Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 25

Plasmons, polarons, polaritons

• Dielectric function; EM wave in solids


• Plasmon oscillation -- plasmons
• Electrostatic screening
• Electron-electron interaction
• Mott metal-insulator transition
• Electron-lattice interaction -- polarons
• Photon-phonon interaction -- polaritons
• Peierls instability of linear metals

For mobile positive ions


Dept of Phys

M.C. Chang
Dielectric function
(r, t)-space (k,ω)-space

∇ ⋅ E (r , t ) = 4πρ (r , t ) ik ⋅ E (k , ω ) = 4πρ (k , ω )
∇ ⋅ D(r , t ) = 4πρ ext (r , t ) ik ⋅ D (k , ω ) = 4πρ ext (k , ω )
( ρ = ρ ext + ρind )

Take the Fourier “shuttle” between 2 spaces:


d 3k dω
E (r , t ) = ∫ E ( k , ω ) e i ( k ⋅ r −ω t )
, same for D
(2π ) 2π
3

d 3k dω
ρ (r , t ) = ∫ ρ ( k , ω )e i ( k ⋅r −ω t ) , same for ρ ext
(2π ) 2π
3

D(k , ω ) = ε (k , ω ) E (k , ω ) (by definition)


or ρ ext (k , ω ) = ε (k , ω ) ρ (k , ω ) (easier to calculate)

or φext (k , ω ) = ε (k , ω )φ (k , ω ) ∵ E (k , ω ) = −ik φ (k , ω )... etc

Q: What is the relation between D(r,t) and E(r,t)?


EM wave propagation in metal
Maxwell equations
1 ∂B iω
∇× E = − ; ∇⋅ D = 4πρext ik × E= + B ; εionk ⋅ E = 4πρext
c ∂t c
1 ∂D 4π iω 4π
∇× B= + + J ext ; ∇⋅ B = 0 ik × B= − εion E + Jext ; ik ⋅ B = 0
c ∂t c c c

ω2
4π iω
(J = σ E)
||
( c
)
→ k × k × E = − 2 ε ion E − 2 σ E
c
( )
k k ⋅ E − k 2E
• Transverse wave
ω2 ⎛ 4π iσ ⎞
⎜ ε ion +
2

ω ⎟⎠
k =
c2 ⎝
ω c
∵υ p = = , refractive index n = ε
k n
4π iσ
∴ ε (k , ω )=ε ion + (in the following,
ω let εion ~1)
• Longitudinal wave
ε (k , ω )=0
Drude model of AC conductivity

d v v
me = −eE (t ) − me
dt τ
Assume
E (t ) = E0 e − iωt
then
v = v0 e − iωt
eτ / me
→ v =− E (t )
1 − iωτ
→ j = − ne v = σ (ω ) E

AC conductivity
σ0 ne 2τ
σ (ω ) = , σ0 ≡
1 − iωτ me
4π iσ
ε (ω )=1+
ω
AC dielectric function (uniform EM wave, k=0)

4π iσ 0 ⎧1 + 4π iσ 0 / ω for ωτ << 1
ε (0,ω )=1+ =⎨
ω (1 − iωτ ) ⎩1 − ω p / ω for ωτ >>1
2 2

where plasma frequency ωp2=(4πne2/m)

• Low frequency ωτ<<1

τ~10-13-10-14, ∴ω can be as large as 100 GHz


n = ε = nR + inI
⎛ 1 1 2 ⎞
1/2
⎧⎪2πσ 0 / ω for σ 0 / ω << 1
where nI = ⎜ − + 1 + ( 4πσ 0 / ω ) ⎟ =⎨
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎪⎩ 2πσ 0 / ω for σ 0 / ω >> 1
• Attenuation of plane wave due to nI
exp(ik ⋅ r ) = exp(inω / ckˆ ⋅ r )
= exp(in ω / ckˆ ⋅ r ) exp(−n ω / ckˆ ⋅ r )
R I

exponential decay
• High frequency if positive ion charges can be distorted

ωτ>>1 ~2 / ω2)
ε (ω ) = 1 − ω 2p / ω 2 → ε ion − ω 2p / ω 2 = ε ion (1 − ω p

~ → ε (ω ) < 0
ω <ω ~ → 0 < ε (ω ) < 1
ω >ω
p p

EM wave is damped EM wave propagates with


phase velocity C/√ε

What happens near ω=ωp?

Shuttle blackout
ω = ω p → ε (ω ) = 0
can have longitudinal EM wave!

Homework:
Assume that k ⋅ E ≠ 0 , then from (a) Gauss’ law, (b)
equation of continuity, and (c) Ohm’s law, show that
4πσ (ω ) ρ (ω ) = iωρ (ω )
Also show that this leads to ε(ω)=0.

• On the contrary, if ε(ω) ≠0, the EM wave can only be transverse.

Energy
dispersion
• When ik ⋅ E = 4πρ ≠ 0 , there
exists charge oscillations called
plasma oscillation.
(our discussion in the last 2 pages
involves only the uniform, or k=0,
case)
• A simple picture of
(uniform) plasma oscillation

mu = −eE = −(4π ne2 )u


∴ u oscillates at a frequency
ω = 4π ne 2 / m

• For copper, n=8×1022 /cm3


ωp=1.6×1016/s, λp=1200A, which is ultraviolet light.
Experimental observation: plasma oscillation in Al

e
metal

Plasmon 15.3 eV bulk plasmon

10.3 eV surface plasmon

• The quantum of plasma


oscillation is called plasmon.
• Dielectric function; EM wave in solids
• Plasmon oscillation -- plasmons
• Electrostatic screening
• Electron-electron interaction
• Mott metal-insulator transition
• Electron-lattice interaction -- polarons
• Photon-phonon interaction -- polaritons
• Peierls instability of linear metals
Electrostatic screening: Thomas-Fermi theory (1927)

Valid if ψ(r) is very smooth within λF


2

( 3π 2 n(r ) )
2/3
• Fermi energy: ε F (r ) ≈
2m
2

( 3π n )
• Electrochemical 2/3

potential: μ = ε F (r ) − eφ (r ) = 2
0
2m

3 n0e 2
ρ ind (r ) = − e(n(r ) − n0 ) ≈ − φ (r )
2 μ
3 n0e 2
or ρ ind ( k ) = − φ (k )
2 μ
ρ ext ( k ) ρ ind ( k ) 3 n0e 2 φ ( k )
Dielectric function ε ( k ,0) = = 1− = 1+
ρ(k ) ρ(k ) 2 μ ρ(k )

but k 2φ ( k ) = 4πρ ( k )
k s2 6π n0 e 2 ⎛ 3 n0 ⎞
∴ ε (k ) = 1 + 2 where ks ≡
2
= π 2
μ μ =
μ ⎜⎝ ⎟
4 e D ( ), D ( )
k 2μ⎠
2
• For free electron gas, D(εF) = mkF/ 2π2, a0 =
me 2
→ (ks/kF)2=(4/π)(1/kFa0) ~ O(1)

• Screening of a point charge

For φext (r ) = Q / r ⇔ φext (k ) = 4π Q / k 2


φext (k ) Q
φ (k ) = = 4π 2
ε (k ) k + k s2
d 3k Q − ks r
⇒ φ (r ) = ∫ φ ( k )e ik ⋅r
= e
(2π )3 r

Comparison: ε ( 0, ω ) = 1 − ω 2p / ω 2 ; ε ( k ,0) = 1 + k s2 / k 2
Why e-e interaction can usually be ignored in metals?
2
• 1 e2
K≈ , U≈
m r2 r
U me 2 r
≈ 2 r= Typically, 2 < U/K < 5
K aB

• Average e-e separation in a metal is about 2 A


Experiments find e mean free path about 10000 A (at 300K)
At 1 K, it can move 10 cm without being scattered! Why?

• A collision event: k1 k3

k2 k4

• Calculate the e-e scattering rate using Fermi’s golden rule:

1 2π

2
= f | Vee | i δ ( Ei − E f )
τ i, f
2 2
Scattering f | Vee | i = k3 , k4 | Vee | k1 , k2 The summation is over all possible
amplitude initial and final states that obey
Ei = E1 + E2 ; E f = E3 + E4 energy and momentum conservation.
Pauli principle reduces available states for the following reasons:

Assume the scattering amplitude |Vee|2 is roughly of the same order for
all k’s, then 2π
τ −1 ≈ ∑ ∑1
2
Vee E1+E2=E3+E4;
k1 , k2 k3 , k4
k1+k2=k3+k4

• Two e’s inside the FS cannot scatter with each other


(energy conservation + Pauli principle). At least one of
them must be outside of the FS.

Let electron 1 be outside the FS:


• One e is “shallow” outside, the other is “deep” inside
also cannot scatter with each other, since the “deep” e
has nowhere to go.

• If |E2| < E1, then E3+E4 > 0 (let EF=0) 1


But since E1+E2 = E3+E4, 3 and 4 cannot be very far from 2
the FS if 1 is close to the FS.
Let’s fix E1, and study possible initial and final states. 3
(let the state of electron 1 be fixed)
• number of initial states = (volume of E2 shell)/Δ3k
number of final states = (volume of E3 shell)/Δ3k
(E4 is uniquely determined)

• τ-1 ~ V(E2)/Δ3k x V(E3)/Δ3k ← number of states for scatterings


V ( E2 ) ≅ 4π k F2 | k2 − k F |
V ( E3 ) ≅ 4π k F2 | k3 − k F |
∴τ-1 ~ (4π/Δ3k)2 kF2|k2-kF|×kF2|k3-kF|

Total number of states for particle 2 and 3 = [(4/3)πkF3/ Δ3k]2

• The fraction of states that “can” participate in the scatterings


= (9/kF2) |k2-kF|× |k3-kF|
~ (E1/EF)2 (1951, V. Wessikopf)

Finite temperature:
~ (kT/EF)2 ~ 10-4 at room temperature
→ e-e scattering rate ∝ T2
• need very low T (a few K) and very pure sample to eliminate thermal and
impurity scatterings before the effect of e-e scattering can be observed.
insulator conductor
3 types of insulator:
1. Band insulator (1931)
[due to e-lattice interaction]

e-e interaction is not always


unimportant! Si:P alloy

2. Mott insulator (1937)


A sharp (quantum)
[due to e-e interaction] phase transition

insulator metal

1977
3. Anderson insulator (1958)
[due to disorder]

• Localized states near band edges


1977

localized states

disorder
Insulators, boring as they are (to the industry),
have many faces.

Band insulator
(Wilson, Bloch)
Mott Anderson Quantum Hall Topological
insulator insulator insulator insulator
Peierls Hubbard Scaling theory
transition model of localization

1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

2D TI is also called
QSHI
• Dielectric function; EM wave in solids
• Plasmon oscillation -- plasmons
• Electrostatic screening
• Electron-electron interaction
• Mott metal-insulator transition
• Electron-lattice interaction -- polarons
• Photon-phonon interaction -- polaritons
• Peierls instability of linear metals
Electron-lattice interaction - polarons 極化子
• rigid ions: band effective mass m*
• movable ions: drag and slow down electrons
• larger effect in polar crystal such as NaCl,
smaller effect in covalent crystal such as GaAs

• The composite object of

“an electron + deformed lattice (phonon cloud)”


is called a polaron.

• # of phonons surrounding the electron


KCl KBr
deformation energy 1
≡ α α 3.97 352
.
ω L ( k → 0) 2
*
m* / me 0.50 0.43
m
m*pol ≈ for small α m*pol / me 125
. 0.93
1− α / 6
Phonons in metals
• Regard the metal as a gas of electrons (mass m) and ions (mass M)
The ion vibrating frequency appears static to the swift electrons

∴ use ε el ( k ,0) = 1 + k s2 / k 2

However, to the ions, ε ion (0, ω ) = 1 − 4πne 2 / Mω 2

total ε ( k , ω ) = ε el + ε ion − 1 For a derivation,


see A+M, p.515.
k s2 4πne 2
=1+ 2 −
k Mω 2
• The longitudinal charge oscillation (ion+electron) atε=0 is
interpreted as LA phonons in the Fermi sea.
6π ne 2
• For long wave length (both ω and k are small), we have k ≡
2
s
εF
Longitudinal
ω = υk , υ = (m / 3 M )1/ 2 υ F sound velocity

For K, v=1.8×105 cm/s (theory), vs 2.2×105 cm/s (exp’t)


Resonance between photons and TO phonons: polaritons 電磁極化子
(LO phonons do not couple with transverse EM wave. Why?)
EM wave (ω=ck)
• dispersion of ωT(k) ignored in the active region
ω
• ignore the charge cloud distortion of ions
Optical mode
• assume there are 2 ions/unit cell
resonance
+ - + -
Acoustic mode
Dipole moment of a unit cell k

p = e(u+ − u− ) ≡ eu
then M + u+ + k (u+ − u− ) = eE (t )
M − u− − k (u+ − u− ) = − eE (t )
→ Mu + ku = eE ,
where M −1 = M +−1 + M −−1
is the reduced mass
Consider a single mode of uniform EM wave
E (t ) = E0 e − iωt , then u = u0 e − iωt
e
→ −ω 2u + ωT2u = E , where ωT2 ≡ k / M
M
• Total polarization P=Np/V, N is the number of unit cells

ne 2 / M
∴P = 2 E , D = E + 4π P Damping region
ωT − ω 2
ε(ω)
4π ne 2 / M
Therefore, ε (ω ) = 1 +
ωT2 − ω 2
ε(0)
If charge cloud distortion 4π ne / M 2
ε(∞)
→ ε ∞ +
of ions is considered, ωT2 − ω 2
4π ne 2
• Static dielectric const. ε 0 = ε ∞ + > ε∞ ωT ωL ω
M ωT 2

ωT2ε 0 − ω 2ε ∞ ⎛ ωL2 − ω 2 ⎞
∴ ε (ω ) = ≡ ε∞ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟
ωT − ω
2 2
ω
⎝ T − ω ⎠
ε0 2
where ωL2 ≡ ωT , such that ε (ωL ) = 0
ε∞
NaCl
• LST relation ω ε2
= 0 (> 1)
L
ω ε∞
2
T

Experimental results

NaCl KBr GaAs ε< 0

ωL/ωT 1.44 1.39 1.07 ωT ωL


[ε(0)/ε(∞)]1/2 1.45 1.38 1.08

ω=C/ε∞1/2k
Dispersion relation ω
C 2 k 2 (Ck ) 2 ω 2 − ω 2T
ω =
2
=
ε (ω ) ε ∞ ω 2 − ω 2L LO mode
ωL
TO mode
ω >> ω L ,T → ω = (C / ε ∞ ) k ωT
ω << ω L ,T → ω = (C / ε 0 ) k
ω T < ω < ω L → no solution ω=C/ε01/2k k
0
• The composite object of photon+TO phonon is called polariton.
Peierls instability of 1-dim metal chain

metal insulator

• An example of 1-d metal: poly-acetylene (1958) 聚乙炔

• sp2 bonding • Dimerization opens an energy 二聚[作用]


• π- electrons delocalized along gap 2-3 eV (Peierls instability) and
the chain becomes a semiconductor.

Вам также может понравиться