ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION (For Engineering Students) By Dr. A.K. Gautam 246194 S.K. KATARIA & SONS® Publishers of Engineering & Computer Books 4760-41/28, Ansari Road, Daryaganj Delhi-110002 Ph. 99, 29269324 Fay 43489 e-mail: Kotar kiPublished by: For S.K. Kataria & Sons® 4760-61/23, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Ph.: 011-23243489, 23269324 Fax: 91-11-23243489 Email: katariabooks@yahoo.com, katson_sanjeev@yahoo.co.i Showroom: 109 Prakash Mahal, Dr. Subhash Bargav Lane Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002 Head Office: Opp. Clock Tower, Ludhiana (Pb) Ph. : 2726401 @ALL RIGHTS STRICTLY RESERVED SUL Na ARO ACd Information contained in this book hag been obtained by author from sources believed to be reliable and are correct to the best of his knowledge. Every effort has been made to avoid errors and omissions and ensure accuracy. Any error or omission noted may be brought to the notice of the publisher which shall be taken care of in the forthcoming edition of this book. However. neither the publisher nor the author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, ‘and neither the publisher nor author take any responsibility or liability for any inconvenience, expenses, losses or damage to any one resulting from the contents of the book. The book is meant for educational and learning purposes and there is no attempt on the part of publisher/author to render engineering and other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. The author of the book has taken all possible care to ensure that the contents of the book do not violate any existing copyright or other intellectual property rights of any person in any manner whatsoever. Inthe event, the author has been unable to track any source and if any copyright has been inadvertently infringed, the facts may be brought to the notice of the publisher in writing for corrective action. Send all correspondence to: Mls S.K. Kataria & Sons, New Delhi email: katariabooks@yahoo.com First Edition: 2002 Second Edition: 2005 Third Edition: 2005 Reprint: 2007 Fourth Edition: 2008 Fifth Edition: 2010 Reprint: 2011 Reprint : 2012 Price : RS. 265 Laser Type Setting by: SARAASSIGNMENTS, Patparganj, Delhi-110092 Fine Offset Printer, D-29, Tronica CityPreface to the Fifth Edition e author feels great pleasure in presenting the fifth edition of the book, within a short period of five years. The book has been thoroughly revised and rewritten. The matter has been ‘worganised accordingly so as to facilitate the students as well as teachers. Every care has been taken to eliminate mi ions and errors but it is too much to expect that no inaccuracy /misprint/error has crept in and author would be highly grateful to the readers for bringing to his notice any error/misprint/omissions, they may come across while going through the book. I would like to thanks to all readers to appreciate the book. The author is thankful to his publisher for bringing out the book in such a short-time and for pricing it moderately despite heavy cost of paper and printing, Dr. A.K. Gautam PauriDedicated to “Devanshu” My little son, “for all the joy you have brought into our lives”Contents S.No. Chapters Pages 1. Electromagnetic Field Radiation 152 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Functions of An Antenna 1 13 Elementary Antenna 2 1.4 Antenna and RF Oscillatory Circuit 2 1.4.1 Release of Re Energy 3 15 Analysis of Radiative Field of Small Current Element 3 1.6 Power Radiated by Current Element or Poynting Vector of the Fields 9 17 Radiation Resistance of a Current Element u 1.8 Short Dipole and Monopole Antennas u 1.9 Effective Length of Linear Antennas 12 1.9.1 Linear Current Distribution 12 19.2 Sinusoidal Current Distribution 4 1.10 Power Radiations and Radiation Resistances of Linear Antennas 4 1.10.1 Electrically Short Dipole Antennas 14 1.10.2 For Monopole Antenna 15 1.10.3. Half Wave Dipole Antenna 16 1.10.4 Vertically Earthed Antenna 16 1.11 Radiation from a Half Wave Dipole or Quarter-wave Monopole 18 1.12 Power Radiation by a Half Wave Dipoles and its Radiation Resistance 22 Solved Examples 23 Summary 49 Exercise 50 2. Antenna Terminology 53—124 2.1 Introduction 53 2.2. Network Theorems 53 2.2.1 Superposition Theorem 54 2.2.2 Thevenin’s Theorem 54 2.2.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem 54 2.2.4 Compensation Theorem 54 2.25 Reciprocity Theorem 54 2.2.6 Proof of Reciprocity Theorem 55 2.3. Application of Network Theorems to Antennas 57 2.3.1 Equality of Directional Patterns 57 2.3.2 Equivalence of Transmitting and Receiving Antenna Impedances 58 2.3.3. Equality of Effective Leygths 59 2.4 Basic Antenna Parameters 61X Antenna 25 2.6 27 28 29 2.10 2 2.12 2.13 214 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 and Wave Propagation Radiation Patterns Radian and Steradian Radiation Power Density Isotropic Antenna Bandwidth Radiation Intensity Beam Efficiency Gain 2.12.1 DirectiveGain 2.12.2 Power Gain Antenna Efficiency Effective Area of an Antenna 2.14.1 Scattering Aperture 2.14.2 Loss Aperture 2.143 Collecting Aperture 2.144 Physical Aperture and Aperture Efficiency 2.155 Effective Height 2.14.6 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Short Dipole 2.14.7 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Linear 4/2 Antenna 2.148 Relation between Effective Area and Gain of Antenna Side Lobes Beamwidth Polarization 2.41741 Linear Polarization 2.17.2 Circular Polarization 2.173 Elliptical Polarization Front to Back Ratio Directivity 2.19.1 Directivity and Gain 2.19.2. Directivity and Resolution Transmission between two Antennas 2.20.1 Radar Equation Directional Patterns Self Impedance Mutual Impedance Antenna Temperature Equivalent Noise Temperature of Antenna Methods of Excitation of the Antennas 2.26.1 Centre Fed 2.26.2 Shunt Fed 2.26.3 End Fed 2.26.4 Tapped Fed 62 64 65 66 68 69 70 71 72 72 73 74 75 77 77 77 78 79 80 82 83 83 84 85 85 86 86 86 88 88 89 90 92 94 95 97 99 100 100 100 100 100Contents xi Solved Examples 100 Summary 122 Exercise 123 3. Antenna Arrays 125—210 3.1. Introduction 125 3.2. Various forms of Antenna Arrays 126 3.2.1 Broadside Arrays 126 3.2.2 End Fire Array 126 3.2.3 Collinear Array 127 3.2.4 Parasitic Arrays 128 3.3. Arrays of two point source 129 3.3.1 Atray of Two Point Sources with Equal Amplitude and Phase 129 33.2 Arrays of Two Point Source with Equal Amplitude and Opposite Phase 132 3.3.3. Arrays of Two Point Sources with Unequal Amplitudeand any Phase 134 3.4 Non-isotropic but Similar Point Sources 135 3.5 Multiplication of Pattern 136 3.5.1 Radiation Patter of 4-Isotropic Element Fed in Phase, Spaced 4/2 Apart 137 3.5.2. Radiation Pattern of 8-Isotropic Elements Fed In-phase, Spaced 2/2 Apart 138 3.6. Linear Arrays of 1 Isotropic Point Sources of Equal Amplitude and Spacing 139 3.7 Linear Broadside Array of Point Sources 141 3.7.1 Analysis of Broad-Side Antenna Array 141 3.8 End-Fire Array of Point Sources 143 3.8.1 Analysis of End-Fire Antenna Array 44 3.9 End-fire Array with Increased Directivity 147 3.10 n-Element linear Array and directivity 151 3.10.1 Broadside Array 151 3.10.2 Ordinary End Fire Array 153 3.10.3 Hansen-Woodyard End-fire Array 155 3.11 Aarray with Maximum Field in an Arbitrary Direction 156 3.12 Phased (Scanning) Array 157 3.13 n-Element Linear Array: Uniform Spacing, Non-uniform Amplitude 157 3.14 Binomial Arrays 157 3.15. Antenna Synthesis 158 3.16 Dolph-Tschebyscheff array 159 3.16.1 Array Design Procedure Using Dolph-Tchebyscheff Amplitude Distribution 163 3.16.2 Beamwidth between First Nulls of Chebyshev Polynomials Patterns 165 3.16.3. Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW) and Minor Lobes Maxima of Chebyshev Polynomials Patterns 166 3.17 Continuous Arrays 169 3.18 Super Directivity qi 3.19 Effect of Earth on Vertical Patterns 171 3.19.1 Radiation Patterns of Vertical Antenna Above the Earth 172Xil_ Antenna and Wave Propagation 3.19.2. Radiation Patterns of Horizontal Antennas above the Earth Solved Examples Summary Exercise 4. Practical Antennas ar 42 43. 44 45 46 47 48 49 4.10 4l1 412 413 414 4.15 4.16 417 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 Electromagnetic Spectrum Antenna for Low Frequencies (15To500Khz) Grounded Vertical Antennas or Marconi Antenna 4.3.1 Hertz Antenna Radio Direction Finding (RDF) Loop Antennas 4.5.1 Electric Field of Small Loop Antenna 4.5.2 Radiation from Short Magnetic Dipole 4.5.3 Power Radiated by Small Loop Effects of Antenna Height 4.6.1 Anterina Top Loading and Tuning 4.62 Physical and Effective Height of an Antenna Antenna for Medium Frequencies (300 to 3000 Khz) Antenna Couplers Antenna for High Frequencies (3 to30Mhz) Long Wire or Harmonic or Travelling Wave Antennas The Rhombic Antenna 4.11.1 Rhombic Array Other Types of High-frequency Antenna Half-wave Length Dipole VHE and UHF Antenna (25-470 MHz) Parasitic Element 4.15.1 Folded Dipole Yagi-uda Antenna General Characteristic of Yagi-uda Antenna The Frequency-independent Concept: Rumsey’s Principle Log-periodic Antenna Equiangular Spiral Antennas 4.20.1 Planar Spiral Antenna 4.20.2 Conical Spiral 4.21.3 General Properties of Log Periodic and Frequency-independent Antennas Turnstile Antenna Super Turnstile Antenna Discone Antenna and Conical Skirt Monopole Other Omni Directional Antennas Circularly Polarized Antenna 173 174 208 208 211—309 241 212 213 215 215 216 217 219 221 223 223 224 224 225 226 227 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 235 237 237 238 240 240 242 243 243 244 245 246 247Contents xiii 4.26 Patch or Microstrip Antennas 249 4.26.1 Advantages of Microstrip Antenna 250 4.26.2 Disadvantages of Microship Antenna 250 4.26.3 Applications of Microship Antenna 250 4.26.4 Mechanism of Radiation 251 4.26.5. Radiation from Patch Antenna 252 4.27 Helical Antenna 253 4.27.1 NormalMode 254 4.27.2 Axial Mode (256 4.27.3 Lesign Procedure 257 4.27.4 Applications of the Helical Antennas 258 4.28 Parabolic Reflectors 259 4.28.1 The Parabola General Properties 259 4.28.2. The Paraboloidal Reflector or Dish 260 4.28.3 Field Distribution Across the Aperture of a Cylindrical ParabolicReflector 262 4.28.4 Radiation Patterns of Large Circular Apertures with Uniform Illumination 264 4.285 TheCylindrical Parabolic Reflector 266 4.29 Feeding Systems for Parabolic Reflectors 267 4.29.1 Dipole Feed 267 4.29.2. Horn Feed (Cassegrain Antenna) 268 4.29.3 Horn Reflector or Hog Horn Antenna 268 4.29.4 Periscope Antenna 268 4.30 Comer Reflector Antenna 269 4.31 A Comparison between Parabolic and Corner Reflectors 270 4.32 Horn Antenna 271 4.32.1 Application of Horn Antenna 273 4.33 Lens Antennas 274 4.33.1 Principle 274 4.34 Phased Array Antennas (Concept for Smart Antenna) 274 4.35 Slot Antenna 276 4.36 Babinet’s Principle and Complementary Antenna 277 Solved Examples 279 Summary 305 Exercise 307 . Propagation 310—402 5.1 Introduction 310 5.2 The Fundamental Equation’ for Free Space Propagation 311 5.3. Propagation of Radiowaves 313 5.3.1 Propagationat Different Frequencies 314, 5.4 Modes of Wave Propagation 315 5.5. Ground Wave or Surface Wave (Upto 2MHz) Propagation 316 5.5.1 Ground Wave Propagation Characteristic and Summerfield Equation 316 5.5.2. How doesGround Wave Propagate? 319 5.5.3 Electrical Nature of Earth 5.5.4 Reflection of RF WavesXIV Antenna and Wave Propagation 5.5.5 Summerfield Nomogram 322 5.6 Space Wave Propagation 323 5.6.1. Range of Space-Wave Propagation or Line-of-sight 324 5.6.2. Concept of Effective Earth’s Radius (Radio Horizon) 325, 5.6.3 Field Strength of Space or Tropospheric Wave 331 5.6.4. Effect of Earth’s Imperfections on Space Wave Propagation 334 5.6.5. Effect of Obstacle and Hilly Terrains on the Space Wave Propagation 335 5.7 Tropospheric Scatter Propagation or Forward Scatter Propagation (VHF and Microwaves, i., above 300 MHz) 336 5.7.1 The Phenomenon of Tropospheric Scatter 337 7.2. Advantages of Tropospheric Scatter /Differaction 337 5.7.3. Disadvantage of Tropospheric Scatter /Diffraction 338 5.74 Tropospheric Scatter Fading 338 5.7.5 Mode of Propagation 339 5.7.6 Troposcatter/ Diffraction Operational Frequency Bands 339 5.8. Duct Propagation (Super Refraction) 339 5.9 Structure of Ionosphere 341 5.10. Characteristic of Different Layer 343 5.10.1 DLayer 343 5.10.2 ELayer 343 5.10.3 FLayer 343 5.11 Sky Wave Propagation 343 5.11.1 Propagation of Radiowaves Through the Ionosphere 345 5.11.2 Effect of the Collision 347 5.11.3. Effect of the Earth's Magnetic Field 349 5.11.4 Radio Wave Bending by the Ionosphere 351 5.11.5 Critical Frequency 353 5.12. Virtual Height 353 5.13 Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) 354 5.14 Service Range and Skip Distance 355 5.15 Calculation of Muf* and Skip Distance 356 5.16 Regular Variation of the Ionosphere 359 5.17 Irregular Variation of the Ionosphere 361 5.17.1 Sudden Ionosphere Disturbance 362 5.17.2 Absorption 362 5.17.3 Storms 362 5.17.4 Polar Cap Absorption 363 5.17.5 Attenuation Factor For Ionosphere Propagation 363 5.18 Lowest Useful High Frequency 364 5.19 Whistlers 364 5.19.1 Incoherent Scatter (Thomson Scatter) 365 5.20 Ionosphere Fading and radio Noise 365 5.20.1 Interference Fading 366 5.20.2 Polarisation Fading, 366 5.203. Absorption Fading 3665.21 5.20.4 Absorption in lonosphere 5.20.5 Abnormal Absorption in Ionosphere 5.20.6 Skip Fading 5.20.7 Radio Noise and its Grading 5.208 Impulse Noise 5.20.9 Fluctuation Noise 5.20.10 Solar Radio Noise 5.20.11 Special lonospheric Phenomena Multiple-hops Communication 5.22.1 Limit for Hop Distances Solved Examples Summary Exercise 6. Antenna Measurements 61 62 63 64 65 6.6 67 68 69 6.10 64 6.12, 6.13 Introduction Drawbacks in Measurements of Antenna Parameters Antenna Ranges Reflection Ranges Free Space Ranges 65.1 Elevated Ranges 65.2 Slant Ranges 65.3 AnechoicChamber 65.4 Compact Ranges 6.5.5 Near-Field /Far-Field Methods Radiation Pattern Measurement 6.6.1 Instrumentation 6.6.2 Amplitude Pattern 6.6.3 Phase Measurements Gain Measurements 6.7.1 Absolute-Gain Measurements 6.7.2. Gain-Transfer (Gain-comparison) Measurements Directivity Measurements Radiation Efficiency Impedance Measurements Current Measurement Polarization Measurements Scale Model Measurements Summary Exercise Multiple Choice Qustions Appendices Previous Years Question Papers Index Contents xv 366 366 367 367 367 367 367 368 368 369 370 398 400 403—428 429 449 502 506 403 404 404 405 405 405 406 407 407 408 409 410 411 413 413 415 417 418 419 420 421 422 426 427 427 — 447 — 501 — 505 — 508 oo00gLETTER SYMBOLS. Quantity Symbols: 1. Instantaneous values of current, voltage, and power, that vary with time, are represented by the lower case letter of the proper symbol. Examples: i, v, p Maximum (Peak), average (direct current and root-mean-square values of current, voltage and power are represented by the upper case letter of the appropriate symbol. Examples: I, V, P Subscripts for Quantity Symbols: 1. Direct-current values and instantaneous total values are indicated by upper case superscripts. Examples: ig, Io Veg Pci Pe Alternate component values are indicated by lower case, subscripts. Examples: i., Ly Vey Per P- Symbols to be used as subscripts: Ee Emitter terminal Bb Base terminal Ge Collector terminal Aa Anode termitial Kk Cathode terminal Ges Grid terminal M,m Maximum value Min, min minimum values Pp Plate terminal Examples: I,, emitter direct-current (no alternating current component) I, ems value of alternating component of emitter current. i, instantaneous value of alternating component of emitter current. Supply voltages may be indicated by repeating the terminal subscript, Examples: Vig, Voc, Vgp Vere Voc The one exception to this system is the occasional use of V* for supply voltage of a tube. Note that V" replaces the more usual B*. 3, The first subscript designates the terminal at which current or voltage is measured with respect to the reference terminal, which is designated by the sound subscript.LETTER SYMBOLS Constant Symbol ‘Value (MKS unit) Speed of light in vacuum © 3x 10° m/s Electron charge q 1.60218 x 10°C Plank’s constant A 6.6256 x 104J., Boltzmann’s constant Ky 1.38054 x 10° J/K Ky T/qatT =300K - 0.02586 eV Permittivity of freespace Eq 8.8542 x 107 F/m Permeability of freespace By 4p x 107 N/A2 Electron volt ev TeV = 1.60218 x 10°?) Angstrom unit A 1A =104pm=10% cm Base of natural logarithm, e 2.71828 Pi 3.14159Chapter Electromagnetic Field Radiation Basket senna 2 you have completed this chapter, you will be able to understand: Electromagnetic field radiation of an antenna. Basic functions of an antenna Radiation from an oscillating current element. Radiation from short monopole and dipole. Half wave dipole, radiation pattern and power radiated. Radiation resistance. Power radiated by vertical and isotropic antenna. Applications of short antenna. 11 INTRODUCTION Before the study of an antenna, we should go through a quick review of impedance matching ‘basic transformer theory and resonant circuit). As we know, the maximum power transfer could be possible when the source matches the load. So, the antenna must have the ability to match the transmission line and the load impedance. At radio frequencies, and depending on the physical length, a wire can be used as an impedance matching device. The antenna must also act like a resonant circuit, ie,, it must have the ability to transfer energy tom electrostatic to electromagnetic energy or vice versa. So, we also consider the antenna, as 2 transducer. An antenna is generally a metallic object, often a wire or group of wires. The spacing, length and shape of the device are related to the wavelength 2 of the desired transmitter frequency, ,, mechanical length is inversely proportional to the frequency. te f where T = time, f = frequency ‘Therefore, for an antenna operating at 50 MHz and wavelength: é azt f where, c = speed of light; c = 3 x 10°m/s 1.2 FUNCTIONS OF AN ANTENNA ‘An antenna have two basic function as given below.2 Antenna and Wave Propagation 1. An antenna should radiate Radio frequency (RF) energy developed in the transmitter and act as an impedance matching device for matching the impedance of the transmission line with the impedance of space. 2. An antenna should radiate energy in specified (desired) direction and suppress (stop) the radiation in unwanted directions. 1.3 ELEMENTARY ANTENNA Theoretically, an antenna should be a point radiator or isotropic radiator which acts as the basic ideal element. Then, we can build up the working pattern of various practical antennas on the basis of a number of such isotropic antennas. But, in point of electromagnetic theory, a radiating element cannot be a point source because unless it has two poles (i¢., dipole). It can be better understood by observing a condenser with an inductance, forming an elementary oscillator circuit as shown in Fig. 1.1. s +ar- RF excitation RF voltage from transmitter} -gl. * Fig. 1.1 Elementary dipole oscillators. There is an electric and magnetic field associated with the circuit. The electric field is between the plates of the condenser C and the magnetic field is in a direction normal to the direction of the electric field. The magnetic stress magnitude will depend on the current strength. 14 ANTENNA AND RF OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT The applied RF voltage (Fig. 1.1) is sinusoidal; and therefore the electric and magnetic fields will change sign at every half cycle as shown in Fig. 1.2. At any instant, both electric and magnetic vectors are necessary to'make an electromagnetic wave.* Therefore, the vectors exists in phase with respect to time but in space quadrature. In a LC oscillatory circuit, electric and magnetic vectors are in quadrature (i.e., at 90° to each other) in time and space. Direction of propagation Fig. 1.2 Showing space quadrature of E and H vectors in propagation, * Electromagnetic wave consists Electric and magnetic field at 90 degree to each other.Electromagnetic Field Radiation 3 14.1. Release of RE Energy In quantum mechanical concepts of an atom, when RF is applied to an antenna, the orbits of the electrons in the atoms of the dielectric surrounding. The antenna are subjected to strong stresses, first in one direction and then in another. Therefore, they are removed from their orbits to the orbits nearer the nucleus. Corresponding to each change of orbit, a quantum of energy is released, which results in radiation of RF energy. 1.3 ANALYSIS OF RADIATIVE FIELD OF SMALL CURRENT ELEMENT (R.G.RV. June 2003, Dec. 2003, Dec. 2004) ume an elementary doublet of length dl such that dl << A (wavelength of electromagnetic radiation) he rd >>dl or T>> a wa(L.1) This means that the time taken by the signal to travel across the current element dl/c is very ch less than the signal period. Thus, the current may be assumed uniform throughout the length ssume also, that the capacitance between the end is such that the current has the uniform velue ‘I’ throughout its length. Since the doublet carries current, it can be regarded as Faraday’s cerrent element and there is an induction field due to the current. Fig. 1.8 An clementary doublet. ‘The static magnetic vector potential in a system of current having density J is given by jdov Anu [Ee - Since thin current filament has cross-sectional area da and length dl, thus do = da dl and we know that idl=]-do So, the magnetic potential at distance r is given by idl A= iy pe ww(1.2) The integration of Eq. (1.2) implies the summing up of potentials due to various elements of current idl. Let the current in the element be oscillatory with frequency @ = 2nf, i.e. Jy sin ot Now, the velocity of propagation is finite, thus, there will be a time leg at point P and hence, i=], sino( #2) c4 Antenna and Wave Propagation Then the magnetic potential, we(1.3), The equation (1.3) is called the retarded magnetic potential. Using the Figure 1.3, current element di is symmetrically placed about the origin with its axis along the z axis, the current on the element has only az-component, A also has only the A, component. Thus, the retarded potential at P is snot Sa By fh a z mf r a Since fiat = tat a indtsin of 2) Thus, ieg hark aes Sebae (1.4) Sat de r From the Figure 1.3, it is clear that A has only z-component and A, = A, = 0. Using the transformation between rectangular and spherical components is (as shown in’ Appendix-IV). A; sin@cos$ sinOsin@ cos |{ A, 49 | = |cos@cos$ cos@sin -sin6|| Ay A ~sing cos} 0 LA, Thus, A, = A, cos 8 = nr 1 Basin o('-£) cos 0 ¢ (5) A - A, sing = - Hotodl a, o(-2) sin@ c 4nr Ay =0 The magnetic field intensity H can be calculated as H=+ (vx A) Ho ‘Thus, using curl equation from the Appendix-IV fee es if sin® ¥ é ‘A, A, Hy, = —| — 1A, + Hoty + Hyay = Ho A, i Equating the coefficients of the a,, ay and ay, gets . a a Ag He wis sing)-24|Electromagnetic Field Radiation 5 rH 4 1 eae Holrsin® a ar 1fa aA, ind Hy= —— —-—— - ’ el Stean +] Since A, = 0 and Ay and A, are not the function of §. Hence H,=0; Hy=0 =~ 1 2(_Holodl (1-2}s 2 (doled! (pt Hye H2 Sia sin o[ tT Jsin 9 |-=5| HEP sin of tT Joos Indl sin ® ") pee tot H, ag ; (1.6) The equation (1.6) consists of two terms as follows: 1. 1/7? sin o (¢ - r/c) represents the induction field and may be recognized as Ampere’s or Biot-Savart's law for retarded propagation. Induction field represents the energy, which attenuates in an inverse square law method, that is, rapidly with distance. It is felt only within the immediate vicinity of transmitter. For transmission purposes, it is ignored. This term is energy stored in the field during one quarter of a cycle and returned to the circuit during the next. This field is also known as near field. 2. (w/rc) cos @ (t - r/c) represents the radiative field which is available at the point P. It is a progressive waveform, the electromagnetic energy propagated in space, and also known as the radiation field or far field or distance field. We, generally, take only this term into account for radiation. Thus, two fields will be Ipdlsin8 (1. Induction field (Near field) = “2S 5" (350 a(t -)) 4x r c, Indl sin ocosa(t~) Radiation field (Far field) = -2 ane oe ~(L7) Ata particular distance, both an induction field and the radiation field will be equal. This distance can be found as follows. | Induction field | = | Radiation field | sin of 2 wcoso(t-t Indl sin 0 c Indl sin c an P an or u6 Antenna and Wave Propagation Since the maximum values of sine or cosine is unity, thus Putting and 2x x or or 7 = 0.0159 % (8) In spherical coordinates, the fields in xy plane is symmetrical. Thus, there is no magnetic field components in elevation and along radial directions, ie. Hy = H, = 0, only the H, component is present. The electric field intensity E can be obtain from magnetic field intensity H by applying Maxwell's first equation for free space: oE VxH=e5 (as J = 0 for free space) (1.9) ‘The above equation in its components form can be written as follows : 1 1 di, Psing rsin® re? sel aa ies or i) Ob ~ a) 0 rsin@ H,| i ey > o, al Sn) ] 2eF (1.10) 1 fay. Es - mal Strsinor4)| =6 e(L-11) OE O=e = (1.12) Substituting, H, from Eq, (1.6) in Eq. (1.10), we gets 1 rsin® hi (1-2 re(t-t whee = (1-2) 1 {tu {sia rsin@| 4x© cos at" cr -2sind-> A is negli- gible because varying as a function of 1/7? and 1/r°. Hence substituting H, in equation (1.11) and cerforming similar operation as before, we obtain, 1a [etsee (seer eceset),| =e le “TarL 4x r 7 at __ Igdl sin 0 oie econ) =< Oo 4nr lar or ie ~~ at Ey __Indlsin fo nor (2) some sin of’ at 4nre | c ¢ cr r Iydisin@| ©? sinot' cosa’, sin ot’ Ad snd) o smor eoeor at Anre @ or ? Taking the integral of the above equation Igdisin®{ oo ,, sinot’ foe =- fstite| 2 nar Senor 22a Ip sane wo cost’ , o sin of se E, Sat Bh eeacoe ot ‘ane Cor ero Po | Ip di sin @/w cost’ sino’ cosat’ E, FOr OTe CUS OE (115) 00 ane [ or cP or | tC) where fe (1-4) ¢ Equation (1.15) has three terms varying as 1/r, 1/r? and 1/7°, respectively. ‘The second and third terms are induction fields present in the vicinity of current element only, and they start8 Antenna and Wave Propagation becoming negligible after 2/6, for r >> 2. The inverse distance (1/r) first, term is the radiating field for r >>'A. Thus, B, (Radiation = 20H 08) ogy (+) 0.36) And from equation (1.6) H, (Radiation) = ly dl sind ( Soe cose Ancr t-t) wf.) So, a current element located in space, carrying an oscillatory current gives rise to two radiating field Ey and H,, the electric field being along the meridian (longitude) of the sphere (8) and the magnetic field along the latitude of the sphere (6). Both the fields are perpendicular to each other. By these, following results are obtained: 1. The field is maximum at the equator and equal to zero at poles. 2. The field intensities increase with frequency. 3. Both the fields are in time phase indicating transfer of energy. 4, They vary with the sine of the angle 8, and thus being maximum at @ = 1/2. The second and third terms in equation (1.15) may be recognized as electric fields of a point charge and an electric dipole, respectively. In a current element, positive and negative charges accumulate at the two opposite ends and give rise to electric field as for a dipole. Such a dipole is called Hertzian dipole. The amplitude of the radiating fields [yal si {1.18 (@)] 4nec*r Ip dl sin® {1.18 (b)] 4ncr Impedance is, therefore, For free space € = & Therefore Fo. [Ho Hy” Ve n= 120 ohms (1.19) So, the radiating wave has the same impedance as the free space impedance of 120 x ohms and hence the radiating field is matched into the free space impedance for maximum transfer of power.Electromagnetic Field Radiation 9 1.6 POWER RADIATED BY A CURRENT ELEMENT OR POYNTING VECTOR OF THE FIELDS Wve have seen that a current element gives rise to two electric field strength E,, Ey and one magnetic field of strength H,. So, the Poynting vector E x H for the two fields are y= -E, x Hy 2p dll cos® (ae ont) Ip dl sin®)(sint’ _ acost’ ae i _———— ..(1.20) ane (er? or? an ( 7 er ) (2.20) Which may be simplified as: Hj dl? sin26 ( cos2t’ _ sin2#’ fe) 7 Tone or 2or8 he where vsa(t-£), c Ast’ = (t-r/c), all the terms which contain cos 20 and sin 20 have an average zero. This means that there is no net flow of power and the power is conserved, alternating between source and load. As E, represents induction field at r << 2, the new inductive field stores energy in one quarter of a cycle and returns it to the element in the next quarter. Since the radiation field component from the current element E, and H, are tangential to a spherical surface as shown in Fig. 14. Thus the Poynting vector will be radial everywhere, which shows the radial flow of power from the current element. Thus the power flow is obtained by multiplying E, and Hy, i rsind Fig. 14 Spherical system. (1.22) ne re shore, ver i do daina gest sin! asf oe eet or 13 dl? sin2@ sint’cost’ | cos? t" asint’cost’ sin?’ asint’cost” | w* sin?" mua én of re re oF Pe or |10 Antenna and Wave Propagation In this, the only term that can contribute to power is the last term (@? sin? t’/r2c3) which can. be split as: @? (1 ~cos2t') o? — za — | so that the average power is (1.24) [ 8 Be P a (1.24) ‘Thus, the average Poynting vector 212 a1? sin? o? I} dl? sin? My =| | Wt? (1.25) [ 32n? er?c3 | a) ‘This is the power radiated by the current element along the radius vector r of the sphere and is perpendicular to § and @. The total power radiated is obtained by taking the surface integral of ‘7, over any surface enclosing the current element as shown in Fig. 1.4. The point P is independent of azimuthal angle 6, thus the elemental area on the spherical shell is dA = 2n(r sin 8).rd0 I a sin 6 dO P= py dA) sn(1.26) a 1B dl? sin? 0) So, P | maa ») on? sino do 32x? ete 1 Since = ce © Hye and == Substituting these values in above equation, we yields _ Tek. eat nt ® © gl 82a? cP cer? Bent Bae ical LY 1 lodll sin’ 8 | 9? sin 6 d0 abe) “ce 8* i nl dl? sin? @ Brn? Ja sin 6 40 " | 2nr? sin 6. dd 0 nalz lh aAhoue 4) 2 « nlf a? Hr [-seo0 2] ae 4 3 Io Pa - a “lk f; [sin 0-sin 30] “PatElectromagnetic Field Radiation 14 _ 120713 dl? 3 =r z P =40n? 12 (2) (1.28) ‘The current J, is the maximum current and is equal to I,,, V2. ay So, P= 80n? 12, (2) (1.29) This power is the radiated power, ie, the real part of the power dissipated by the current siement. The imaginary or the reactive part of power is in the induction field, RADIATION RESISTANCE OF A CURRENT ELEMENT fom equation (1.29) 2 P =80n7 12, 4) Radiation resistance R= + al)? So, R, = 80? (2) 2 [« 7e05( (1.30) The radiation resistance can be defined as itis a fictitious resistance that when connected in series with the antenna will consume the same amount of power as when actually radiating. Please stote that radiation resistance is a fictitious resistance and not the actual measured resistance of the antenna. The antenna will have a measurable ohmic resistance. Rp=R,+R, where R, = ohmic resistance Ohmic resistance gives rise to power loss. For efficient radiation purposes; the radiation resistance must be very much larger than ohmic resistance. 1.8 SHORT DIPOLE AND MONOPOLE ANTENNAS The elementary dipole is also called a doublet. We can build up properties of an antenna from this doublet by regarding the actual antenna as the summation of a large number of such doublets in series, We then, work out the radiation pattern of the antenna, which is a graphical represen- tation of the RF voltage or RF energy from the antenna radiating all round it in space and by treating the dipole as if it is at the centre of a spherical system.42. Antenna and Wave Propagation The hypothetical current elementis not a practical antenna, itis useful for theoretical work only. A center fed antenna having a length that is very short in wavelength is the practical elementary dipole. The current amplitude on such an antenna decreases uniformly from a maximum at the centre to zero at the ends as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a). The short (practical) dipole of length ! will radiate only one-quarter as much power as the current element of the same length for the same input current I. For the elementary dipole, the current I is uniform throughout its entire length. In case of the short dipole, the field strength at every point are reduced to one half, and the power density will be reduced to one-quarter. Hence, the radiation resistance of a practical short-dipole is one-quarter that of the current element of the same length. That is 2 R, (short dipole) = 20x? (4) ie 2, «20 (2) au lJ \,. Current 1 > distribution (@) Short dipole (b) Short monopole Fig. 1.5 Current distriubution on short antennas. The monopole of height /t as shown in figure 1.5 (b), or short vertical antenna mounted on a reflecting plane, if fed with the same current will produces the same field strengths above the plane as does the dipole of length | = 2h with same input power, However, the short vertical antenna radiates only through the hemispherical surface above the plane, so its radiated power is only one-half that of the corresponding dipole. Hence the radiation resistance of the monopole of height h = 1/2 is 1 h 2 2 R, le) = 10n7{—] = 40 (2) , tnonopae) = 102( 2)" = aon ie R, = 400 (£) ohms. x These formulas are strictly correct for very short antenna only, but they are good approxi- mations for dipoles of lengths upto quarter wave length, and monopoles of heights upto one-eight wave length. 1,9 EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF LINEAR ANTENNAS We have assumed that the current in the doublet is uniform but this is not true in practice. In practice, current will be either linear or sinusoidal. This effect reduces the amount of power radiated from the antenna and effectively makes aerial shorter than the one with same current throughout. By determining the mean value of current over the length concerned, the actual length of the equivalent shorter aerial may be assumed. This is called effective length of the antenna. 1.9.1 Linear Current Distribution The expression for radiative field is given as follows:Electromagnetic Field Radiation 13 olpdlsin® = SS sino Ancr Since, © = 2nfand ie =a 29 pdlsno no 1_1) ‘4ncr ¢ 1.31) Triangular

0 {1.50] I =I)sin B(H + 2) z<0 (1.51)Electromagnetic Field Radiation 19 here Ip is the value of current at the current loop or current maximum. The expression for the vector potential at a point P due to the current element Idz will be _ Ble PRaz aR where R is the distance from the current element to the point P. Then the total vector potential + P due to all the current elements will be aA, (1.52) _ af Igsini(H +2) PRde Af Hsin ~ate" Pe ae 4a, R an} R “Ge As the point P is at a large distance where the fields will be essentially paralleled and for soe R in the phase factor one can write approximately Rer-AC=r-zc0s0 R=r-zcos0 R=r_ for large distance of P (1.54) Then the expression for A, becomes nl, em | o i A,= ——| Jsinpcrt + zpeBecoreaz + [sin B(H - 2)eiPe%dz (1.55) 4ar | 4 a ‘or a A/2 antenna, L =2H = 2/2; and > x 4 Th pt = 2% en ar x ai (1.56) 2 (1.56) F (® sin B(H + 2) = sin (+ p=) = cos Bz (157) sin (H - z) = sin (§-m) = cos Bz. and the integral becomes “ine H — JoosBe(el soon? + eiPe=® dz nr 3 wine fds = woe) J cosBzl2cos(Bzc0s6)} |dz 4nr | 2 [+ 2cos cos B = cos(a-B) + cos(a +f)!20 Antenna and Wave Propagation bipe M! = MOE f {cos(B2(1 +.c0s8)] + cos {f2(1-cos0)}}dz, 4m loe™ [ sin(Bz(1+cos0)} , sin(Bz(1-cos@)) |" 4nr | B(1+cos@) B(1-cos6) 1g, w Haloe™* [ (ens 6)sin Ba(1-+cos 8)+(1+c0s 8) sin B2(1-cos 8) “4 2° 4nBr (1+c0s 8) (1-cos 6) bh Ige7i8t | (h=208 8) sin oy cos 0} (108 6) sin = Ho 4nBr 1-cos? 6 cH ye" (1-cos 8) cos Z cos 8) + (14088) cos 4nBr sin?@ cos 4) (cos 0+1+c08 6) sin? @ (1.58) When the current is entirely in the z direction then the Maxwell’s equation V x A = tH, can be written as HH, = (Vx A) ipa é = +|2¢ay-S a, 7 [ a Ag), 7) | As we know and Thus (1.59)Electromagnetic Field Radiation 24 Substituting equation (1.58) in to equation (1.59), we can get the expression for magnetic field strength at point P as follows: -ipr | cos (Feos ) 8| phe 2 he ; a ar} 2nBr one wine py [38] npr = “inc olsen) Bye | a 1.80) The electric field strength for the radiation field will be Ey =F, where n= 120% 120 j Ip ev | 88 nr sin ® vane |~(f=9) . r sin 0 (1.61) The magnitude of the electric field strength for the radiation field of a half wave dipole or arter-wave monopole is cos{ cos 8 c01p | 15° 7 ae | volt/metre (1.62) Since Ey and H, are in time phase, therefore, the maximum value in time of the poynting r is just the product of the peak values of Ey and Hy. Pyax = VEg! |g Thus the average value in time of the Poynting vector is given by Hy oe 0 Hy gos “fe ale22 Antenna and Wave Propagation 2 Z cos 8 a5 [oF Py = (1.63) = re sin 6 css) in practice, we use rms current for the measurement purposes etc. I So > or a 2 15(v2 |, )F cos| 5 cos 9) i ao I Ae or en(1.64) 1.12 POWER RADIATION BY A HALF WAVE DIPOLES AND ITS RADIATION RESISTANCE We can calculate the total power radiated by a 2/2 antenna and its radiation resistance as same as has been adopted in case of current element power calculations, ie,, utilizing the Poynting vector method. The elemental area of the spherical shell from the figure 1.4, is given as follows ds = 2nr? sin 6 do (1.65) Therefore, the total power radiated from a 4/2 antenna is given by the surface integral of the Poynting vector over any surrounding surface, generally taken as a sphere. Taking a hemisphere, of radius r. P= So ds 2(# cos 0) _ peated = 2nr? sin 6 dO a sin? 6 | . JElectromagnetic Field Radiation 23 Since 2.cos*@ = 1 + cos 26 2 1 [1400s (n cos 6 Therefore, P = 6012, erefore, ims Jo 3 a (1.66) 2/2 sot (Se) When we solve the integrate “48 using the Sumpson’s rule gives a value of é 1.219 Thus, P = 6012, x 1.219 P = 73.140 I2,, (1.67) os P, = Tins R, (1.68) where R, =73.14 R, =732 (1.69) The equation (1.67) is the expression of total power radiated by a half wave dipole in free space remote from ground and equation (1.69) gives that radiation resistance of a center-fed nalf dipole or simply dipole antenna is approx. 73 . For a quarter wave monopole antenna, radiation resistance is half of the dipole’s radiation resistance, i.e., 73.14/2 or 36.57 Q. SOLVED EXAMPLES Example 1.1 _If the electric field strength of a plane wave is 2V/m, what is the strength of a magnetic field H in free space? E ae Solutio 2mA/metre Ans. Example 1.2 Find out the field strength at 30 km away from a transmitting antenna of 625 kW power.24 Antenna and Wave Propagation Solution: The field strength at a distant point is given by (50P Exms =“ V/n where P = 625 x 10°W 1 =30x 10m. {90 x 625 x10? Therefore Vt 30 x10 10? /9x635 = —— x10"? v, 30 ‘/m 10 = * 3x 25mV/m E,ms = 250mV/m metre Ans. Example 1.3 A short vertical grounded antenna is design to radiate at 10 MHz. Calculate the radiation resistance, if tne effective height of antenna is 60 metres. 0 metres and f = 10 MHz; So Thus, radiation resistance R, = ——5—© 160%? x 60 x 60 30x30 40 (3.14)? = 640 x 9,872 = 6318.08. 2 6.318KQ Ans. R, Example 1.4 An antenna has an effective height of 100 metres and the current at the base is 450 Amperes (rms) at 40,000 Hz. What is the power radiated? If the total resistance of the antenna circuit is 1.12 ohm. What is the efficiency of the antenna. Solution: Power radiated andElectromagnetic Field Radiation 25 Ff = 40,000 Hz R, = 1129; =? and P, = R= 0.28080 Ans. So, Power radiated P, = 12, R, (450)? x 0.2807 = 56862.706 Watts 56.86KW Ans. R oR, +R, Radiation Resistance Total antenna resistance 2808 or n% —- x 100 11% = 25.07%, Ans, Example 1.5 How much power will an antenna having a radiation resistance of 502 radiate when tis fed with 20 A? Solution: Given I = 20 A Riga = 50 2 Radiated power P,=PR (20)? x (50) P, = 20,000W Ans. Example 1.6 What is the radiation resistance of an antenna which radiates 5 kW when it draw 15 A current? jiven P = 5kW 1=15A From the basic power equation Solution:26 Antenna and Wave Propagation “a5? Rag = 2222 Ans. Example 1.7 An antenna having a radiation resistance of 759 is radiating 10 kW. How much current flows into the antenna? Solution: Given Rag = 750 P, = 10kW P.=PR P pal R _ 10x10 75 = 133.33, or 1 =11547A Ans. Example 1.8 Calculate the strength of electric field at a distance of 100 km due to a power of 100 kW radiated from an antenna of 100 metre effective height, if the wavelength is 5000 and absorption effects are negligible. Solution: Given P = 100 x 10° Watts r= 100km = 100x 10?m sow V/m r x 100 x 10 '90 x 100 x 10 vs 100 x 10% ¥9x10° 10? x109 3x10 107 x10 3 700 Exe = 0.03V/m Ans. im. Example 1.9 Ifa transmitting antenna carries current of 25 A (rms) at a frequency of 0.150 MHz and produce a field strength of 1.5 mV/m at a distance of 25 km, estimate the effective height of the antenna, Solution: Given Ij, = 254, f = 0.150 MHz E, SmV/m r= 25x 10 metresElectromagnetic Field Radiation 27 So _ 15x 1079 x 2000 x 25x 108 60xnx25 _ 3000 _ 300 “On Or 150 _ 150 - on > 942 ample 1.10 A transmitting antenna with an effective height of 100 metres has a current at the x 10°8 J/m?> = 50 x 10-9 J/m? ‘Average energy density = 50 nj/m j Hence average energy density =Electromegnetic Field Radiation 37 1 ple 1.31 If the effective height of an aerial is 75th of the length of the wave emitted LY R, = 160 x? | & 0 («) 2 1602 [A 10% = 160 n? (10-1? 15.80W Ans. le 1.32 If the electric field at a far zone point 15 km distant from an aerial is 25 mV/metre, s the value at a point 25 km away in the same direction? nine its radiation resistance. Setation. As we know, 90P Ems 7 90 15x10" et the electric field strength at a distance of 25 km away is E‘n, 90P x Ems * r [90 P- 25x10" : i 90P 25x10 Enns 90P 15x10 ae 3 1 ye E'sme = 5 * Emme 3 = 5 * 25 mV/metre E’smg =15 mV/metre Ans. Exomple 1.33 A plane electromagnetic wave having a frequency of 20 MHz has an average ~svnting vector of 10 W/m? If the mediurn is loss less with relative permeability 4 and relative seability 5. Find ) the velocity of propogation ) The wave length the impedance of the medium and +) the rms. electric field E. Solution. Given f = 20 MHz, {° = 10 W/m?38 Antenna and Wave Propagation =4and e, 0) % = c tty € _ 3x108 4.472 0.67 x 10° m/s Ans. (in) cE = 10x 120% £ FE? = 12008 rs 5 1200" o1 w= 7 fe EV = 2383.0924 Em, = 48:82 V/m Ans.Electromagnetic Field Radiation 39 (iv) 252 2e p Enns 2 (48.82)? 10 1 = 476.630 Ans. ample 1.34 At what distance, in wavelength, the radiation component of magnetic field will tee three times of the induction components. At what distance is it 50 times. Solution. Magnetic field is given by _ Indl sine cee senor Nae F i (Amplitude) (induction (Radiation field) field) 5 dlsin® ( cost” dlsin an r 4n 1_o 3xi.2 “Ete 3 28. re aay “Te ree, ok aay 3 Qn 7 = 0.1592 h_Ans. Similarly, r= 0.15922 x 50 7=796% Ans. ample 1.35 Find out the field strength at 90 km away from a transmitting station of 50 kW power. Solution. The field strength at a distance point is given by V/m where P = Power, in watts = 50 x 10°W r = distance, in metres = 90 x 10?m40 Antenna and Wave Propagation 90 x50 x 10° So, E, = mms 90 x05 © "90108 2.1210? 90 x10° = 0.0 235 Exms = 235m V/metre Ans. Example 1.36 Find the velocity of a plane wave in a lossless medium having a relative permittivity of 4 and relative permeability of unity. Solution. For a loss less or perfect medium Te 1 VHob ob re, ¢ Mr, 3x108 ix ¢ z 3 108 =x10' 2 x 10° m/s. Ans. Example 1.37 A centre-fed linear dipole antenna, three and a half wavelength long, has a feed current 15 A rms. Calculate the antenna current at a distance of seven-eighth wavelength away from the feed point. Solution. p= 20K lems le vant Ar _ 1204 x 15x 70/2 ~ ar = 83008 Vim r 120% I png X72 now oe ee te 3T* mee BarElectromagnetic Field Rac 105 1, = ——™ V/m A 105 x 1, a 6300 x Elen. v/m 6300 105 =60A Ans. Example 1.38 If the effective height of an aerial is wh of the length of the wave emitted Setermine its radiations resistance. jution. As we know that 2 R, = 160 x? {__ 150% = 16x? x (150)? Q R, =7.02 x 10° Q Ans. ample 1.39 What is the radiation resistance of an antenna radiating 10 kW drawing a current of 18 A? Solution. P, = PR R = 30.86 ohms Ans. Example 140 An antenna operating on a frequency of 25 MHz has a Q of 40. What is band width? s fo Solution. Q = 2° olution. Q = Fy Bw = Q _ 258x108 “40 BW = 625kHz Ans. Example 1.41 Define radiation resistance. Calculate the radiation resistance and efficiency of a current element whose overall length is 3 and loss resistance is 15W. [UPTU Question Bank] Solution. Radiation resistance is that fictitious resistance which when connected in series with ‘Antenna, will consume the same amount of power as when actually radiating. R, = loss resistance = 15 242. Antenna and Wave Propagation Ry =R, + R, = total resistance -R, = Radiation resistance R, son() ” h 2 = on) Efficiency (n) RR, _ 03158 03158-+1.5 0.3158 1.8158 0.1739 11% =17.4% Ans, Example 1.42 What is the significance of electrostatic field, induction field and radiation filed of the antenna. At what distance, in wavelength the radiation component of magnetic field is 100 times of the induction component. ; 7 Solution. H, = Tae cose A wana an r or I,d!sinO(sinot, | _|I,,d!sind(_osinat, 109 “_— | An r an Cr 100cosor, _ _asinot moe iL exh wox =F 100 _ 2af 7. 6 qoidy 2n y=15.92) Ans. Example 1.43 Define retarded vector potential. Solution. Time varying potentials are called retarted potential. The retarded potential for a current element is given by josino( "a A=) |——yi- Ans. nrElectromagnetic Field Radiation 43 Example 1.44 An antenna has an effective length of 100 metres and the current at the base ‘= 450 amperes (rms) at 40000 Hz. What is the power radiated? If the total resistance of the sotenna circuit is 1.12 ohms, what is the efficiency of the antenna? Solution. Ij, = 450 Amp dl = effective length = 100 m; f = 40 kHz 108 = 3x10" = 7500 m 40x10" aly? P= v0n1.4( 4] x 2 P= son? -(450)*( 200. J 7500. P= 284 kW Ans. R= son (AY x = son (0 7500 R,=0.149 Ans. 1 = efficiency = 014 1,12 = 0.125 1% = 125% Ans. Example 1.45 Compute the radiation resistance, power radiated and efficiency of antenna having total resistance of 50 ohms and effective height of 69.96 metres and a current of 50 A zms) at 0.480 MHz. R,=% P= Ry = 50 W; f = 0.480 MHz 2 Riot = R, + Ry = 50 3x10° a= SN. = 005 0.48010" is Ly? R, = 160n? x (<) Ff = 160 x 9.8596 x R, = 19.76 Q Ans.44 Antenna and Wave Propagation 2. xR, (50)? (19.76) R, +R, 19.76 50 1.3952 1% = 39.52% Ans. Example 1.46 A thin dipole antenna is 1/15 long if its loss resistance is 1.5 W find radiation resistance and efficiency. Solution. As we know. and Now ay = 789.5} 15 = 2895 225 R, = 3.509 Ans. Ry =3.50 + 1.50=59 Now efficiency z 1 n% Example 1.47 Find the expression for the power radiated. What is the power radiated for peak antenna current = 10 A? Solution. For expression of power radiated refer to Art. 1 2 Now P = 80n712, (2) x =10A 10 Ya Peak current 1,Electromagnetic Field Radiation 45 (9G) 7 Ps 4o00n?() Ans. Example 1.48 If the electric field strength of a plain wave is 6 V/m. What is the strength of smezretic field H in free space. Setution. z = 120n = E He 120m ees 120% H=0.16 A/m. Ans. Example 1.49 A vertical wire of 1m length carries a current of 1 amp at 10 MHz. Calculate 1) radiated field strength at a distance of 500 km. (upTU) 1i) the total power radiated: (P,,) and (P,,,) uii) the radiation resistance. Solution. (i) The magnitudes of electric and magnetic field are given as E, = mlsing 2rd, H Ilsin@ 2rd, c and ast fi 3x10° . =30m 10x 10° Substituting the values of each terms one has. _ 1204 x1x1xsin 90° 2x (500 x 10°) x 30 E, = 12.56 V/m. Ans. 1x1 sin 90 Seni Fx (600 «109) x30 H, =3.33x10°SAT/m Ans. (ii) Maximum power radiated is given as48 Antenna and Wave Propagation P,, = 0.88 watt. Ans. 1 80r PP 2 1 = 5x 088 2 P,, = 0.44 watt. Ans, (iii) Radiation resistance is given as 2( 4) -oe() R, = 80n?(— _ 8027 x? a R, =0.88 ohm Ans. Example 1.50, Assuming that the far field electric field strength produced by a current element I dl is, 60x Idi = sind ar where r and @ are the polar coordinates, shown that the total far field electric field amplitude pro- duced by half wave dipole excited by a terminal current I, sin ot is — 601m cos(t 2.cos A) E w r sin @ Assume current variation along the length as I (I) = Ip cos( 22) Calculate also the power that could be fed into a dipole (h.w) antenna to produce a field of 5 mV/m rms at a range of 30 km ina plane at right angles to the dipole axis. The radiation resistance of the half wave dipole may be taken as 73 ohms. (UPTU] Solution, The electric field in the far region may be given by aA J coskyzello7°° dz as Evy J 2cosky(coskyz cos0 + jsin kz cos®) dz é Oy $09 jr ar Ey = = tly $109 jay ar as = Orem sin8 jhe J 2c0skg2 cos (kg2 cos) dz . a as the term involving sine is an odd function and its integration will be zero. Therefore CORI SIND gay A t eT" | [coskyz(1 +.cos®) + coskg2 (1-cos®)] dz a _ Orly 2 sin (1+c0s6) , ot oa ar Ko(1+cos8) " _ko(1~-cos0)Electromagnetic Field Radiation 47 a nth | ily 08 iy qlttcos®) sin 5* 7 (1-cos®) i 24 +c0s0) 71 -c0s8) _ Orly ry snd. sin! pC teost)) sin 50 cos6)} rae res 1=cos® 7 in{? , = Why $08 jy [c1-cosoysin| (1 + cos®)} + (1+ cos@) sin ‘nr (1-cos? @) _ Gly sin® iy a 038) + (1+ cos6) sin ‘Qnr (1-cos* 8) nt nt [coring coe 5 cond) + con sin (Scan) ® x i] = 50 Tn SiNB | jkor Fcos0) cos sin( 3 330)| 2nr (1-cos? 6) +(1+c0s0) sin cos | xy snd sy [a ~cos0) cos{ ¥ oso) +(1+ 080) cos( ox)| 2nr sin?@ Thus mV/m (rms) x v2 The peak value of field 071 x 10° V/m go oy r sind Thus 7.071 x48 Antenna and Wave Propagation = Oly as 0= 90° r 071 x10 x 3x10° or Timah onan m 60. 1,, = 0.35355 Amp Ans. Th Puy = ER, Example 1.51 The radiation resistance of an antenna is 180 ohm. The efficiency factor is 0.9. Calcu late the loss resistance Rj,,. if the magnitude of the current I, = 4 A. Calculate the power radiatec and the ohmic loss and loss resistance. Solution. lane = Sp Mp Thus the average power radiated from antenna will be P, = Fags» Ry or «(As P, = 144 Watt Ans. Since efficiency factor is defined as =09 =09 or 1=09+ or 0.1 =09x Rios 01x18 Ros, = 7 ee 9) Rig =20hm Ans, Thus the ohmic loss will be 1y Poss = (4) x2 tes OB Plows =16 Watt Ans.Electromagnetic Field Radiation 49 ‘Tre antenna has the function to radiate Radio frequency (RF) energy developed in the transmitter and act a8 an impedance matching device for matching the impedance of the transmission line with the edance of space. Toe antenna is also radiate energy in specified (desired) direction and suppress (stop) the radiation = unwanted direction. 60% 1p dl sind ar ° Ip dl sind Wr” ends and give rise The electric field intensity radiated by a current element is equal to © “he magnetic field intensity radiated by a current element is equal to Hy Tre dipole having a positive and negative charges accumulate at the two opp. electric field is called Hertzian dipole. > © Power radiated by current element is equal to P = 80x? 12,, (2) 7 open circuit voltage Effective length = _oPencircuit voltage z sth = ident field strength 2 . radiation resistance of short dipole is given by R, = 200 (4) ohms. 2 The radiation resistance of short monopole is given by R, 400 (4) ohms. 1 ™ Evtective length due to linear current distribution is equal t0 Ig = 5. Evective length due to sinusoidal current distribution is equal t0 lay = wer radiation and radiation resistance of electrically short dipole antennas is given by 2 P = 160 () 12, Watts nt nd x, -320(t) 0 x Power radiation and radiation resistance of monopole antenna is given by 2 P=10n (4) 2, Watts 2 R, = 400 (4) 2 x, Power radiation and radiation resistance of half wave dipole is given by P=812, R, = 02. he clectric field intensity of a vertically earth antenna in terms of power radiated is given by50 Antenna and Wave Propagation 17. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical representation of the radiation of the antenna a function of direction. 18. The radiation resistance can be defined as radiation resistance is that fictitious resistance which w! connected in series with the antenna, will consume the same amount of power as when actual radiating. ay 19. The radiation resistance is given by R, = 80x (2) : 20. Isotropic antenna is an antenna which radiates (observe) uniformly in all directions. 21. The antennas having length short dipole upto quarter wavelength (3/4) and monopole of height up! ‘one-eight of wavelength (2/8) are called electrically short dipole antenna. 1.1. Derive an expression for the field component of an alternating current element. 1.2, Derive an expression for the radiation resistance of a short electric current element. 1.3. At what distance from an electric current filament is the induction field is equal to radiation fi of an antenna. 1.4. What is the significance of the electrostatic field, induction field and radiation field of the anter 1.5. Prove that the field of a wire antenna consists of three terms involving 4 + and = terms. Expl the nature of these terms. 16. Derive expressions for the components of the radiated field of a short current element. Define radiation resistance and derive an expression for it. How do you distinguish between near zone and far zone of an antenna ? The component of the electric field due to a Hertzian dipole is Idi sin@ woman cosot eet} B ane re? ear? where == ¢ Explain the significance of each. 1.9. What is a half-wave dipole? Assuming a sinusoidal current distribution over the dipole length deri an expression for the vector potential A at a large distance from the dipole. Clearly mention approximations made in the derivation. 1.10. Derive the wave equations for electric and magnetic field in free space. ‘LI. Derive the expressions for the near field and the far field component of an electric current ele: of infinitesimal length. 1.12. What is radiation resistance of an antenna? Show that the radiation resistance of a half wave dipa is 73 ohms. 1.13. Derive expressions for the field components of an electric current element at a distant point. W! is the total power radiated and what is the radiation resistance? 1.14. Dérive an expression for the electromagnetic field due to an oscillating dipole. Explain what is mea by retarded potential. What is radiation resistance. 1L.15. Distinguish between radiation resistance of an antenna and ohmic resistance of an antenna. 1.16. Determine the radiation resistance of an antenna which radiates 1000 W when drawing 5 A curre Ans. 40.9. 1.17. How much current does an antenna draw when radiating 500 W if it has radiation resistance of 300, Ans, 1.29 A.Electromagnetic Field Radiation 51 £13. An antenna having a radiation resistance of 50 draw 8 A. How much power is it radiating? ‘Ans. 3200 W. 1119. Calculate the radiation resistance of an antenna which is fed 12A when radiating 10 kW. Ans. 69.44 2. 220. How much power does a 50W antenna radiate when fed a current of 4A? ‘Ans. 800 W. 221, Calculate the radiation resistance of a dipole antenna 2/8 long. If the equivalent loss resistance accounting for the heat loss in the antenna due to the first conductivity of the dipole or the losser in the associated dielectric structure is 1.5 ohms. What is efficiency of the antenna? Ans. 89.149%. (22. A transmitting antenna with an effective height of 10 metres has current, at the base of 50 amperes. The frequency of operation is 600 kHz. Calculate the power radiated. ‘Ans. 157.536 Watt. . Define the radiation resistance of an antenna. Calculate the radiation resistance of a 2/10 wire dipole in free space. Ans. 7.8877 2. 24. Calculate the radiation resistance of current element whose overall length is 4/50. Ans, 0.3159 2.25. Calculate the radiation resistance of current element whose overall length is 2/100. Ans. .0737 ©. 126. Derive the fields produced by an oscillating current element in radiation and near zone. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] 1.27. Explain radiation patterns of an antenna. Draw the pattern (E and H plane) of half wave dipole and isotropic antenna. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] 228. What is the physical significance of effective length of an antenna. Determine the effective length of an antenna which has sinusoidal current distribution. (UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank! 128. Current distribution of a travelling wave antenna along a terminated were of length L is given by \(z)L = 1,¢% show that the radiation field of the antenna is given by SES (2 2eosB1—cos0)L 2 £050) [UP Technical Us ersity Lek- Question Bank] " dipole. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] 151. What do you mean by retarded potential? Give reason why does retardation takes place? [UP Technical University Lck- Question Bank] Derive expression for the far field components of half-wave dipole and the total power radiated by the dipole. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] What is radiation resistance of a half-wave dipole in free space? [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] A small dipole carrying uniform current of 10 amperes is having a far zone electric field at a distance of ‘r’ metres in a direction making an angle @ with the conductor given by ¢ = 200 sin @/r volt/m. Find the power radiated by the dipole. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank] ;. What is a half wave dipole? Assuming a sinusoidal current distribution over the di-pole length derive an expression for the vector potential A at a large distance from the di-pole. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bank]52 Antenna and Wave Propagation 1.36. Derive an expression for the electric field due to a current element at a distant point in free sp» and hence calculate radiation resistance of short earthed vertical antenna. [UP Technical University Lek- Question B: 1.37. Show that the radiation field electric intensity of a quarter wave monopole £0 = 60 Im. [cos (n/2 cos 6)}/sin@ V/¥. [UP Technical University Lek- Question Ba 1.38, Obtain expression for the field and power radiated by a half wave antenna, and calculate the radiatis resistance of the antenna, [UP Technical University Lek- Question Bani 1.39, Derive expression for the components of the radiated field of a short current element. Define radiation resistance and derive an expression it. [UP Technical University Lck- Question Basi 1.40, If the electric field strength for a plane wave is 45 v/m. Calculate the strength of magnetic field = oO:Chapter Antenna Terminology Sal aakOss Scuas when you have completed this chapter, you will be able to understand. + How to define and prove the different antenna theorem such as superposition theorem, Thevenin's theorem, Maximum power theorem, or reciprocity theorem etc. * The applications of antenna theorems. * The isotropic radiators and their properties. * The antenna gain such as power gain, directive gain ete. * The different antenna parameter such as efficiency, effective length, Bandwidth, beamwidth and polarization. * The concept of the effective area and calculation of effective areas for different type of antennas. 1 INTRODUCTION first chapter of this book have been devoted to the basic theory of electromagnetic fields. The ineer cannot be content with theory only, but he should apply this theory to the solution of tical problems in the real world. In the antenna field this transition from theory to practice jone by the knowledge of the basic properties of antennas, as well as the role of the antenna sement in the overall system. It is truly surprising how many significant practical problems can ved using only the simplest concepts. In this chapter, we will came to know that how some ~ these elementary concepts, and to show how the antenna takes its place as a system element. Antenna’s directional characteristics, such as directive gain, polarization and its impedance its important properties as an element in a system. All these properties will determine for the satenna as a transmitting element, These all characteristics are also valid for reception and these be easily demonstrated by means of the reciprocity theorem. NETWORK THEOREMS The network theorems have proven valuable in the solution of many great problems in ordinary it theory. The linearity and/or the bilateralism of the networks are the basis for the validity of hese theorems. Any antenna problem can be solved by using the Maxwell's equation with appropriate boundary conditions. The field equations themselves are linear, and as long as the “constants” j1, < and o of the media involved are truly constant, that is, do not vary with the magnitude of the signal linearity) or with direction (bilateralism), the same theorem can applied. By using these theorem early ail the properties of a receiving antenna can be derived from the known transmitting properties £ the same antenna. The most commonly used theorems in antenna problems are the following:54 Antenna and Wave Propagation 2.2.1 Superposition Theorem | Ina network of generator and linear impedances, the current flowing at any point is the sum of the currents that would flow if each generator were consider separately, all other generators being replaced at the time by impedances equal to their internal impedances. This fundamental principle follows the linearity of Ohm’s law and the field equation. A given increase in voltage produces an increase in current that is independent of the magnitude of current already flowing for the linear impedance of the network. Therefore, the effect of each generator can be considered separately and independently of whether or not other generators are actually generating. 2.2.2. Thevenin’s Theorem { tfan impedance Z, be connected between any two terminals of a linear network containing | one or more generators, the current which flows through Z, will be the same as it would | be if Z, were connected to a single generator whose generated voltage is the open-circuit | voltage that appeared at the terminals in question and whose impedance is the impedance | of the network looking back from the terminals, with all generators replaced by impedances equal to the internal impedances of these generators. This theorem follows the principle of superposition. A proof of it can be found in any of the references on circuit theory. 2.2.3 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ‘An impedance connected to two terminals of a network will absorb maximum power from the network when the impedance is equal to the conjugate of the impedance seen looking back into the network from the two terminals. v2 The maximum power that can be absorbed from a network equals TR’ where V,,, is the open- circuit voltage at the output terminals and R is the resistive component of the impedance looking back from the output terminals, 2.2.4 Compensation Theorem ‘Any impedance in a network may be replaced by a generator of zero internal impedance, whose generated voltage at every instant is equal to the instantaneous potential difference that existed across the impedance because of current flowing through it Reciprocity theorem may defined as if an emJf. is applied to the terminals of an antenna no, 1 and current measured at terminals of another antenna no. 2, then an equal current both in amplitude and phase will be obtained at the terminals of antenna no. 1 if same emf is applied: to the terminals of antenna no. 2. | \ 2.2.5 Reciprocity Theorem = | or If current I, at the terminals of antenna no. 1 induced an emf E, at the open terminals of antenna no. 2 and a current [, at the terminals of antenna no. 2 induces an emf E,, at the open terminals of antenna no. 1, then Ey, = E>, provided I,Antenna Terminology 55 The reciprocity theorem is most powerful theorem in both circuit and field theory. It was stated by Rayleigh. The circuit concept of reciprocity can be applied directly to derive some of the terminal properties of antennas. Let antenna system has two "terminal pairs” or parts as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a) for example the parts could be the terminals of the dipoles in Fig 2.1 (b), Circuit theory for linear systems tells us that the voltages and current are related by the equation, +h hoot 7 1 v, vz +o Je—o+ - QB O Antenna @ © Fig. 2:1 Antenna system as circuits, ViaZy ht Zh V2=Zy 1, + Zh or by =¥y Vi. + Y2Vo = Yx, Vy + Ye Vp The reciprocity theorem states that (a) Zy = Zp or (b) Yo = Yy or () Zy = Zp 2.2.6 Proof of Reciprocity Theorem. To prove the Reciprocity theorem for antennas, the space between the antenna no. 1 and antenna no. 2 are replaced by a network of linear, passive and bilateral impedances as shown in Fig. 2.2 (c) and (d) corresponding to Fig. 2.2 (a) and (b), respectively. Because any four terminal network can be converted into an equivalent T-network, where Z,, and Zy = Self impedances of antenna no. 1 and 2, respectively, Z,, = Mutual impedance between two antennas, Now applying Kirchhoff’s mesh law to Fig. 2.2 (c) from loop no. (2) V,=Z (Za + Zp) by - Zy hy Z L = (2.1) Lao (Zz. +Zm) Now from loop no. 1 (Zi, + Zp) Ly ~ Zyrly = Eye (2.2)56 Antenna and Wave Propagation Medium Mian — — — — a Fowot tb L@ Flow of z, chane ost — = —| — Awzot nino cto’) “Medium Antn02 (a) Current I, inducing an emf Ey, in (b) Current 1, inducing an emf E,, in é 4 ro teins teins ofaniema [2 Za yO fanaa me fee KON @% 7 Ns 1 (€) Equivalent T-network corresponding to 4-terminal netzoork of Fig (a) Le fm} i 2 (@) Equivalent T-network corresponding 10 A:terminal network of figure (b) Fig. 2.2 Antennas and its equivalent networks. Now putting the value of I, in eqn. (2.2) from eqn. (2.1) y+ Sn) by (Ly + 7 1, [Gut 2a) na +2, (Zan +n) or 1 [2 Zo + 2x 2y + Zp Zap + Zh ~ : (Zz, + 2) (Zr +Zy) By 2y Zn + 2n2)*2y Zee Now, substituting the value of I; from equations (2.3) to (2.1) Exp (Zap + 21) Zn (24, Zaz + 2 (Za3 + 222 (Zan + Zn) (2.3) orAntenna Terminology 57 Ey - Zn or SoS (2.4) Zu Zn + 2n Zn 2a) Similarly, the current J, in the Ameter of Fig. 2.2 (d) can be obtain. Therefore, iL En Zn L=— (2.5) Za tnt 2n (Za +2) ‘ Hence, equations (2.4) and (2.5) are clearly same except the value of emf (ie., Ey, and E>,). ‘According to theorem, the theorem is proved if we prove Ey=Ey if i Applying the condition EZ Ex Zn Zy 2a + Zy (Zp +2) 24, 222 + Zy (Zy + Zz) or En = Exe (2.6) Hence the theorem is proved 2.3 APPLICATION OF NETWORK THEOREMS TO ANTENNAS The properties of transmitting and receiving antennas can be related by the above antenna theorems. Therefore, most of the analysis which are valid for the transmitting antenna for which the assumption of sinusoidal current distribution is known to obtain result of acceptable accuracy. On the other hand; antenna excited as receiving antennas, the current distribution varies with the direction of arrival of the receiving field and is not even approximately sinsusoidal, expect for the resonant length (half wave dipole etc.). This being the case; it is by no means obvious that the directional and impedance properties of an antenna should be identical for the transmitting and receiving conditions. Because, in general case, the current distribution is not sinusoidal for the receiving antenna, direct computation of its properties is usually a relatively complicated problem. The following theorem make it possible to interchange the properties of a receiving antenna from its properties as a transmitting antenna, and vice-versa 2.3.1. Equality of Directional Patterns The directional pattern of a receiving antenna is identical with its directional pattern as a transmitting antenna. Proof: This theorem is an application of reciprocity theorem. The directional pattern of a transmitting antenna indicates the strength of the radiated field at a fixed distance in different directions in the space. The directional pattern of a receiving antenna indicates the response of the antenna to unit field strength from different directions. Thus, the directional pattern is the polar plot for both transmitting and receiving antenna. The pattern as a transmitting antenna could be measured as indicated in Fig. 2.3, by means of radiation pattern, for transmitting and receiving antenna will be same. The antenna no. 1 is oriented to transmit maximum radiation while antenna oriented to receive the maximum radiation. So, using KVL + Zyl58 Antenna and Wave Propagation Vz = Zyh + Zol where Z,, and Zz, are the self impedances of antenna no. 1 and 2, respectively. Z,, and Z,, are the mutual impedances between antenna 1 and 2. Now if current I, is applied at antenna no. 1 and voltage V,,. is measured at the terminal of antenna no. 2 with open circuit (J, = 0). Then an equal current 1 is applied at the terminal of antenna no. 2 and measured V;,. at the open terminal (I, = 0) of antenna no. 1. Thus Vive Zy= hla Vice 2n= 7 | 0 If medium between two antennas is linear, passive, isotropic, and the waves monochromatic. Then Zn Using reciprocity theorem, ie. J, = I, then Vioe = Vaoe Es - b 1 3 © Vee vid S 1 | z : @ Fig. 2.3. Antenna arrangement for pattern measurement 2.3.2 Equivalence of Transmitting and Receiving Antenna Impedances | The impedance of an isolated antenna when used for receiving is the same as when used for transmitting. Proof: This theorem is particularly easy to prove for the case of two antennas which are widely separated. If antenna no. 2 is far from antenna no. 1, the self-impedance Zs, of antenna no. 1 is given by =Zy wal.) If antenna no. 1 is used for transmitting then the mutual impedance Z,,, may ignored, due to the wide separation of two antennas. Since mutual impedance provides coupling between the two antennas, therefore, Z,) cannot ignored for the receiving purpose. For this case, one load impedance 2, attached to antenna 1 and may represent the voltage Z,, 1, as a generator as shown in the equivalent circuit of figure 2.4. Since the two antennas are far apart, so varying Z, cannot cause 1, to vary. Therefore, the generator behaves as an ideal zero-impedance constant voltage generator. Under these conditions, antenna no. 1 exhibits the terminal behaviour of a generator with internal impedance Z,, and thus the receiving impedance is equal to the transmitting impedance.Antenna Terminology 59 ah Zuals 152 S28 Voo=Zilse a Fig. 24 Equivalent circuit of a receiving antenna under loaded, open-circuit and short-circuit conditions. 23.3 Equality of Effective Lengths The effective Length, Lyjy of an antenna is a term used to indicate the effectiveness of the antenna as a radiator or collector of electromagnetic energy. That means how effectively a transmitting antenna is radiating and receiving antenna is collecting the electromagnetic energy. The significance of the term as applied to transmitting antennas is shown in figure 2.5. The effective length of a transmitting antenna is that length of an equivalent linear antenna which has a current I (0) at all points along its length and that radiates the same field strength as the actual antenna in the direction perpendicular to its length. I (0) is the current at the terminals of the actual antenna. That is, for transmitting antenna. “La Fig. 25 + zr 1(0) Leg (trans) = J 1(z)dz (2.8) L +L 13 2 Ly (trans) = ~~ f(z) dz (2.9)60 Antenna and Wave Propagation The effective length of a receiving antenna is defined in terms of the open-circuit voltage developed at the terminals of the antenna for a given received field strength. For receiving antenna Legg: (Fee) = = where V,, is the open-circuit voltage at the antenna terminals produced by a uniform excitating field E volts per meter parallel to the antenna. Proof : Using the reciprocity theorem, the equality of transmitting and receiving effective length can be derived as shown in figure. 2.6. For the transmitting antenna case, as shown in figure 2.6 (2), a voltage V applied at the terminals produces a current I (0) = V/2Z, at the terminals and a current T(z) at any point Z along the antenna where Z, is the antenna impedance measured at the terminals. Now consider the same antenna for the receiving case, as illustrated in figure 2.6 (b), in which an Ei electromagnetic field is incident upon the antenna. A voltage E’, is induced in the element dz due to this field. This induced voltage can be represent by a zero-impedance generator of voltage E/ dz in the series at the point z because it is independent of the current that flows in antenna. The voltage E/ dz at z will produce a current dl, at the terminals as the antenna base terminals are shot-circuited. ‘Terminals 2 ‘Terminals 2 v Impedanee of transmitting antenna => (@) Transmitting () Receiving Fig. 26 Effective length Using the reciprocity theorem (transmitter) = Z,, (Receiver) or alareete 12) ~ di or dl, = 22a) (2.10) By superposition the total short-circuit current produced at the antenna terminals by all of the differential voltages induced along the entire length of the antenna will be a phas vse I(z) dz w(2.11) Now, if we know the short-circuit current, then open-circuit voltage at the terminals can beAntenna Terminology 61 1, fe fei I(z) dz 1 tg Ti JE Tae an incident field E! = E, constant along the length of the antenna. The mines sign is chosen conform with conventional polarity marking (upper terminal positive). (212) So that we(213) Therefore, the effective length of an antenna for receiving is equal to its effective length as =ansmitting antenna. In this section, by applying well-known circuit theorems, it has been demonstrated that the directive properties, impedance; and effective length of an antenna are the same whether the antenna is used for transmitting or receiving. The current distribution along the antenna is different or two cases. Although the reciprocity theorem can be used to determine the current distribution gor reception when the current distribution for transmission is known or assumed. 24 BASIC ANTENNA PARAMETERS Considering the figure 2.7, the antenna appears from the transmission line as a 2-terminal Gircuit element having an impedance Z with a resistive component called the radiation resistance R., while from space, the antenna is characterized by its radiation pattern or patterns involving eld quantities. Free Space Wave Generator, | Dipole Antenna + Antenna Impedance = z at terminals ‘Transmission Line (Outgoing and Reflected Waves on Antenna Fig. 2.7 The antenna launches a free-space wave but appears as a circuit impedance to the transmission line The radiation resistance R, is not associated with any resistance in the antenna proper* but a resistance coupled from the antenna and its environment to the antenna terminals. The antenna temperature T, is also associated with radiation resistance. This temperature has nothing to do with the physical temperature of the antenna proper for a loss less antenna but is related to the temperature of distant regions of space (and nearer surrounding) coupled to the antenna via its radiation resistance. However, the antenna temperature is not so much an inherent property of the antenna as it is a parameter that depends on the temperature of the regions the antenna is “looking at”. * Radiation resistance is a fictitious (means false) resistance.62 Antenna and Wave Propagation A receiving antenna may be regarded as a remote sensing, temperature-measuring devices. Both the radiation resistance R, and the antenna temperature T, are single-valued scalar quantities. On the other hand, the radiation patterns involve the variation of field or power (proportional to the field squared) as a function of the two spherical coordinates @ and $. 2.5 RADIATION PATTERNS An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates. The radiation pattern of an antenna is a graphical representation of the radiation of the antenna as a function of direction. When the radiation pattern is expressed as field strength; E volt per meter, the radiation pattern is a field-strength pattern. If the radiation in a given direction is expressed in terms of power per unit solid angle, the resulting pattern is a power pattern. A power pattern is proportional to the square of the field strength pattern. Radiation pattern simply means that the signal strength radiated in each direction around an antenna. So, we can say that the radiation pattern is nothing but a graph which shows the variation in actual field strength of the electromagnetic field at all points which are at equal distance from the antenna. As, the graph of radiation pattern will be in three dimensional and can not be completely represented on plain paper. So, for drawing the radiation pattern of an antenna, the field strength is measured at every point which lies on the surface of an imaginary sphere of a fixed radius. The radiation pattern of a wire radiator in free space depends mainly on its length. Figure 2.8 (a) shows, the standard eight pattern of a half wave antenna. Figure 2.8 (b) shows a full wave, Fig. 2.8 (c) and (d) shows 3/2 wavelength and 34 wavelength antennas respectively. Current distribution Current a distribution eeu * \ 7 () b= 1 #1 ——— fe (Length P= me cut 9p eH $2) (a) t= 2 Fig. 2.8 Radiation pattern of various resonant dipoles.Antenna Terminology 63 A field pattern where r is proportional to the field intensity at a certain distance from the nna in the direction @, is shown in figure 2.9. The pattern has its main-lobe maximum in the }) with minor lobes (side and back) in other direction. The nulls are in the direction of zero or minimum radiation. Field pattern *| Main lobe axis Fig. 2.9 (a) Antenna field pattern with coordinate system. Three patterns are required to completely specify the radiation pattern with respect to field tensity and polarization: 1. The @ component of the electric field as a functions of the angles 0 and @ or E,(@, 6) (Vm"2) 2. The $ component of the electric field as a function of the angles @ and 6 or E,(0, 4) (Vn) 3. The phase of these fields as a functions of the angles @ and @ or 85(8, 6) and 84 (0,4) (radian or degree). A normalized field pattern can be obtained by dividing a field component by its maximum, xe, which is a dimensionless number with a maximum value of unity. Therefore, the normalized pattern for the @ component of the electric field is given by (dimensionless) The shape of the field pattern is independent of distances. Patterns may also be expressed ‘© terms of the power per unit area (or Poynting vector ‘(@, @)) at a certain distance from the antenna. However, the Poynting vector, as the name implies, is a vector (with magnitude and siirection), we use here its magnitude and direction in the far field being radiated outward. A normalized power pattern as a function of angle can be obtain by normalizing this power with respect to its maximum value. Normalized power pattern is a dimensionless number with a maximum value unity. Therefore, normalized power pattern is given by P,(8, 6) = a (dimensionless) ...(2.15)64 Antenna and Wave Propagation Beam width between first nulls BWEN Half power beam, width (HPBW) 2.9 (0) Power pattern. ; E30, 645300] where {°(@, 6) = Poynting vector = +78) Wav 98, ®)max = Maximum value of (8, $), Wm Zy = intrinsic impedance of space = 376.7 Q 2.6 RADIAN AND STERADIAN ‘The measurement of a plane angle is a radian. So, one radian is defined as the plane angle with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an are whose length is r. A graphical representation is shown in figure 2.10 (a). Since the circumference of a circle o! radius r is C = 2nr, there are 2m radian (2nr/r) in a full circle. Similarly, the measure of a solid angle is a steradian. So, one radian is defined as the solid angle with its r vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by a spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of length r. Equivalent in Area Area=/? 7 L . OE: (a) Radian (b) Steradian Fig. 2.40 Geometrical representation of a radian and steradian.Antenna Terminology 65 A graphical representation is shown in figure 2.10 (b). Since the area of sphere is 4nr?, thus, & has 4x steradian as closed sphere as follows: 4nr? sre = 4n The infinitesimal area ds on the surface of a sphere of radius r is ds =r sin .d0 dé (m?) w(217) Thus, the element of solid angle dQ. of a sphere can be written as ds aQ= z dQ = sin dod (Sr) (2.18) 27 RADIATION POWER DENSITY Re(E x H*) (W/m?) (28 a 2 The i factor appears in (2.25) and (2.26) because the E and H fields represent peak valu and it should be omitted for RMS values. Therefore, the real part of equations 2.25 represents average (real) power density and the imaginary part of the same quantity represent the reacti (stored) power density associated with the electromagnetic fields. The power density associat with the electromagnetic field of an antenna in its far field region is predominantly real which called radiation density. Based upon the definition of equation 2.26; the average power radiat by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as Pua=Por= at d= J, Sd Pra = 3 §Re(E x Ht) «ds wf. {Poynting theorem states the total power flowing out of the volume is the sum of the total ohmic power dissipated within the volume, the total energy shored in the electric field, and the total energy shored in the magnetic field. 28 ISOTROPIC ANTENNA ‘An isotropic antenna is a fictitious (false/imaginary) antenna and defined as an antenna | which radiates uniformly in all directions. The term isotropic means equally in all direction. So, we can also call a isotropic source as o: directional antenna or simply a unipole. An isotropic antenna is used as a reference antenna.Antenna Terminology 67 isotropic antenna is a hypothetical lossless radiator. The directivity of an isotropic antenna can be calculated as follows : 4n Directivity D = == jiretivty D = For isotropic antenna Q, = 4 So, D=1 Fig. 2.11 An Isotropic Antenna. Thus the directivity of an isotropic antenna is unity which is the smallest. An isotropic radiator is an ideal source that radiates equally in all directions. However, it does not exists in practice, it provides a convenient isotropic reference with which other antenna can be compared. Its Poynting vector will not be a function of the spherical coordinate angles 3 and 6 due to its symmetric radiation. Further, it will have only a radial component. Therefore, the total power radiated by it is given by q sds £ Fle} [e-r?sinoaodd] = 4nr'9, Prad and the power density by = a,P Fad 2 « (24) (Watt/m?) (2.29) which is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of radius r. The surface area for the sphere of radius r is 4nr” and all power radiated by an isotropic adiator is pass through that sphere then power at point P is given by where P is the power received at distance r from isotropic antenna and P, is the total power transmitted. Now, the electric field intensity at a point P can be calculated as follows. For electromagnetic waves eo qo" Since P=EH 2 Thus pee 768 Antenna and Wave Propagation Hence As we know 1 = 1207. nh pe wk 4nr? 120%, © Ane? or El So, electric field intensity at distance r from isotropic source is given E (22) : (2.28) where P, = total radiated power and r = distance. 2.9 BANDWIDTH The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as “the range of frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some characteristic, confirms to a specific I standard.” The bandwidth can considered to be the range of frequencies, on either side of center frequency (usually the resonance frequency for dipole), where the antenna characteristics (such as input impedance, pattern, beamwidth, polarization, side lobe level, gain, beam direction and radiation efficiency) are within an acceptable value those at the center frequency. For broadband antennas, the bandwidth is usually expressed as the ratio of the upper-to-lower frequencies of acceptable operation. For example, a 10: 1 bandwidth indicates that the upper frequency is 10 times greater than the lower. For narrow band antennas, the bandwidth is expressed as a percentage of the frequency difference (upper minus lower). Over the center frequency of the bandwidth. For example, a 5% bandwidth shows that the frequency difference of acceptable operation is 5% of the center frequency of the bandwidth. Since the characteristics (input impedance, pattern, gain, polarization, etc.) of an antenna do not necessarily vary in the same manner or are even critically affected the frequency, there is no unique characterization of the bandwidth. To meet the needs of the particular application the specifications are set in each case. Usually, there is a distinction made between pattern and input impedance variations. Accordingly pattern bandwidth and impedance bandwidth are used to emphasize this distinction, Pattern bandwidth includes gain, side lobe level, beam width, polarization, and beam direction while input impedance and radiation efficiency are related to impedance bandwidth. For example, the pattern of a linear dipole with overall length less than a half-wavelength (! < 2/2) is insensitive to frequency. The limiting factor for this antenna is its bandwidth can be formulated in terms of the quality factor (Q). Therefore, the bandwidth is usually formulated in terms beamwidth, side lobes level, and pattern characteristics, intermediate length of antennas, the bandwidth may be limited by either pattern or impedance, depending upon the particular application. For these antennas, a 2 : 1 bandwidth indicates a good design. For others, large bandwidth are needed. Antennas with vary large bandwidth (like 40 : 1 or greater) have been designed in recent years. These are known as frequency independent antennas.‘Antenna Terminology 69 The term bandwidth means the range of frequencies that are radiated effectively. | So, defining the bandwidth means that the antenna will perform satisfactorily throughout this cange of frequencies. When the antenna power drops of half (3 dB) the upper and lower limit of ese frequencies then antenna will not perform satisfactorily. Like other properties of antenna, ere is no unique function of band-width. It is because of that an antenna operation depends en so many factors that are to be considered such as gain, side-lobe-level, SWR or front to back io and impedance etc. and these may change when the antenna operates. So, the functional sendwidth of an antenna is limited by one or more of these factors. In general, the bandwidth of an antenna mainly depends on its two characteristics, e.g., impedance and pattern. At low juency the bandwidth is usually determined impedance variation because pattern changes less apidly (for. o small dimensions only). Under this condition, bandwidth depends on the quality 1 (Q) of antenna. Mathematically, bandwidth is given by A=a,- o, = =-(2.30) Q (2.30) where = upper frequency @; = lower frequency. id 0, = & - The above discussion presumes that the coupling network (transformers, baluns, ete.) or the mensions of the antenna are not altered in any manner as the frequency is changed. If proper tment can be made on the critical dimensions of the antenna and/or on the coupling networks the frequency is changed, it is possible to increase the acceptable frequency range of a narrow cand antenna. Although this is not an easy or possible task in general, there are applications where s can be accomplished. The most common examples are the antenna of a car radio and the “cabbit-ears” of a television. Both usually have adjustable lengths which can be used to turned the senna for better reception. 0 RADIATION INTENSITY 2 Radiation intensity measures in a given direction and it does depend upon the distance m the radiator. It is denoted by a letter capital U or ®. It helps in defining various antenna rms like antenna gain or simply gain or directive gain or directivity. Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “Power radiated or received by an antenna per unit solid angle. The radiation intensity is a far field parameter, and it can be obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance. In mathematical from it is expressed as +231) where ® = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) P,,q = tadiation density (W/m?) The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone electric field of an antenna by 00, 6) = 1B, 0, oy? 2n,70. Antenna and Wave Propagation FallBote-8.09* +IE,(7.8,6)?] 1 Bul EGO, O97 IEG, oy] (2.32) where, E = far-zone electric field intensity of the antenna Ey, E, = far-zone electric field components of the antenna 1) = intrinsic impedance of the medium Therefore, the power pattern is also a measure of the radiation intensity. The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity over the entire solid angle of 4x. Therefore, Prag = G42 Pram fp" ffesine a0 dg +-(2:33) where dQ = element of solid angle = sin @ 40 d9. For a isotropic radiator, total solid angle contain 4n steradians. Thus, Prag =! ® 4x Watts = dQ = Oy 4m B, = waa Watts/steradian. eu(2.34) 2.11 BEAM EFFICIENCY Another parameter that is frequently used to judge the quality of transmitting and receiving antenna is the beam efficiency. For an antenna with its major lobe directed along the z-axis (6 First Nut Beam With (FNBW) Minor Lobe, Fig. 242 Radiation lobes and beam width of antenna pattern.Antenna Terminology 71 _ Power transmitted (received) within cone angle 6 BE. 1. (dimension Power transmitted (received) by the antenna “imensionless) where 0; is the half-angle of the cone within which the percentage of the total power is to be found. A very high beam efficiency (between the nulls or minimums), usually in the high 90s, is necessary for antennas used in radiometry, astronomy, radar and other applications where received signals through the minor lobes must be minimized. 212 GAIN The gain of antenna is a property by which we can find out the figure of merit. As practical antennas are directional antennas (no antenna is omni-directional in practice). So, the ability of an antenna or antenna system to concentrate the radiated power in a desired direction or absorbs the incident power from that direction can be specified by several antennas terms, ie,, antenna gain or directivity. Another point that is noticeable is that, an antenna is a passive element, thus the gain of an antenna is not the same as the gain of an amplifier in which gain is ratio of output to input signals. The passive system or device are those systems or devices, which function only when an external signal is applied whereas an active system means a system or device which generates its own signal Thus, the antenna gain is a comparison between a test antenna and a reference antenna. The reference antenna normally used is an isotropic antenna, which is hypothetically lossless antenna and radiates in all directions. Although, sometimes, half wave dipole is used as a reference antenna but an isotropic antenna is preferred because all generated power is radiated in the desired direction, then naturally there is a gain in that direction. So gain may define as following : When efficiency is not taken into account then gain is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity in a given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same power input, ie, ‘Maximum radiation intensity from test antenna ‘Maximum radiation intensity from reference antenna with same power input Sain (G) = If we take isotropic antenna as a reference antenna then G is changed to Gy Max. radiation intensity test antenna Gain (Gq) Radiation intensity from isotropic antenna with same power input or (2.35) where ®,, = max. radiation intensity from test antenna , = radiation intensity from isotropic antenna Often gain is expressed in decibel ratio, i., AB gain = 10 logyyG (2.36) Another definition for Gain of an antenna is treating the antenna involved as a receiving antenna and is defined as follows72 Antenna and Wave Propagation Max. power received from test antenna (P, ) Gain (G) = ——““ Powe een ‘Max. power received from reference antenna (P;) For the same power input in both cases aol (2.37) A half wave dipole antenna has theoretical gain of 1.64 or 2.15 dB over isotropic antenna. 2.12.1 Directive Gain All practical antennas concentrate their radiated energy in a certain desired direction. The degree to which a practical antenna concentrates its radiated energy relative to that of isotropic antenna is termed as the directive gain. The directive gain is denoted by G,. So directive gain is defined as the ratio of the radiation intensity in a specific direction to the average radiated power. The directive gain is a function of angles (0, 4), which should be, specified for proper applicability. Let ® (0, 6) = Radiation Intensity in a particular direction And ®,, = Average Radiation Intensity in that direction = # Thus by definition, radiation intensity in particular direction Directi ‘in (Gy) = eaive een 2, average radiated power (8,9) G6 == I) B/4n (2.38) 2.12.2 Power Gain The power gain compares the radiated power density of a test antenna and the radiated power density of the isotropic antenna with same input power to both, ie., __ Power density radiated in particular direction by the test antenna Power density radiated in that direction by an isotropic antenna Directive gain and power gain are identical except that power gain takes into account the antenna losses. So, When In VHF and UHF bands power gain is generally equal to directive gain.Antenna Terminology 73 2.13 ANTENNA EFFICIENCY Antenna efficiency is defined as the ratio of power radiated to the total input power fed to the antenna and it is denoted by n- Thus where where R, Hence Hence where R, = Radiations Resistance Antenna Efficiency radiation resistance P, RP 4x (0,6) 47009) Be PR 4x (6,6) on(2.39) R+h R+R, 2.39) R, = Ohmic Resistance. The loss resistance may consists of following los: (i) Ohmic loss in the antenna conductor. (ii) Dielectric loss (iii) PR loss in antenna and ground system (iv) Leakage loss in insulation. (v) Loss in earth connections.74 Antenna and Wave Propagation 2.14 EFFECTIVE AREA OF AN ANTENNA. The another name for effective area are effective aperture or capture area. A transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic energy in space and the receiving antenna receives a fraction of this EM energy. The effective area can be defined as the ratio of power received at the antenna load terminal to the poynting vector (or power density) in Watts/m* of the incident wave. Thus, Power received Effective area = ————+ ower renee __ Poynting vector of incident wave Io (2.40) where P = power received 8 = poynting vector and A, = effective area Let a receiving antenna be placed in the field of plane-polarized wave as shown in Figure 2.12. ast Fig, 212 Effective area of a antenna, 8 HI ‘The antenna is transmitting at a load impedance Z, = R, + jX;- Hence, we can replace the antenna with a source impedance Z,, with the help of Thevenin’s theorem. If Lis the terminal current, then the received power = Tins * Ry where load resistance terminal rms current Then A,= = (241) The voltage V is induced by passing EM waves which produce current I,,,, through load impedance Z,. So, Equivalent voltage ‘mms ~ Equivalent impedence y, I ms ams (2, +Z,) where Z,=R, + iX, Z,=R, + jX, where R, is the antenna impedance = R, + R,Antenna Terminology 75 V, Then, 3 (2. “ ms” RFR) + i FX) aie For max. power Z, Hence R, + 7X,=R, ~ 1X, and Then (2.43) and for lossless antenna I... Therefore, ya ~ aR, eee Nee alan Se eg | 7 P _ Vans So, maximum effective area A,,, = — wa(244) Pane The aperture A,,, given by (2.44) represents the area over which power is extracted from the incident wave and delivered to the load. Sometimes the terminating impedance is not located physically at the antenna terminals as shown in figure 2.12. Rather it is in a receiver which is connected to the antenna by a length of transmission line. In this case Z; is the equivalent impedance which appears across the antenna terminals. The power delivered to the receiver is the same in that delivered to the equivalent terminating impedance Z,,, if the transmission time is loss less. The power delivered to the receiver is less than that delivered to the equivalent terminating impedance by the amount lost in the line, if the transmission line has attenuation 2.14.1 Scattering Aperture In the previous section, we discussed the effective area from which power is absorbed. Referring to figure 2.12, the voltage induced in the antenna produces a current through both the antenna impedance Z., and the terminal or load impedarice Zp. As we have seen that the power P absorbed by the terminal impedance is the square of this current times the real part of the load impedance, therefore, P = PR,. Let us now calculate the power appearing in the antenna impedance Z,. The real part of this impedance R, has two parts, the radiation resistance R, and the loss resistance R, (Ry = R, + Ri). Thus, some of the power that is received will be dissipated as heat in the antenna, as given by PsPR, (2.45) The rest of power is “dissipated” in the radiation resistance in other words, is reradiated from the antenna. This reradiated power is Pp PR, (2.46)76 Antenna and Wave Propagation ‘This reradiated or scattered power is analogous to the power that is dissipated in a generator in order that power be delivered to load. For maximum power transfer condition power dissipated in the generator will be equal to power delivered the load. This reradiated power may be used to define a scattering aperture or scattering cross-section. Scattering aperture A, may be defined as the ratio of the reradiated power to the power density of the incident wave. Therefore, (scattering aperture) = = (2.47) where PR, VR, * RR FRO GE iS) (R, + Ry + Rp)? + (Xq + Xp’ When R, = 0, and Ry = R, and X; = X, for maximum power transfer, then v2 (2.49) 5° ARS ed or the scattering aperture equals the maximum effective aperture, that is, AS= Aen (2.50) ‘Therefore, under maximum power transfer condition power is delivered to the terminating load impedance, an equal power is reradiated from the receiving antenna. Now consider that the load resistance is zero and X; = ~ X,q (antenna resonant). This zero- load condition is known as a resonant short-circuit (RSC) condition. Then for RSC the reradiated power is (2.51) (2.52) or ++(2,53) ‘herefore, for the RSC condition, the scattering aperture of the antenna is four times greater to its maximum effective aperture. Effective Aperture: It is the ratio of power recieved at antenna load terminal to the Poynting vector in Watts/m? of the incident wave. Scattering Aperture: It is the ratio of the reradiated power to the Poynting vector of the incident wave. The ratio of the scattering aperture to the effective aperture may be known as the scattering ratio B, ie.,Antenna Terminology 77 ‘Scattering ratio = 6 (dimensionless) (2.54) The value of scattering ratio may assume between zero and infinity (0.< B <). 2.14.2 Loss Aperture If R, is not zero; some power is dissipated as heat in the antenna. This may be related to a loss aperture Ay, which is given as PR, A we VR a 9[(R, +R + Rr) + (Ky #Xr)?] (2.58) 2.14.3 Collecting Aperture Till now, we have discussed three types of apertures: effective, scattering and loss. These three apertures are related to three ways in which power collected by the antenna may be divided: into power in the terminal resistance (effective aperture); into heat in the antenna (loss aperture); or into reradiated power (scattering aperture). By conservation of energy the total power collected in the sum of these three powers. Therefore, the addition of these three apertures is known as the collecting aperture and thus, V?R,+Rr+Ri) 9[(R, + Ry +R)? + Xa + Xr)? ] A.=A,+ AL +A, (2.56) 2.14.4 Physical Aperture and Aperture Efficiency Physical aperture A, is the fifth type of aperture. This aperture is a measure of the physical size of the antenna. The manner in which it is define is entirely arbitrary. Physical Aperture may be defined as the physical cross-section (in square meter or square wavelengths) perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the incident wave with the | antenna oriented for maximum response. This is a practical definition for many antennas. For example, the physical aperture of an electromagnetic horn is the area of its mouth, while the physical aperture of a linear cylindrical dipole is the cross-sectional area of the dipole. However, in the case of a short stub antenna mounted. on an aitplane, the physical aperture could be taken as the cross-sectional area of the stub or, since current associated with the antenna may flow over the entire surface of the airplane, the physical aperture could be taken as the cross-sectional area of the airplane. Therefore, the physical aperture hasa simple definite meaning only for some antennas. On the other hand, the effective aperture has definite, simply defined value for all antennas. Aperture efficiency €,, is the ratio of the effective aperture to the physical aperture that is, A fp = = (dimensionless) (2.57) Ay Aperture efficiency may assume values between zero and infinity. However, it cannot exceed unity for large (in terms of wavelength) broadside aperture.78 Antenna and Wave Propagation 2.15.5 Effective Height Another antenna parameter related to the aperture is the effective height h (meter) of an antenna. The induced voltage V is the multiplication of the effective height and the incident field E (volt per meter). Therefore, V =hE (2.58) Accordingly, the effective height may be defined as the ratio of the induced voltage to incident field or h ¥ (m) (2.59) For example, let us take a vertical dipole of length ! = 2/2 immersed in an incident field E, as shown in figure 2.13 (a). If the current distribution of the dipole were uniform its effective height would be I. However, the actual current distribution is nearly sinusoidal with an average value 2/n = 0.64 (of the maximum) so that its effective height h = 0.641. It is assumed that the antenna is oriented for maximum response. The current will be tapers almost linearly from the central feed point to zero at the ends ina triangular distributions, if the same dipole is used at a longer wavelength so that it is only 0.1 2 long, as shown in figure 2.13 (b). Since the average current is 1/2 of the maximum, therefore, the effective height is 0.51. t? rent Field : 12 1 1-081 sso vrai Average —_Disttibution rey Current (a) (b) Fig. 2.13 (a) Dipole of length 1 = 2/2 with sinusoidal current distribution (b) Dipole of length 1 = 0.14 with triangular current distribution. Therefore, another way of defining effective height is to consider the transmitting case and equate the effective height to the physical height (or length /) multiplied by the (normalized) average current or (2.60)Antenna Terminology 79 ffective height, metre physical height, metre verage current, Ampere For an antenna of radiation resistance R, matched to its load, the power delivered to the load is equal to p-i¥2 4R, hE? = (W} ..(2.61) a”) (2.61) ‘The same power in terms of the effective aperture is given by P=9A, BA Psi (W) (2.62) 0 where Z, = intrinsic impedance of space (= 377 2) Equating (2.61) and (2.62), we gets and (2.63) Therefore, effective height and effective aperture are elated via radiavioa resistance and the intrinsic impedance of space. 2.14.6 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Short Dipole Here, we will calculate the maximum effective aperture of a short dipole with uniform current. Suppose that the dipole have a length I which is short compared with the wavelength (I << 4). Assume, that it be coincident with the y-axis at the origin as shown in figure 2.14, with a plane T ston Dpoe naa J of Incident Wave x Fig. 214 Short dipole with uniform current induced by incident wave.80 Antenna and Wave Propagation wave travelling in the negative x direction incident on the dipole. Suppose that the wave is linearly polarized with E in the y direction. It is also assumed that the current on the dipole is constant and in the same phase over its entire length, and the terminating resistance Ry is equal to the dipole radiation resistance R,. The antenna loss resistance R, is considered equal to zero. The maximum effective aperture of an antenna is derived from (2.47) as ye A, on * TOR where the effective value of the induced voltage V is given by the product of the effective electric field intensity at the dipole and its length, that is, V=El (2.65) The radiation resistance R, of a short dipole of length ! with uniform current was discussed in previous chapter and given by now (fF (2.64) R, = 790 (iy (@) (2.66) where 4 = wavelength. The power density or Poynting vector of the incident wave at the dipole is related to the field intensity by E (2.67) Z where Z = intrinsic impedance of the medium. Since, the medium in this case is free space, i, Z = 120n ©. Now substituting (2.65), (2.66) and (2.67) into (2.64), we obtain for the maximum effective aperture of a short dipole 120mE 717A? 320? E717 342 on 8x Ag = 0.119 12 (2.68) Equation (2.68) shows that the maximum effective aperture of a short dipole is somewhat more than 1/10 of the square wavelength and is independent of the length of the dipole provided only that it is small (I << 2). The maximum effective aperture neglects the effect of any losses, which probably would be considerable for an actual short dipole antenna. 2.14.7 Maximum Effective Aperture of a Linear 1/2 Antenna In this section, the maximum effective aperture of a linear 4/2 antenna will be calculate. Let us consider that the current has a sinusoidal distribution and is in phase along the entire length of the antenna. Let us take R, = 0. As in figure 2.15 (a) the current I at any point y is then cos pe wn(2.69) plane wave incident on the antenna is travelling in the negative x direction. The wave is linearly polarized with E in the y direction. Figure 2.15 (b) shows the equivalent circuit. The antenna has been replaced by an equivalent or Thevenin generator. The infinitesimal voltage dV of this generator due to the voltage induced by the incident wave in an infinitesimal element of length of the antenna isAntenna Terminology 81 — we ¢ q Oo—-» To i a : Ry ix Inclanet Wave : @ © Fig. 2.15 (a) Linear 4/2 antenna in field of electromagnetic wave and (6) equioaent circuit any aV = Edy cos = wa(2.70) it is considered that the infinitesimal induced voltage is proportional to the current at the infinitesimal element as given by the current distribution. The total induced voltage V is given by integrating (2.73) over the length of the antenna. This may be written as v=2 fe ost av ay A271) Performing the integration in (2.71), we east vo | A272) The value of the radiation resistance R, of linear /2 antenna will be taken as 73 Q. The terminating resistance, R, is assumed equal to R,. The power density at the antenna is as given y (2.67). Substituting (2.72), (2.67) and R, = 73 into (2.44), we obtain, for the maximum effective aperture of a linear 1/2 antenna, 120nE?A? A= an? E? x73 = 202 73" Aoy = 0.1322 wn(2.73) The maximum effective aperture of the linear 2/2 antenna comparing (2.73) with (2.68), is bout 10 percent greater than that of the short dipole. The maximum effective aperture of the 4/2 antenna is approximately the same as an area 2/2 by 4/4 on a side, as an elliptically shaped aperture. The physical significance of these apertures is that power from the incident plane wave is absorbed over an area of this size by the antenna and is delivered to the terminating resistance..82 Antenna and Wave Propagation NA 1 b—in ——4 Fig. 2.16 (a) Maximum effective aperture of linear 2/2 antenna is approximately represented by rectangle * by * om a side (b) Maximum effective aperture of a liner 4/2 antetina represented by elliptical area of 0.13 1 A typical thin x antenna may have conductor diameter of 7752, so that its physical aperture is only wm” For such an antenna the maximum effective aperture of 0.132? is about 100 times larger. 2.14.8 Relation between Effective Area and Gain of Antenna (R.G.PV,, June 2003, June 2004) The maximum effective area is given by: v2 Aen = Be 74 em ARS 2.74) Thus, the gain D is given by 0 or Dea (2.78) Dividing equation (2.74) by equation (2.75) Aem _ Von _P, om = Sm (2.76) D 4R,9 4nr? pa As we know that Vis = Ets egg where Ij = effective length, E,,, = rms value of electric field strength Et Since, ¢ = 2 and P, = Tims Ry Now putting these values in equation (2.76) 5 Aer (Exms best)? D- 2)? E 4R, |S | - dn? q Boy Ting 1 = 12.77 [ ‘16nr? E?., a7)Antenna Terminology 83 1207 ens leet As, =e on(Q S, Ora (2.78) and n = 1200 Putting these values in equation (2.77) Bem _ (120)? Tang He ai aa + (2.79) Ts bese 2rd or Hence Dit or em = “ga (2.80) Therefore, the equation (2.80) give an important relation between directivity and maximum effective aperture. 215 SIDE LOBES In radiation pattern of antennas, in addition to principal or major or main lobes there are also secondary and minor lobes. The minor lobes are just adjacent to the main lobe and are called “side lobes” as shown in figure 2.17. Major lobe Minor or side lobs ri/ Fig. 2.17 Side lobes These side lobes are undesirable because not only considerable amount of power is wasted in the directions of side lobes but even unnecessary interference is also caused in those areas. For the directional antennas, we should reduce the side lobes. The technique used in reduction of side lobes is called tapering. 2.16 BEAMWIDTH The beamwidth is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beamwidth is defined as the angular separation between two half power points on the radiation pattern of an antenna as shown in figure 2.18. The half power point also called 3 dB points. Since the power of pattern at the 3 dB points on radiation pattern, is half of maximum radiation power, therefore, in other words we can say that the beamwidth of an antenna is nothing but angular width between two 3 dB points.84 Antenna and Wave Propagation Half power points * Beam width Fig. 2.18 Beam width, Sometimes beamwidth is called half-power beamwidth. The half-power beam width is | defined as. “In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle | between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is one-half the maximum | value of the beam.” | Often the term beamwidth is used to describe the angle between any two points on the pattern, such as the angle between the 10 dB points. In this case the specific points on the pattern must be described to avoid confusion. However, the term beamwidth by itself is usually revised to describe the 3. dB beam width. The beamwidth of the antenna is a very important figure-of-merit, and it often used to as a trade off between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the beamwidth decreases the side lobe increases and vice versa. In addition, the beamwidth of the antenna is also used to described the resolution capabilities of the antenna to distinguish between two adjacent radiating sources or radar targets. The most common resolution criterion states that the resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish between two sources is equal to half the first null beamwidth (FNBW / 2), which is usually used to approximate the half power beamwidth (HPBW). That is, two sources separated by angular distances equal or greater than FNBN/2 ~ HPBW of an antenna with a uniform distribution can be resolved, If the separation is smaller, then the antenna will tend to smooth the angular separation distance. 217: POLARIZATION Polarization of an antenna means the direction of the Electric field (E-vector) of the electromagnetic wave being radiated by the transmitting system. The different types of polarization are shown in figure 2.19, ‘The direction of polarization is determined by the antenna design and its physical orientation The fields are classified as horizontal, vertical, elliptical or circular polarized based on the orientation of the electrical field. A vertically polarized signal has the eleciric field in the vertical direction and a horizontally polarized signal has its electric field parallel to the horizontal. The polarization of the transmitting antenna and receiving antenna must be the same for maximum signal energy to be induced in the receiving antenna. If the polarizations are not the same, the electric field of the radiated signal will try to induce an electric field into a wire that is at right angle (90°) to the correct-orientation, and in theory there will be no induced voltage (In a practical example, there will be a little amount of induced energy). The corresponding situation also holds for the magnetic field if it tries to induce a field into an incorrectly oriented wire.Antenna Terminology 85 y y E e Es x x (@) Linear Polarization _(b) Elliptical polarization () Cireular Polarization Fig, 2.19 Types of Polarization. There are situations where the orientation of one or both of the antennas (ie,, receiving and transmitting antennas) is not fixed, but varies. Antennas mounted on aircrafts and satellites are examples of this. To overcome the possible mismatch in polarization that would occur, circular polarization is used. In circular polarization the electric field orientation is not fixed horizontally or vertically, but is constantly rotating. It is used mainly because it can suit an antenna system with any polarization angle, from horizontal to vertical. The drawback of circular polarization is that its maximum gain for a vertically polarized antenna, but this is still much better than using a vertically polarized antenna for a horizontally polarized signal or vice-versa 2.7.1, Linear Polarization A time-harmonic wave is linearly polarized at a given point in space if the electric field (or magnetic field) vector at that point is always oriented along the same straight line at every instant of time. This is accomplished if the field vector (electric or magnetic) possesses: (a) Only one component, or () Two orthogonal linear components that are in time phase or 180° (or multiples of 180°) out of phase. 2.17.2. Circular Polarization ‘A time-harmonic wave is circularly polarized at a given point in space if the electric (or magnetic) field vector at that point traces a circle as a functions of time. The necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are if the field vector (electric or magnetic) possesses all of the following: (a) The field must have two orthogonal linear component, and (b) The two components must have the same magnitude, and (c) The two components must have a time-phase difference of odd multiples of 90°. The sense of rotating is always determined by rotating the phase-leading component toward the phase lagging component and observing the field rotation as the wave is viewed as it travels away from the observer. If the rotation is clockwise, the wave is right-hand (or clockwise) circularly polarized; if the rotation is counter closewise, the wave is left-hand (or counterclockwise) circularly polarized. The rotation of the phase-leading component toward the phase lagging component should be done along the angular. Separation between the two components that is less than 180°, Phases equal to or greater than 0° and less than 180° should considered leading whereas those equal to or greater than 180° and less than 360° should be considered lagging.2.17.3. Elliptical Polarization A time-harmonic wave is elliptically polarized if the tip of the field vector (electric or magnetic) traces an elliptical locus in space. At various instants of time the field vector changes continuously with time at such a manner as to describe an elliptical locus. It is right-hand (clockwise) elliptically polarized if the field vector rotates clockwise, and if it left-hand (counterclockwise) elliptically polarized if the field vector of the ellipse rotates counterclockwise. The sense of rotation is determined using the same rules as for the circular polarization. In addition to the | 86 Antenna and Wave Propagation sense of rotation, elliptically polarized waves are also specified by their axial ratio whose magnitude is the. ratio of the major to the minor axis. A wave is elliptically polarized if it is not linearly or circularly polarized. However, linear and circular polarization are special cases of elliptical, usually in practice elliptical polarization refers to other than linear or circular. The necessary and sufficient conditions to accomplish this are if the field vector (electric or magnetic) possesses all of the following: | @ The field must have two orthogonal linear components, and | (b) The two components can be of the same or different magnitude. | (©) If the two components are not of the same magnitude, the time-phase difference | between the two components must not be 0° or multiples of 180° (because it will than be linear). If the two components are of the same magnitude, the time-phase difference between the two components must not be odd multiples of 90° (because it will than be circular). | If the wave is elliptically polarized with two components not of the same magnitude but with odd multiples of 90° time-phase difference, the polarization ellipse will not be tilted but it will be aligned with the principal axis of the field component which is larger of the two, while the minor axis of the ellipse will align with the axis of the field component which is smaller of the two. 248 FRONT TO BACK RATIO For a directional antenna the maximum radiation should be in the wanted or desired direction. So, for this type of antennas the front to back ratio is an important parameter. The front to back ratio (FBR) is defined as the ratio of the maximum power radiated in desired direction to the power radiated in opposite direction, ie., PBR = Power radiated in desired direction Power radiated in opposite direction So, it is quite obvious that higher the front to back ratio of an antenna is leads to the better antenna. By decreasing the spacing between the elements of an antenna, we can increase the FBR. Because this decreases the gain in the opposite direction. In practice, for receiving purposes adjustment are made to get maximum front to back ratio rather than maximum gain. ‘ 2.19 DIRECTIVITY The maximum directive gain is called as directivity of an antenna. Directivity is denoted by D. So, we can define Directivity of antenna as follows; it is the ratio of maximum radiation intensity to its average radiation intensity, i.,Antenna Terminology 87 _ Maximum Radiation intensity of test antenna Directivity i) ‘Average Radiation intensity of test antenna (8,9) D max | = ©, or Directivity may also define as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the test antenna to the radiation intensity of an isotopic or reference antenna radiating the same total power. Maximum Radiation Intensity of test antenna Radiation Intensity of an isotropic antenna (0, 6) max (test antenna) ©, (isotropic antenna) Directivity = OR, sometimes directivity is also defined in terms of radiated power. So it is the ratio of total radiated power by the test antenna to the power radiated by an isotropic antenna for the same radiation intensity Power radiated from a test antenna Power radiated from an isotropic antenna for the same radiation intensity Directivity = The directivity of an antenna is given by the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity (power per unit solid angle) ©(0, 6)iaqx to the average radiation intensity ,, (averaged over a sphere), or, at a certain distance from the antenna the directivity may be expressed as the ratio of the maximum to the average Poynting vector. Therefore, (8, 4) ®y OB (dimensionless) (2.81) Both radiation intensity and pointing vector values should be measured in the far field of the antenna. Now the average Poynting vector over a sphere is given by 90, Ov = ah" F2@.0.42 wm 0.82) Therefore, the directivity 1 7] " 906) 1 09 aa 45 190 Doas = By t (2.83) 2 fr.@, 040 4x oo 4x or D= a (2.84)88 Antenna and Wave Propagation The smaller the beam solid angle, the greater the directivity. For example, if an antenna could be isotropic (radiate the same in all directions). P,(@, 6)=1 (for all @ and 4) (2.85) (2.86) (2.87) This is the smallest directivity an antenna can have. Therefore, Q, must always be equal to or less then 4x, while directivity D must always be equal to or greater than units. 2.19.1 Directivity and Gain The gain of an antenna (referred to a loss less isotropic source) depends on both its directivity and its efficiency. If the efficiency is not 100 percent, the gain is less than the directivity. Therefore, the gain, Then and G=kD where k = efficiency factor of antenna (0 < k < 1) dimensionless. This efficiency has to do only with ohmic losses in the antenna. In transmitting, these losses involve power fed to the antenna which is not radiated but heats the antenna structure. 2.19.2 Directivity and Resolution Resolution of an antenna is defined as equal to half the beam width between first nulls (BWEN/2). For example, an antenna whose pattern BWEN = 2° has a resolution of 1° and, accordingly, should be able to distinguish between transmitters on two adjacent satellites in the Clarke geostationary orbit separated by 1°. Therefore, when the antenna beam maximum is aligned with one satellite, the first null coincides with the other satellite. | Half the beam width between first nulls is approximately equal to the half-power beam _ width (HPBW) or ayo = HPBW ..(2.88) So, the product of the BWFN/2 in two principal plane of the antenna pattern is a measure of the antenna beam area. Therefore = (PE), (2.89) 2 2 Then it follows that the number N of radio transmitters or point sources of radiation distributed uniformly over the sky which an antenna can resolve is given approximately by (2.90) where 2, = beam area in steradian | However, j (2.91)Antenna Terminology 89 and we conclude that ideally the number of point sources an antenna can resolve is numerically equal to the directivity of the antenna or D=N -+(2.92) Equation (2.91) states that the directivity is equal to the number of beam areas into which the antenna pattern can subdivided the sky and (2.92) gives the added significance that the directivity is equal to the number of point sources in the sky that; the antenna can resolve under the assumed ideal conditions of a uniform source distribution. 2.21 TRANSMISSION BETWEEN TWO ANTENNAS Now in this section, we will discuss how the transmission between two antenna take place as shown in figure 2.23. Suppose R = Distance between transmitting and receiving antennas Agy Ag, = Effective areas of transmitting and receiving antennas respectively P, = Total power radiated by isotropic antenna, in watts Power received at antenna terminal, in watts Power received at receiver, in watts wave length, in meter ‘Transmiter Receiver vrai R yn Fig. 2.20 Transmission between isotropic transmitting antenna and a receiving antenna, Since the power radiated by isotropic transmitting antenna is P,, therefore, the power received per unit area at receiving antenna is B P i 4nR? and power received at receiver is P/ =A,,.P BAG : aR? (2.93) Now, it is assumed that transmitting antenna is a practical antenna rather than the isotropic antenna. The directivity of the practical antenna is given by an w where A,,, = Max. effective aperture of the transmitting antenna. D, A emt80 Antenna and Wave Propagation Therefore, the power received at receiver is P, =P,'D, Aa Pe 4m = 44, nR2 2 Bent Ag A res (2.94) Lee) This is known as Friis Transmission formula which represents the ratio of power received to power transmitted for a direct path. The another name for this ratio is power transfer ratio, as. we know that and By these relation, we get Bly 2h or (2.95) ais 2 t The term |5~] is called the free space loss factor and it takes into account the losses due to the spherical spreading of the energy by the antenna 2.21.1 Radar Equation The radar equation relates the range of a radar to the characteristics of the transmitter, receiver, antenna, target and the environment. It is useful not only for determining the maximum range at which a particular radar can detect a target, but it can serve as a means for understanding the factors affecting radar performance. It is also an important tool to aid in radar system design. If the transmitter power P, is radiated by an isotropic antenna (one that radiates uniformly in all direction) then the power density at a distance R from the radar is equal to the radiated power divided by the surface area 4nR? of an imaginary sphere of radius R. Power density from isotropic antenna = 75 (2.96) a However, radar uses the directive antennas (with narrow beam width) to concentrate the radiated power P, in a particular direction. The gain of an antenna is a measure of the increased power density radiated in some direction as compared with isotropic antenna. Therefore, the power density at the target from a directive antenna with a transmitting gain G, isAntenna Terminology 91 Pr Power density from a directive antenna = 7G, (2.97) a The target intercepts a portion of the incident energy and reradiates it in various directions. The power density reradiated in the direction of the radar in called the echo signal that is of interest. The radar cross-section of the target determines the power density returned to the radar for a particular power density incident on the target. It is denoted by o and is often called, short target cross-section, radar cross-section, or simply cross-section. The radar cross- section is defined by —_—_—_ Te i Pi RG | Power density in echo signal at Radar = it Ga | a ee | The radar cross-section has unit of area, do not mislead to associate the radar cross-section directly with the target's physical area. Radar cross-section is more dependent on the target's shape than on its physical size. The radar captures a portion of the echo power incident on it. The power received by the radar is given as the multiplication of the incident power density (equation 2,98) times the effective area of the receiving antenna. If the effective area of the receiving antenna is A,,. Then the Power P, received by the radar is, RG, 0 7 GaR? 4a? sn(2.98) or (2.99) The maximum range of a radar R,,,, is the distance beyond which the target cannot be detected. It occur when the received power W, just equals the minimum detectable signal S, Substituting $,,,,= P, in the above equation and rearranging terms gives (2.100) This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. The transmitting gain and the receiving effective area are the important parameters. Since the transmitter power P, has not been specified as either the average or the peak, therefore, it depends on how S,.j, is defined. If the same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, as it generally is in radar, antenna theory gives the relationship between the transmit gain G, and the receive effective area A, as (2.101) where 4 = wavelength. Wavelength 2 = £, where ¢ = ‘elocity of propagation and f = frequency.92. Antenna and Wave Propagation Substituting the equation (2.101) into (2.100) gives T PG |4 Rinax = Cae (2.102) 2 PAZ ]4 imax = | ate (2.103) 2.21 DIRECTIONAL PATTERNS Instead of using the exact expression to compute the directivity, it often convenient to derive simpler expressions, even if they are approximate, to compute the directivity. These can also be used for design purposes. For antennas with one narrow major lobe and very negligible minor lobes, the beam solid angle is approximately equal to the product of the half-power beamwidths in two perpendicular planes shown in figure 2.21 (a). For a rotationally symmetric pattern, the half-power beamwidths in any two perpendicular planes are the same, as shown in figure 2.21 (b). With this approximation, can be approximated by 4n Q, 7 An 81, Oy, The beam solid angle 4 has been approximated by Q, = 6,8, (2.105) (2.104) alf-power beamwidth in a plane at a right angle to the other (rad) eamwidth are known in degrees, (then equation (2.104)) can be written as 4m (180/n)? 814 824 _ 41,253 O14 Ona If the o (2.106) (a) Nonsymmetrical pattern (a) Symmetrical pattern Fig, 2.24 Beam solid angles for non-symmetrical and symmetrical radiation patterns.Antenna Terminology 93 where 6,, = half-power beamwidth in one plane (degrees) 6,, = half-power beamwidth a plane at a right angle to the other (degrees) For planar arrays, a better approximation to (equation 2.106) is 32,400 Dox —22400_ 0”, (degrees)? _ 32,400 914 Poe (2.107) The validity of (2.104) and (2.106) is based on a pattern that has only one major lobe and any minor lobes, if present, should be of very low intensity. For a pattern with two identical major lobes, the value of the maximum directivity using equation (2.104) or (2.106) will be twice of its actual value. For patterns with significant minor lobes, the values of maximum directivity obtained using (2.104 or 2.106), which neglect any minor lobes, will usually be too high. Many times it is desirable to express the directivity in decibels (4B) instead of dimensionless quantities. The expressions for converting the dimensionless quantities of directivity and maximum directivity to decibels (4B) are D (dB) = 10log,)D —_ [D (dimensionless)] (2.108) Dy (AB) = 10,9Dy [Dy (dimensionless)] (2.109) It has also been proposed that the maximum directivity of an antenna can also be obtained approximately by using the formula 1 ral (2.110) Do (2.110) where D,= Dy (2.111) ae 03,72 aan fsineao 2in2 } 16In2 d= (2112) 3 6,, and 0,, are the half-power beamwidth (in radians) of E- and H-planes, respectively. The formula of (2.110) will be referred to as the arithmetic mean of the maximum directivity. Using (2.111) and (2.112), we can write equation (2.110) as (2.113)94 Antenna and Wave Propagation 32in2 or eee on 82, +03, 22.181 >= (2.114) oF +08 aa 22.181 (180 /n)? Dy See Of, + 034 72,815 =o (2.115) 02, +03) pe) A three dimensional radiation pattern gives the complete information. This three dimensional radiation pattern can also be represented in horizontal and vertical plane pattern. These patterns will give the directional information of the complete radiations pattern. If the pattern is obtain for 0 = 90° then radiation pattern is called horizontal pattern while the pattern for constant ¢ angle is called vertical radiation pattern. Thus the radiation characteristic of antenna can be shown separately for theta and phi polarizations. Sometimes vertical polarization is also called as theta polarization and horizontal polarization is called as phi polarization. ‘The principal plane contains the both E and H-plane. So, we can also plot the radiation pattern for E plane and H-plane. E-plane: It is a plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the maximum radiation and parallel to the E-field. H-plane: It isa plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the maximum radiation and parallel to the H-field. 2.22 SELF IMPEDANCE The impedance of the point, where the transmission line is connected to the-transmitter is importance aspect of antenna impedance. As at this point input to antenna is supplied, so it is known as antenna input impedance. This is also known as feed point impedance because at this impedance, the RF power is fed irom the transmitter or it is also called as driving point impedance or terminal impedance. Since this impedance is generally desired to supply maximum available power from the transmitter to the antenna or to extract maximum amount of received energy from the antenna, therefore, it is of great importance. The impedance offered by antenna to the transmission line can be shown by a two terminal network. Further, the entire antenna system can be replaced by an equivalent impedance Z, as shown in figure in Fig. 2.22 (a) and (b). If the antenna is lossless (i.e., without any heat loss) and isolated (i.e, away from ground and other objects), then the antenna terminal impedance (Z,.) is same as the self-impedance (Z,;) of the antenna. ‘Antenna Tm ‘Animas Transmission ‘Transmission Line fermi line L_] - 2.22 (a) Transmission line antenna as load — (b) Transmission line with equiva lent load Z,,