was presented by Hsu and Mo in 1985. In VATM, a softening effect is
taken into account for stress strain relationship. Although this theory was developed to
predict the overall behavior of beam through entire loading history but this theory gives
good results for higher levels of loading i.e to check for ultimate torsional strength. Recently
bernardo and Lopes in 2008 and 2011 developed the new approach to predict the entire T-0

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curves of rc beams under torsion. Changes were made in original VATM theory by
correcting the formulation for each behavioral state of the beam under torsion.
1.1) Objective:
 To study the development of the theoretical model to understand the behavior of rc
beams under torsion.
 To study the development of computational procedure to predict the behavior of rc
beams for all the three zones with the help of different theories.
 To study the behavior of SMMT and GSVATM.
 to study the transition criteria in between the three zones.
1.2) Methodology
In this research torsion behavior of reinforced solid and hollow beams is studied.
Different theories to explain the torsion behavior of reinforced concrete are explained briefly.
The purpose of using different theories is also mentioned. Steps for calculation of torsion in
reinforced concrete beam according to ACI code are also written.
For this purpose, different papers are studied and the comparison between
experimental tests versus theoretical models is explained. The experimental tests are
compared against the theoretical models. The theoretical models are based on different
theories such as skew bending theory, space truss analogy and variable angle truss model
(VATM). Currently space truss analogy is the base of American code since 1995. The
experimental tests are performed on concrete beams under torsion and their behavior is
modeled by means of Torque – Twist curve. The torque- twist curve consists of 3 main
zones[1].
1. Zone 1: non cracked state (Linear elastic analysis)
2. Zone 2: cracked state (Linear elasic analysis)
3. Zone 3: cracked state (non linear analysis)
Zone 1 is analysed by skew bending theory, theory of elasticity for solid concrete
beams and Bredt’s thin tube theory for hollow beams. Zone 2 is analysed through Space truss
analogy. Zone 3 is analysed through Variable Angle Truss Model considering a non linear
behavior of the materials and concrete’s softening effect[4]. The theories used in explaining
Torque-twist curve are explained in next chapter.

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CHAPTER 2
2) Theories
2.1) Variable Angle Truss Model (VATM)
This theory doesn’t anticipate the torsional behavior of concrete beams before
cracking and immediately after cracking. It gives good predictions in non linear cracking
state. For both plain and hollow sections when softening effect is taken into account,
theoretical and experimental results match for Maximum torque. VATM assumes that the
beam is fully cracked and concrete core has negligible influence (plain concrete) in torsional
stiffness. In this way a theoretical model approaches the real experimental model.
2.2) Skew Bending Theory
This concept was given by Lessing in 1959, then this theory was improved by many
researchers in which goode n Helmy in 1968, Hsu in 1968 and Rangan in 1975 did research.
This theory was adopted by ACI code in 1971 and was base of ACI code till 1995.
The basic principle of this theory is that the rectangle section subjected to torsion fails
by bending about an axis parallel to the wider face of the section and inclined at about forty
five degree to the longer axis of the re inforced concrete beam[5].
Tn = (x2 y / 3) * fr
Where fr is modulus of rupture of concrete and assumed to be 5 (under root fc)
2.3) Space Truss Analogy
This theory was first presented by Rauch in 1929. Many modifications and
improvements are made in this theory. The basic concept of this theory is based on the
assumption that the torsional capacity of a reinforced concrete rectangular section is
calculated from the transverse and longitudinal rebars and the concrete covering these rebars
only. In this case a thin walled section with a definite thickness is assumed to act like a space
truss. The inclined spiral strips between cracks resist the compressive forces by the torsional
moment.
2.4) Elastic Theory by st. venant
This theory specifies that strains induced by discontinuities in load or in member
cross section vary in an approximately linear fashion at distances greater than or equal to the
depth h from the point of load application. When stresses are low and concrete is in elastic
range, not cracked yet, the elasic theory is used to calculate stresses within D-regions. When

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concrete cracks, the strain field is damaged and a redistribution of the internal forces occurs.
Once this happens, the internal forces are then represented by truss analogy.
2.5) Bredt’s Thin Tube Theory
Bredt developed the elastic theory for torsion for thin walled tubes which is in
approximation with St. venant elastic theory. Bredt gave two formulas, one for stress
distribution and other for angle of twist of tube.
τ = (T/2Ah) (1)
where
τ = shear stress
T = Torque
A = area enclosed by mid-thickness curve C of the tube cross section
h = Thickness of wall
θ = ( ᵞm P/2A) (2)
where
θ = angle of twist/length
ᵞm = mean shear strain
P = perimeter of C
2.6) Softened Membrane Model for Torsion (SMMT)
“The Softened Membrane Model (SMM), was developed to predict the behavior of
reinforced concrete beams subjected to shear. This model is now extended to predict the
behavior of rc beams under torsion. This new analytical method, called the Softened
Membrane Model for Torsion (SMMT), takes into account the strain gradient of concrete
struts in the shear flow zone by making two modifications to the constitutive relationships of
concrete.” These modifications are
 In the tensile stress–strain relationship of concrete, the pre-cracking stiffness and the
strain at peak stress should each be increased by forty five percent[6].
 The Hsu/Zhu ratio for torsion is taken as 20% less than that for shear[6].
“This new SMM for torsion is able to predict the entire torque–twist curve, including
the pre-cracking and post-cracking range[6]. The theoretical predictions from the SMMT
compare very well with the test data on torsion available in the literature for solid rc beams.
For hollow beams, this theory does not predict well the Tcr – θcr as compared to the
experimental results. The theoretical model shows the sudden fall as shown in figure below

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which we does not see in experimental results of solid and hollow concrete beams. The
modification done for hollow beam is that the pre cracking stiffness and the strain at the peak
stress, both are increased by 24% instead of 45%.

Figure 2.1: sudden fall at Tcr is observed using SMMT


According to author’s point of view, this sudden fall is because of the stress – strain
relationship shape of concrete in tension.

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CHAPTER 3
3) Zones
3.1) Zone 1
Zone 1 is the non cracking phase of reinforced concrete solid and hollow beams. In
this phase stress is proportional to strain and that’s why linear elastic analysis of this phase is
explained with the help of st. venant’s theory, skew bending theory and bredt’s thin tube
thoery.

Figure 3.1: typical T-TWIST curve of RC Beam


Tensions stresses occur in concrete as a result of torsion forces. The maximum shear
stress (at the middle of the longest side of the cross section) can be computed by[7]:
τmax = T/ WT = ( T/α x2 y ) (plain section) “
τmax = T/ WT = ( T/2Ah ) (hollow section) “
where WT is the Elastic Modulus of Torsion and a is a St. Venant’s coefficient.
The cracking torque, Tcr, may be calculated by assuming a maximum concrete stress
of fctm (average concrete strength in tension)[7]:
Tcr = (WT fctm”

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Figure 3.2: shear flow zone and cross section of rc beam
Tcr may also be calculated through Skew-Bending Theory for plain concrete beams[2]
(with f’c in psi, and x and y in inches):
Tcr = (Tnp = 6y (x2 + 10). (f’c) ⅓ )
For hollow sections with constant wall thickness (h) Equation becomes (with f ‘c in
psi, and x and y in inches):
Tcr = (Tnp = 6y (x2 + 10). (f’c) ⅓ . (4h/x) for h ≤ x/4 )
If h is greater than x/4, then h should be assumed as h = x/4[7].
Tcr may also be calculated by means of Bredt’s Thin- Tube Theory for tubular
sections ( with f’c in psi, t in inches and Ac in inches):
Tcr = (2Ac t (2.5 √f’c ) )
where:
Ac = area limited by the outer line of the wall of the hollow section area;
t = wall thickness of the hollow section.
Equation may also be used for plain sections by taking: t = 1.2Ac/pc, where pc (in
inches) is the perimeter of the outer line of the section. Some researches has shown that the
torsion reinforcement has a minute effect on the torsional stiffness of the beam. However, the
presence of this reinforcement in the concrete beam delays the point of cracking. In 1968,
Hsu showed that the effective cracking moment (Tcr,ef) may be calculated by:
Tcr.ef = “(1 + 4ρtot) Tcr “
The total percentage of torsion reinforcement, qtot, is equal to the sum of the
transverse and the longitudnal percentages (qt and ql):
ρl = Al/Ac
ρt = (At u / Ac S)
Where
Al = total area of the longitudinal reinforcement;
At = area of one leg of the transversal reinforcement;
Ac = area of the section limited by the outer perimeter (includes the hollow part);

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s = “spacing of stirrups”
u = “perimeter of the centre line of the stirrups”
The twist, in Radian/meter, is calculated by:
θIcr = ( Tcr.ef / KIt )
3.2) Zone 2
Zone 2 includes the portion of after cracking of concrete. It is subdivided into two
parts, 2a and 2b as shown in figure above. The slope of zone 2b will give us torsional
stiffness of concrete after cracking. The slope of cracked phase is less than uncracked phase.
This zone is explained with the help of space truss analogy as it gives good results in high
level loadings.
Hsu proposed the torsional stiffness ((GC)II) of the cracked state by considering a
tube of uniform thickness of reinforced concrete beam. This theory was validated when he
did experiments and it became cleared that concrete core is not influenced by torsion after
cracking. Now to observe the behavior of reinforced concrete tube, Raush space truss
analogy was used. Figure below shows the linear elastic un-cracked phase (Zone 1)and
linear elastic cracked phase (Zone 2).

Figure 3.3: T-θ curve for linear uncracked and cracked phase
In the graph, The transition from non cracked state to cracked state shown by
horizontal line is not shown in experiments as this portion is negligible and very small[2].

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3.3) Zone 3
Zone 3 shows the non linear behavior of rc beam. This non linearity can be because
of non linearity of materials or softening effect of concrete. Here in this study Variable
Angle Truss model was used to study the non linearity of concrete by taking into account the
softening effect.
To determine the T- Theeta curve from VATM we require three equations of
equilibrium to find Torque, the effective thickness td of the concrete wall and the angle α of
inclined concrete strut from the horizontal axis of the reinforced concrete beam[7].
T = 2Aotd σd sinα cosα
Cos2α = Al fl / (po σd td )
td = (Al fl / po σd) + (Atft/s σd )

Figure 3.4: variable angle truss analogy

The graph below shows the stress – strain curve of concrete considering softening
effect. The curve shown below is based on the experimental results on panels under pure
shear. For normal strength concrete, strain at peak stress in the curve below is 0.002 and
ultimate strain is 0.0035 as shown in figure 3.5.
In the graph, the ascending and descending parts of stress –strain curve are shown by
following equations.
𝜀𝑑 𝜀𝑑
σd = 𝑓′𝑐 [2 − 𝜆 ]
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑜

σd = “fp (1-η2)”
Where:
εd and εt are medium strain in strut direction and medium strain in transverse
direction. Hsu and Mo checked VATM with softening effect against experimental results
and found that this theory gives good results for higher levels of loading i.e in cracked state

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and not in uncracked state. In case of concrete, the stress σ after the peak value is decreased
with an increase in deformation as shown in figure below. This is called strain softening.

Figure 3.5 Stress-strain curve considering softening effect

3.4) Transition between Linear and non Linear Analysis


There can be two possible situations for a cracked state, either concrete can crack and
cause fragile failure or steel can yield to cause ductile failure. The figures below show the
transition phase of ductile and fragile failure[7].

Figure 3.6: ductile failure

It is assumed that linear cracked phase is valid until one of the rebars, either
transverse or longitudinal, yields. This is the transition point. The change in twist is
calculated as shown in figure above. Then the non linear phase is shifted to left side to eset
the continuity of the curve[7].

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Figure 3.7: fragile failure

Here it is assumed that concrete reaches the ultimate strain before any rebar yields.
The transition point is defined where the slope of non linear phase is equal to slope of linear
phase[2].
3.5) Steps for the Calculation of T-θ Curve for Zone 3
The procedure for calculation of T-θ curve is given below in the form of steps[7].
Step 1: Select εds
How?
Step 2: estimate td , α, and λ
Where td = (Al fl / po σd) + (Atft /s σd )
α = cos-1 (Al fl / po σd td)2
λ = √(εl + εt + εds ) / (εds /2)
Step 3: Calculate K1 using following equations
K1 = λ (εds/εo) – (λ2/3) (εds/εo)2 where εds ≤ εo/λ
K1 = (1 – (1/2λ - 1)2) (1- (εp /3εds)) + (1/2λ - 1)2 (1- (εp /3εds) (εds / εp) where where εds ≥ εo/λ
Step 4: Calculate Torque T with the formula given below
T = 2Aotd σd sinα cosα
εl = ((Ao2 σd / Po T Cotg α) – ½ ) εds
εt = ((Ao2 σd / Po T tg α) – ½ ) εds
Step 5: Calculate td (td’) again. If the new td’ is not equal to td then estimate td again. If td’ = td then
calculate α (α’) again. If α = α’ then calculate λ’. If λ = λ’ then calculate θ
θ = ( εds / 2td sinα cosα )
Step 6: check if εds > 0.35
If not then start from step 1.

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CHAPTER 4
4) Comparison of Experimental and Theoretical Results
Based on above calculations for the three zones, the T-θ curves are plotted for plain
and hollow rc beams under pure torsion and these curves are compared with the
experimental results.
In zone 1, theory of elasticity and SB theory gives good results for plain sections,
where as for hollow sections, Bredt’s thin tube theory gives good results. In this zone, the
torsional stiffness is kept K= 0.7 instead of 1. This is done in order to incorporate the micro
cracking of concrete before the critical cracking stage appears. This shows that micro
cracking in concrete should not be neglected. In case of hollow beams this phenomena is
more prominent as there is an interior void and all the stresses occur in the outer surface
might prevent stress distribution towards the center of the beam. Keeping K 0.7 gives good
predictions when compared to experimental results.
In zone 2, STA was used and η was used for transition criteria by Hsu. The results
give good predictions when compared with experimental results as shown in graphs below.
In zone 3, VATM theory gives good predictions for torsional moments T of the rc
beam considering the softening effect where as for twist, the predictions were not very good.
The deviations in results are significant for plain beams as compared to hollow beams. This
might be because of the stress distribution of plain beam towards its center implying
different ultimate deformation.
4.1) Graphs
4.1.1) Comparison of Plain RC Beams

Graph 1

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Graph 2

Graph 3
4.1.2) Comparison of Hollow RC Beams

Graph 4

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Graph 5

Graph 6

Graph 7

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Graph 8
In graphs 7 and 8, both the beams are equal except for their sections. Beam of graph
7 is plain where as beam of graph 8 is hollow. Dispite the similarity a great difference
between the two beams can be seen in terms of torsional stiffness. In zone 2, the lost in
torsional stiffness of plain beam can be seen.
Sudden ends of the T-θ curves as shown in graph 1 is because of either the strain of
concrete in the strut direction reaches its maximum value i.e εcu = 0.0035, or the strain of
steel εs reaches the ultimate value εsu = 0.01.

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CHAPTER 5
5) Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1) Conclusions
Following are the conclusions of this research
 In Zone 1, st. venant elastic theory and Skew Bending Theory gives good results for
plain sections. However, for hollow sections, Bredt’s thin tube theory gives best
results. This shows that concrete core of the section is very important in un cracked
phase.
 In Zone 2 (after cracking), space truss analogy with 45 degree angle gives good
results for T-θ curve. This shows that in cracked phase, the concrete core has
negligible effects.
 For non-linear analysis, VATM gives good predictions for ultimate torque by taking
into account Softening Effect. Softening effect also helps in prediction of ductile or
fragile failure of rc beam.
 Concrete core does not affect the concrete ultimate strength but it does effect the
ultimate deformation. For ultimate twist, the results of hollow beams were more
close to experimental results as compared to plain beams. This shows that plain
beams have a tendency to redistribute stresses towards the center of the section,
which might not affect the ultimate strength but could have effect on ultimate
deformation, allowing a bigger deformation as compared with hollow beams.
 As compared to theoretical model proposed using SMMT, this theoretical mode
gives good predictions. But this model is less rational because it uses different
theories.
 In order to calculate high torsional moments, this procedure can be helpful in
determining the values of cracking and ultimate torques for example in curved
bridges.
5.2) Recommendations
 Improve SMM and GSVATM theories for calculation for T-θ curves.
 The research on reinforced plane and hollow concrete beams under torsion should
continue in order to get good and rational theoretical models.

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Appendix A
Refrences:
1. Lopes, S.M., L.F. Bernardo, and A.H. Alavi, Theoretical model for the mechanical
behavior of prestressed beams under torsion. Cogent Engineering, 2014. 1(1): p.
943934.
2. Bernardo, L. and S. Lopes, Theoretical behavior of HSC sections under torsion.
Engineering Structures, 2011. 33(12): p. 3702-3714.
3. MacGregor, J. and M. Ghoneim, Design for torsion. ACI Structural Journal, 1995.
92(2).
4. Prabaghar, A., Finite element analysis of rectangular concrete beams reinforced
internally with glass fiber reinforced polymer reinforcements under pure torsion.
2012.
5. Arslan, M.H., Predicting of torsional strength of RC beams by using different
artificial neural network algorithms and building codes. Advances in Engineering
Software, 2010. 41(7): p. 946-955.
6. Jeng, C.-H. and T.T. Hsu, A softened membrane model for torsion in reinforced
concrete members. Engineering Structures, 2009. 31(9): p. 1944-1954.
7. Bernardo, L.F. and S.M. Lopes, Behaviour of concrete beams under torsion: NSC
plain and hollow beams. Materials and Structures, 2008. 41(6): p. 1143-1167.

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