Rezumat Teza Razvan Luca en

UNIVERSITY „LUCIAN BLAGA” SIBIU
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
PHD THESIS
-SUMMARY-
CONTRIBUTIONS ON AUTONOMOUS
VEHICLE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
SCIENTIFIC COORDINATOR,
Prof. Dr. -Ing. Carmen SIMION
PHD STUDENT,
Dipl. -Ing. Răzvan LUCA
Sibiu, 2011
Universitatea
Lucian Blaga
Sibiu
Invest in people!
PROJECT FINANCED BY THE EUROPEAN SOCIAL FUND
Project ID: 7706
Title: "Increasing the role of doctoral studies and doctoral competitiveness in a united Europe"
University”Lucian Blaga” Sibiu
B-dul Victoriei, nr. 10. Sibiu
PHD THESIS
-SUMMARY-
CONTRIBUTIONS ON AUTONOMOUS
VEHICLE NAVIGATION SYSTEMS
Scientific coordinator,
Prof. Dr. -Ing. Carmen SIMION
Phd student,
Dipl. -Ing. Răzvan LUCA
Sibiu, 2011
Ministry of Education, Research and Youth
Universiy “Lucian Blaga” Sibiu
Rector of the University
B-dul Victoriei Nr. 10, 555024 – Sibiu, România
JURISDICTION
Doctoral committee, appointed by Rector
Order of University "Lucian Blaga" Sibiu
No. 102 of September 30
PRESIDENT: Prof. Dr. -Ing. Ioan Bandrea

University „Lucian Blaga” Sibiu
SCIENTIFIC COORDINATOR: Prof. Dr. -Ing. Carmen Simion

REVIEWERS: Prof. Dr. Rer. Nat. Fritz Tröster

University Heilbronn / Germany
Prof. Dr. -Ing. Nouraş Barbu Lupulescu

University “Transilvania” Braşov
Prof. Dr. -Ing. Laurean Bogdan

Any observations or comments please send to the address of the University "Lucian Blaga"
Sibiu.
FOREWORD
Personal and professional evolution depends on the appreciation of others and the
personal will of each person. Whether it's a word to help develop an idea or an idea itself to be
developed, people interact and confirm their status to one another through communication,
through work, through collegiality. We practically exist through those confirming us.
The scientific research, the realization concept and development of this doctoral thesis
would not have been possible without support from the people involved directly or indirectly,
productive and critical to appreciate the results.
I would like to use this opportunity to thank to my scientific coordinator Prof. Dr. -Ing.
Carmen Simion for the support and for shareing engineering experience and patience, all
toghether defining professionalism within the entire period of my research activity.
For creative advices based on experience that helped me throughout the research I
would like to thank Prof. Dr. -Ing Ioan Bondrea.
I also speak with gratitude and thanks to Prof. Dr. Rer. Nat. Fritz Tröster from
"Heilbronn University", Germany, the mentor who helped me in developing my professional
and personal skills.
Professors in the Department of Manufacturing Engineering Faculty of Engineering in
Sibiu, as well as members of the evaluation and examination I would also like to thank for
recommendations on improving the quality of my research work.
For the opportunity to have a research and discussion collegue regarding various
topics of the project and beyond I would like to thank Dipl. -Ing. Robert Gall.
Family members and friends I would like to thank for their understanding, love and
moral support given during the research, giving me motivation and conditions for
implementation and completion of the thesis.
Dipl. -Ing. Răzvan Luca
I
CONTENT
* / **1
Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 1 1
Objectives of the thesis .................................................................................................... 2 2
Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................................... 4 4
Chapter 1: Current state ................................................................................................ 6 6

1.1. Market research, importance and applicability of autonomous intelligent
vehicles in industry .......................................................................................................... 6 6
1.2. Evolution of autonomous vehicles ........................................................................... 11 7
1.3. Operating principles of the most significant specific automated
guided vehicles .............................................................................................................. 13 8
1.3.1. Networked systems with wire guide ......................................................... 15 .
1.3.2. Guidance systems with magnets ............................................................... 16 .
1.3.3. Laser guidance systems............................................................................ 17 .
1.3.4. Hybrid systems ........................................................................................ 18 8
1.4. Application areas of autonomous vehicles ............................................................... 18 9
1.5. Operating strategies of industrial AGV systems ....................................................... 22 9
1.6. Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 25 9
Chapter 2: Infrastructure of autonomous intelligent vehicles–
prototype realisation ........................................................................................................ 26 11
2.1. Non-holonomic autonomous intelligent vehicle ........................................................ 29 11
2.2. Prototype realisation ................................................................................................ 30 .
2.2.1. Running platform and odometer sensors.................................................... 30 11
2.2.2. Detection and guidance sensors ................................................................. 31 .
2.2.2.1. LASER sensor ........................................................................... 31 .
2.2.2.2. Ultrasonic sensors ...................................................................... 32 .
2.2.3. Odometer sensors ..................................................................................... 34 .
2.2.4. Video sensor ............................................................................................. 35 .
2.2.5. Data acquisition, command and control system ......................................... 36 12
2.2.5.1. Communication of the vehicle on the target-host principle ......... 37 14
2.3. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 42 15
Chapter 3: Mapping and localization as simultaneous proceses
of autonomous vehicles ................................................................................................... 43 17
3.1. The concept of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) .............................. 43 17
3.2. Extracting particular features of the navigation environment..................................... 45 18
3.3. Data association ....................................................................................................... 46 .
3.3.1 Data association using the Nearest Neighbour method ............................... 47 19
3.4. Autonomous vehicle localization ............................................................................ 50 20
3.5. Real-time environmental mapping and navigation .................................................... 51 21
3.6. Building a graphical virtual map. Simulation of the system ...................................... 53 22
3.6.1. The vehicle module „Vehicle” .................................................................. 55 23
3.6.2. The vehicle control module „Vehicle control” ........................................... 56 23
3.6.3. The laser scanner module „Scanner” ......................................................... 56 23
3.6.4. Global transformation „World coordinates” .............................................. 57 23
3.6.5. The map generation module „Map generation”.......................................... 59 24
3.6.5.1. Algorithms in the process of mapping ....................................... 62 25
3.6.6. The “split and merge algorithm” ............................................................... 63 .
3.6.7. Liniar regression ....................................................................................... 63 .
3.6.8. The RANSAC algorithm .......................................................................... 64 .
3.6.9. The Hough transformation ........................................................................ 64 .
1
*no. of page in thesis; ** no. of page in summary
II
* / **2
3.6.10. Line extraction algorithm based on DCE technique (extDCE) ................. 65 26

3.6.10.1. Data reduction by merging lines with common properties ........ 68 27
3.6.11. Extracting landmarks from the navigation environment
for vehicle localization ....................................................................................... 70 28
3.6.12. Kalman filter model used for odometry correction................................... 70 .
3.6.13. Using an extended Kalman filter for localization ..................................... 75 29
3.6.14. Trajectory planning module „Trajectory planning” .................................. 77 29
3.6.15. Object avoidance module „Track deviation"............................................ 80 30
3.6.15.1. Object avoidance using specific curves for trajectory
calculation ............................................................................................. 81 31
3.6.15.1.1. Clothoids .................................................................. 81 .
3.6.15.1.2. Bezier splines ........................................................... 82 .
3.7. Probabilistic mapping as an alternative method of navigation .................................. 84 32
3.7.1. Bayes method. General aspects ................................................................. 85 .
3.7.2. Derivation of the Bayes method ................................................................ 85 32
3.8. Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 90 33
Chapter 4: Navigation tests and applications
of the autonomous vehicle ............................................................................................ 91 35
4.1. The communication infrastructure used for tests conduction..................................... 91 35
4.2. Comparing data from separate odometer systems ..................................................... 92 36
4.3. Mapping the environment ....................................................................................... 94 36
4.4. Implemetation of the Kalman filter for odometer improving while mapping
the environment ............................................................................................................. 95 37
4.4.1. Mapping the environment through by extraction of features ................... 100 39
4.4.2. Changing the scanning perspective.......................................................... 102 41
4.5 The visual representation of the navigation environment ........................................ 107 42
4.5.1. Identifying floor markings in specific environments ................................ 107 42
4.5.2. Hough transformation of extracted lines .................................................. 107 .
4.5.3. Transformation of extracted edges and limitation by line attributes.......... 108 43
4.5.4. Perspective transformation using the darkroom principle ......................... 110 .
4.5.5. Representation of the transformed markings............................................ 110 43
4.6. Analysis of people and objects in the environment of navigation ............................ 111 44
4.7. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 117 46
Chapter 5: Applications in the flexible manufacturing system
of automotive industry .................................................................................................. 118 47
5.1. Modeling and simulation of the environment of a six cell

flexible manufacturing system ..................................................................................... 123 48
5.1.1. Modeling and simulation of the application with occupancy grids .......... 133 51
5.2. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 137 53
Chapter 6: Conclusions and future research directions ................................ 138 54
Bibliogrphy ........................................................................................................................ 140 58
Index of abbreviations .................................................................................................. 149 62
Appendix ............................................................................................................................. 150 .
2
* no. of page in thesis; ** no. of page in summary
III
INTRODUCTION
The flexible manufacturing concepts "Flexible Manufacturing" and ecological storage

"Green Warehousing" refer to the methods of manufacture, storage and handling with
minimum consumption for environmental protection. In this way handling automation and
production resources becomes an important factor that involves both strategy and intelligent
vehicles. By automating this process industry gets efficient storage space, reduced spending
on energy used for maneuvers in dedicated spaces and reduced the use of system maintenance
costs. For automated operation of the intelligent guidance systems important administrative
costs are reduced. Also, the use of vehicles powered from alternative energy sources activate
in an unpolluted area with direct influence on the storage environment and the global
environment. Ventilation systems are not a necessity in this sense, the phenomenon of
automation thereby reducing overall energy consumption used by up to 40%. In terms of
production of company strategy, flexibility should be extended by components that the
company already possesses. A modern organizational structure and computer aided
production management enables the extension required by current conditions, in example,
changing market and uncertainty in the short and long term. In this context, flexibility can be
characterized by three attributes of time:
 on time
 after a time
 over time
Thus, the flexibility of machines and flows are flexibilies “on time” , the products,
process and operations are flexible "after a time" and the flexibility in production,
development and volume are "over time" flexibilities. One can say that flexible production
systems flexibility is determined decisively by the total flexibility of transportation systems
that assist the processing system itself, the possibilities of maintenance, control and their
diagnosis. The responsibility for the development of such automated systems are, in addition
to influential factors, a prerequisite that must take into account the social impact factor and
the possibility of sustainable production systems in the factories of the future.
1
Objectives of the thesis
OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

“Everything should be made as simple as possible,
but not simpler than that“. (Albert Einstein)
Purposeful practical doctorate is an advantage for both, industry and academic

environment from the perspective of professionals. Bernhard Frey, head of human resources
at the company MAN GmbH, interviewed on this, says that a manifestation of the concept is
theoretically desirable when promoting a technical field, according to current market
demands. The realization of the concepts researched and developed in this work were a
significant factor in motivation and personal satisfaction of making step by step the
integration of existing in an existent physical prototype.
A simple statistical calculation shows that only 1,000 of about 20,000 graduates
annually decide to continue doctoral studies and researching in a technical field. Being one of
those who succeeds this is the first personal motivation. Although the career starts a little later
for those who choose a doctoral study, it is a prerequisite to continue in science as a teacher.
Taking into account the personal development, the PhD was able to sharpen my technical
senses, while learning how to address a subject analytically. The possibility of being in a
national research project motivated me to achieve results and to publish them in scientific
papers that contribute both quantitatively and qualitatively to the national scientific database
trough the University "Lucian Blaga" Sibiu. During my research at the University of
Heilbronn, Germany, partner institution for the research project, I was offered an opportunity
to develop practical implementation skills, and also the chance to develop my skills as a tutor
with the additional task of guiding students in the completion of their research work.
The use of autonomous vehicles in the industry, the investigated domain represents an
advantage in raw material handling and offers flexibility in production and logistics. In this
sense, the development of transport and transfer systems can reduce production costs
continuously according to studies based on manufacturing concepts like "just-in-time" and the
current global production development based on continuous adaptation to customer demand.
Material handling costs represent a significant proportion of production costs. Eynan and
Rosenblatt [30] indicate in their studies that these costs can achieve 30% of the total cost of
production. The subject matter is important in order to maximize flexibility as a feature of
future factory production systems and to minimize production costs. The level of automation
allows the definition of the degree of flexibility and complexity in the organization of
production. Redefining the flow of material requires recalculating routes of the raw material.
Transport systems such as conveyors or rigid AGV's presented critical in the next section
indicates that the reconfiguration of the factory flow is slow and involves a number of
additional costs.
This paper is an evolving concept of vehicles towards simplification of process
design and re-design of production functions by developing an intelligent autonomous
vehicle navigation concept. Contributions include research on autonomous vehicle
navigation systems. A highly debated visionary trend today becomes the fully autonomous
vehicle is moving in a specific environment, inside and / or outside creating a real-time virtual
map using proximity sensors, then it locates itself and operates in the specific environment. In
2
Objectives of the thesis
the literature the concept of Simultaneous Localization and Mapping (SLAM) is an open topic
for a autonomous vehicle navigation optimum. The control and communication between the
central and autonomous vehicles is based on an exchange of information for real-time
processing tasks and also allows multiple uses of existing data, representing a major
advantage for planning and management system and a significant part in developing the
objectives of this thesis. The safety in operation and driving without collisions, avoiding
obstacles and other handling components, namely people and objects in motion is an
important issue and is treated as part of the development in the concept of autonomous
vehicles. In order to achieve the goals of the research following theoretical and practical
objectives were established:
1. studying the current state of research of transfer vehicles in order to improve

felxibility in manufacturing by developing a navigation system for specific vehicles;
2. designing a simulation software for integrating the research into a informational
platform based on sensor models and representing the operating environment of the
vehicle.
3. realization of a prototype platform for rapid deployment and testing of embedded
algorithms into specific intelligent vehicle navigation tehniques;
4. study and evaluation of sensors and available resources for the implementation of
autonomous vehicle navigation systems;
5. software development and implementation of navigation algorithms that allow a
vehicle to navigate autonomously in real time based on the concept of simultaneous
localization and mapping (SLAM);
6. realization of a virtual map by extracting relevant features of the operating
environment in order to allow an autonomous navigation based solely on extracting
information from the sensors of the vehicle;
7. realization of a graphical interface that allows viewing, monitoring and analysis of
vehicle behavior operating in a specific environment;
8. minimize the amount of data used for navigation through effective programming;
9. stuying the posibilities to implement the navigation systems on real vehicles trough
simulated a environment;
10. implementation and testing of the concept of navigation algorithms and develop a
scaled model of the intelligent vehicle.
The final purpose of this thesis is the realization of a prototype for the permanent
development of intelligent autonomous vehicles by creating a platform for integrating the
studied techniques of measurement, command and control, dedicated systems, development of
algorithms, and design concepts of logistics and handling systems of factories of the future.
3
Structure of the thesis
STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
Having the aim of studying the autonomous vehicle navigation systems operating in
specific environments, this paper presents six chapters describing methods developed and
applied contributions to improve the autonomous navigation of intelligent vehicles.
The first chapter of the thesis presents a state of actual used autonomous vehicles in
the industry. A market study is realised in order to highlight the importance and applicability
of autonomous vehicles in the automotive manufacturing industry. A top of the current
products scoring the importance of smart product development is done, category which
includes the autonomous vehicles. Some statistics show an increasing development of such
products.
Regarding the research and development direction of the field of engineering and
vehicles used in industial handling and manufacturing systems, a parallel bibliographic
summary of the literature and actual publications in the field was made aiming in particular
the period January 2010 - June 2011. Different concepts, prototypes and trends in the field are
presented confirming the approach of top issues in terms of timeliness research directions.
A presentation of the historical evolution of industrial vehicles is realised. The most
important vehicles and automated systems are a critical study describing their principles of
operation and limiting the areas of application and operating strategies.
Chapter two contains informations about the infrastructure of non-holonomic
autonomous vehicles. A prototype of a vehicle scale (1:8) is made in order to integrate the
research technology to develop and test algorithms for navigation. The Infrastructure
integrates different proximity sensors to cover a wide range of detection and maximize
efficiency by implementing a system of manufacturing infrastructure, providing independence
and robustness in operation. A communication concept of two parallel processing units for
command and control and for monitoring the vehicles activity is developed for optimal use of
resources, which enables testing application in real time.
The third chapter analyzes the concept of simultaneous mapping and localization of
autonomous vehicles (SLAM). According to researchers, this concept is the issue of "chicken
and egg" in navigation technology. By programing a simulation software, functions of
navigation sensors and algorithms developed are modeled in order to obtain relevant data,
also described during the implementation of the applications. A limitation of the system is to
be considered in order to achieve real a real time computation by using the Embedded
MATLAB programming platform.
Each modular component of the chapter presents information about the algorithms
implemented in the simulation.
An approach to achieve a virtual map by extracting features (feature-based) similar to
those described in [21] is performed by using a self developed algorithm for data reduction,
based on discrete contour evolution DCE [53].
Specific phenomena such as, for example, the occlusion of the object during the
environment scanning or travel path comparison during calculations are analyzed, presenting
an implementation solution. The vehicle trajectory planning is an issue addressed at the macro
level. This work focuses on preparing the necessary data to generate the trajectory of
movement, more specifically, the approach of integrating SLAM tehniques. The vehicles
4
Structure of the thesis
trajectory is generated by using potential fields. A mechanism for detection and avoidance of
obstacles is presented in the same chapter based on the integration matrix of specific curves
(clothoids and Bezier curves).
For the vehicles localization in the generated map, considered as a simultaneous step,
an implemented model is presented by extracting parts resulting from information extracted
from the environment during the mapping process. A transformation into a quasi Hough
parameter space of a line is made to extract relevant data and reduce them to a minimum. By
using a Kalman filter as an extended filter (EKF) [41] model, marks are recorded and added to
the vehicle odometer data to achieve a more accurate localization and prediction of the
following relevant data needed to support the vehicle during the navigation.
The last subchapter examines an alternative approach to navigation. Using the method
of segmentation and sharing workspace in cells, a calculation is made using probabilistic
occupancy cells.
Chapter four contains applications made to develop algorithms and to analyze the
behavior and implementation of concepts studied. Applications of Kalman filter behavior
modeled in Chapter three gives an overview of the navigation parameters. Further, the
implementation and evaluation of a video capture concept is done in order to identify dynamic
objects and operating environment markers that define specific areas of vehicle navigation
sectors.
Chapter five describes a special application with input from a simulated flexible
manufacturing system which is done in order to highlight the main tasks an autonomous
vehicle has during the navigation in specific environments. Whether it is an interoperable
transfer or handling in a warehouse logistics, autonomous vehicle behavior is evaluated based
on the output of the algorithms implemented.
In chapter six the results are presented in which special emphasis is placed on
highlighting the scientific novelty of the theoretical postulates and experimental results
obtained. Research methods used are presented and arguments that underpin the credibility of
results. There are also proposed future research directions in the field.
The theoretical and experimental research made during the development and
completion of the research program and their achieved results were used by public support
and discussion at national and international scientific conferences. Titles of these works are
included in the bibliography.
This Research has been conducted in the doctoral school of Lucian Blaga University
in Sibiu, POSDRU/6/1.5/S/26/7706 within the project titled "Increasing the role of doctoral
studies and doctoral competitiveness in a united Europe", co-financed from the Social Fund
European Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
5
Current state
CHAPTER 1: CURRENT STATE

„Manufacturing industry is important
for Europe” (Manuel Barroso, 2009)
1.1. Market research, importance and applicability of autonomous intelligent vehicles

in industry
Strategic areas of research in production refer to building an organization's strengths

and defining application-oriented activities. Competitiveness by reducing costs and adding
value end products ensures quality and a permanent innovation process. The European Union
launched its strategic agenda for future plants through "EFFRA-Factory of the Future" with a
budget of 1.2 billion Euro. This program contains both a national sector for development and
a regional industrial group. As part of the European economic recovery plan, the commission
released three public-private partnerships (PPP). They are powerful means to stimulate
research efforts in major industries, construction of automobiles and manufacturing, which
were particularly affected by the economic downturn.
According to statistics of the International Federation of Robotics, 76,600 robots units
totaling $ 13.2 billion, which covers the services industry, have been sold by 2009. Of this 5%
are logistics, and 6% mobile platforms for general use in manufacturing. A trend of increasing
their use for the next period is observed.
Figure 1.1: Statistical value of sales of robots for industrial and professional services in 2009
6
Current state
1.2. Evolution of autonomous vehicles
A graph of the evolution of vehicles used in industry since 1959 until 2000 is shown
below based on a research of the Frauenhofer Institute in Stuttgart / Germany. Mentioned are
the three relevant categories of development over the years.
Figure 1.2: Evolution of autonomous vehicles [116]
7
Current state
1.3. Operating principles of the most significant specific automated guided vehicles
Robocar systems are used to storage parts in containers for interoperational tranfers. In
this case a special focus on access roads is required and paths followed by them, that’s why
this systems are less common in actual production facilities, meeting them more often in large
stores or warehouses.
A summary of the operating principles of the current solutions available in the
industry is carried out using as a source the Egemin automation company specializing in
guided vehicles AGV of industry type.
1.3.1. Networked systems with wire guide
1.3.2. Guidance systems with magnets
1.3.3. Laser guidance systems
1.3.4. Hybrid systems
Hybrid systems are multipurpose vehicles that allow the automatic operation and
handling without human operator intervention. For an automated service, a laser scanner is
guiding the vehicle in the production areas or distribution environments. The figure below
shows a fork lift equipped with additional systems needed for automated handling.
Figure1.3: Hybrid material handling system [109]
1 - safety sensor, 2 - Laser navigation unit, 3 - sensors to detect obstacles side, 4 - button on /
off, 5 - 3D video camera (optional), 6 - RFID reader
8
Current state
1.4. Application areas of autonomous vehicles
The trend in robotics and automation is to coverage many as possible areas with the
aim to simplify the tasks of people, to obtain safety and precision in production, to develop
road assistance systems, namely the development of the service area in general. In all these
areas mobile robots have been developed generous in recent years. The difference is defined
by the criteria of the applications operating in specific environments:
 structured internal enviroment
 unstructured external environment
1.5. Operating strategies of industrial AGV systems
Based on the expedition rules of the vehicles different tasks are fullfiled. The
performance of analytical models usually depend on the expedition passed. A parallel
distribution of tasks is an advantage in their processing and is a relatively new topic in this
field. Basically, an autonomous vehicle is responsible for other tasks on the way to the task
received from the central control system. Advantages and disadvantages of the guidance
systems are described in the table below with the extension criteria of GPS navigation and
video video guided systems, two components introduced as developments regarding specific
vehicle navigation systems.
Table 1.1: Presenting quality criteria of the guidance systems

System/criteria Wired Magnet Laser Video GPS
guidance guidance guidance guidance
Indoor/outdoor Ind.&outd. Ind.&outd. Ind. Ind.&outd. Outd.
Dirty
surfaces ++ ++ - / ++
Trust ++ + + + +
level
Instalation - / ++ ++ ++
costs
Flexible - / ++ ++ ++
Precizie în mm ~2 3-20 ~10 <=50 <=50
++ very good + good / medium - bad
In order to achieve an optimal flexibility in manufacturing systems, it is recommended

to be used the system with the fastest implementation and low-cost investment. Having the
aim of flexibility maximization in handling, the navigation systems using video and laser
senzors bring large benefits.
1.6. Conclusions
The industrial use of autonomous vehicles is an advantage in raw material handling,

flexibility in production and in logistics. In this respect, a continuous development of these
systems can reduce production costs according to studies based on manufacturing concepts
9
Current state
like "just-in-time" or "flexible manufacturing" and the current overall production based on the
continuous development of adaptation.
Material handling costs represent a significant proportion of production costs. In their paper,
Eynan and Rosenblatt [30] indicate that these costs can reach 30% of the total cost of
production. In this sense, the subject matter is important because of flexibility, characteristic
of the production system. It is important to address the interaction between machines, material
handling and information systems.
The automation level allows establishing a communication between the central control
and autonomous vehicles or between autonomous units. The evaluation criteria of the current
transport architectures and new opportunities provide a technical overview of future research
directions.
Whatever the application, the trend is to automate processes by introducing specific
vehicles.
Based on the last fifty years of development of vehicles used in the automotive
industry, we can say that technical news and information have been accumulated during the
time and contributed successfully in the developlent of the industrial transfer.
With the progress of sensor performance, the vehicles developed additional functions,
increasing the flexibility of this work primarily. Products received by integrating artificial
intelligence increasingly high degree adaptivity, which confirmed the direction of top research
and implementation of autonomous vehicles worldwide. In this context the following research
areas were analysed:
 a study of specific literature in order to highlight market developments on the current
market and future autonomous vehicles used both in industry and in other areas;
 an analysis of the operating principles of the guidance systems used in manufacturing
industry;
 a research of a manufacturing layout to identify and highlight possible operating
strategies;
 a study of flexibility in handling of different guidance systems.
10
Infrastructure of autonomous intelligent vehicles-prorotype realisation
CHAPTER 2: INFRASTRUCTURE OF AUTONOMOUS INTELLIGENT

VEHICLES – PROTOTYPE REALISATION
„A creative idea remains an idea until you do something with it. You have
to do something, otherwise you are not creative.” (Glen Hoffherr)
Given the criterion of transportation, the infrastructures of vehicles used in industrial

applications differ by their wheel arrangement and are dependent on their geometry. For the
realization of a mobile robot, it should be determined the handling limit, control and stability,
the practical operating procedure. A classification of industrial mobile robots after wheel
configuration is made according to [83].
2.1. Non-holonomic autonomous intelligent vehicle
The objective of constructing a non-holonomic vehicle on a 1:8 scale operating in both

internal and external environments, a simplified Ackermann model is used for the
mathematical description of the system. Each wheel must meet the slip constraint, and such a
vehicle can have only one instanteneous center of rotation. The whheel drive is established on
all four wheels, with a manoeuvrable front axle. Kinematic relations are explicitly adapted.
2.2. Prototype realisation
2.2.1. Running platform and odometer sensors
For the prototype realisation, a model platform from CEN racing was used. The
steering is controlled by a servomotor and the vehicles position is indicated by incremental
sensors mounted on the rear axes of the vehicle. An electric motor moves the vehicle.
Odometer positioning is corrected algorithmically. Component specifications are described in
Appendix 1.
Figure 2.2: Vehcile platform including the servomotor, drive motor and the odometer sensors
11
2.2.2. Detection and guidance sensors
2.2.2.1. LASER sensor
2.2.2.2. Ultrasonic sensors
Figure 2.6: Ultrasonic sensor positioning scheme for calculating the coordinates and transformation vector
The coordinates of each sensor is described by the vectors through their position and
the reference to the middle point of the rear axle of the vehicle. These vectors are summarized
in a matrix of size 20x2 in the form below and they are the data transmission interface in
Cartesian coordinates to the command and control system:
[ ] [ ] [ ] (2.7)
2.2.3. Odometer sensors
2.2.4. Video sensors
2.2.5. Data aquisition, command and control system
The limitations of the command and control system is defined by a computer

processing unit representing the tower PC-104 format [ISO], used for industrial applications.
This system can be configured depending on the required infrastructure. The following list of
components form the data acquisition system, command and control of autonomous
intelligent vehicle prototype. The specific details of the components are presented in
Appendix 2 of the thesis.
12
Figure 2.10: PC-104 - Data acquisition unit, computing and algorithmic processing
A parallel running configuration of the data acquisition and applications on a concept

of two systems requires a synchronization of the two PC-104 units. In this sense, the concept
of communication was developed to cover under the premise the needs to achieve a real time
processing of at least 0.01 seconds.This was established in order to achieve a superior level of
data processing necessary for controlling the vehicle, and for higher algorithmic calculation.
The processing system is running independently from Windows or Linux platforms being
superior to most vehicles currently operating in the industry.
Table 2.5: List of the components of data acquisition unit, computing and algorithmic processing PC-104
Element Hardware description Specifications
a Main board PCM-3380
Advantech PC104 CPU
Embedded Intel Pentium M 1.4 GHz, 2GB RAM
b Modul de memorie SD Card 8 Gb
c PCM 3910 Advantech

Power unit
10 to 24 V output
d PCI to ISA Board PCM 3117 Advantech
e IO 526 Sensoray senzor card

IO Board (Analog)
AD/DA/Encoder Input
f PWM Signal Unit DM 6804 RTD for servomotors
A vehicle sensor interface was necessary to develop in order to achieve the vehicle
control. Its specifications are described in Appendix 2 of the thesis.
13
2.2.5.1. Comunication of the vehicle on the target-host principle
The flexibility in use of the PC-104 system offers the possibility of establishing a
communication with other entities or with a monitoring computer for data transmission using
standard protocols. For this, the XPC target package is used, software integrated into
MATLAB. With it is possible to set priorities for a parallel use of communication while
synchronizing information from the various input/output cards available.
Using the target-host communication and the described architecture, the
communication is performed for the autonomous intelligent vehicle (target) communicating
with a control computer (host). A transfer by UDP protocol is established while entities are
configured with static IPs.
Figure 2.13: Target-host communication scheme
A laptop is monitoring through WLAN the activity of the two command and control
computers mounted on autonomous intelligent vehicle. The communication architecture can
have one or two active processing units. In this respect the two systems of PC-104 become
target 1 and target 2. They communicate one with another based on the master-slave concept,
and their timing can be achieved either through a parallel port or using a CAN communication
protocol, configurations tested in the laboratory. The goal is to run on a PC-104 data
acquisition application and the command and control of the vehicle under the master system
and on the slave system the other algorithms under consideration necessary to determine
navigation parameters. Navigation algorithms are treated in detail in the following sections of
the work.
The transfer performances of the two processing units were measured in terms of
transmitting data packets using the UDP protocol and the Ethernet connection between target
1 and target 2. The ideal transferrate TR is calculated.
Three levels of use are referential:
 Low utilization;
 Mediul utilization;
 High utilization.
Received packets are represented in the diagram below by referencing the received
packet number that decreases with greater use of the processing unit.
14
Figure 2.14: Limits of data transfer between two PC-104 processing units using XPC target
A percentage representation shows that during the high use, 45.92% of all packets
transmitted fully, representing a critical situation. This is a motivation for establishing the
criteria for effective programming and for using prediction algorithms for the compensation in
lack of data, a phenomenon common in data transfer.
For efficiency common data interfaces were established in terms of increasing the
performances of both processing algorithms and the data acquisition.
The computer communication between the control unit target 1 or 2 takes and the host
is made via a wireless router such as D-Link DWL. This monitors the sensors and the path
traveled, receives data from mapping algorithms for map visualisatoin while the autonomous
vehicle is moving. On the host computer Microsoft Windows 7 is running with special
software developed in Matlab and a graphical user interface for easy manipulation by the user.
An extension of this interface had to be made during the development and in this respect; the
advantage of using a programming package that includes object-oriented programming in
Simulink library and facility to create graphical interfaces (GUI) was highlighted. A joystick
connected to the laptop enables rapid intervention, if the target system signals errors. A view
of the interface presented in this section is avialable during the tests in chapter four.
2.3. Conclusions
The making of a scale model of intelligent vehicle offers the following advantages in
terms of behavior researching navigation:
 development costs are lower due to a platform that does not require real
components;
 the testing of specific environments is also done at low costs, there is no need
to use a real space and approval to use a space of manufacture;
 energy consumption is reduced.
15
The trend in research and applied development is of using models based on scale
implementation as a second step, the first step is the creation of a simulated software
environment, which is presented in this case in chapter three. After validation tests, the model
is proposed or not, depending on the results, to be manufactured in series. If the
improvements and the visualization platform designed have rapid effects, the vehicle has a
wide maximum efficiency.
By establishing a common interface for communication between sensors, both, quick
and easy implementation of the components is realised and the possibility of integrating data
from different sensors to fusion is just a step away.
Regarding the limitation on communications and computing systems, an assessment
was made of data packets that can be transmitted during an application. The concept of
industrial systems using parallel PC-104 that are used to increase performance by setting the
synchronization of the two modules of the vehicle represents a contribution for the future
similar systems.
By using a multi sensory model we are able to differentiate between areas of activity
of the vehicle. For this, the laser sensor is responsible for providing data in a field of up to 10
m around the vehicle. Ultrasonic sensors with limited capabilities are used to identify objects
in the vicinity of the vehicle. To complete the active sensory domain, a video camera provides
the identification of objects whose properties can not be extracted with proximity sensors. In
this respect, guidance in unknown or partially unknown space becomes possible in terms of
safety of human operators. Although there are also other information retrieval algorithms of
dynamic objects idntification using proximity sensors, video sensors provide more accurate
information and the identification becomes more robust.
Following issues have been studied closely, with contributions in implementation:
 the autonomous vehicle rolling platform for modeling and implementation of
its infrastructure;
 a study of sensors available for purchase and integrate them on a stable
platform for the purpose of autonomous movement;
 development of a concept of communication between the processing unit,
command and control to improve the computing power;
 establishing a monitoring communication interface between the vehicle and a
process computer.
The vehicle presented integrates sensors and the latest information technologies in the
development of autonomous intelligent vehicles, making the communication infrastructure on
the taget-host principle to a robust non-holonomic transfer platform.
16
Mapping and localization as simultaneous processes of autonomous vehicles
CHAPTER 3: MAPPING AND LOCALIZATION AS SIMULTANEOUS

PROCESSES OF AUTONOMOUS VEHICLES
“Once you have mapped out the road, it„s impossible

not to go ahead” (Antoine de Saint-Exupery)
3.1. The concept of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)
This concept refers to the simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and is a
technique created by the robotics community in order to explore the possibility of an
autonomous vehicle to start from an unknown location and assimilating information about the
operating environment, to incrementally create a map of the activity space. By using sensors
and simultaneously the completion of new generated mapping, the vehicle can locate itself.
Both, map and estimates of the vehicle location after a SLAM activity are tasks that support
future intelligent autonomous vehicle meets them. A practical solution and mapping of its
own location is inestimable in terms of achieving the navigation of an autonomous intelligent
vehicle as described in [84].
Regarding the evolution of the SLAM a series of concepts and approaches have been
developed. It is possible to classify different approaches depending on the method used to
achieve the map representation, which is a key point because it determines the type of
information explicitly expressed in the model. The most common methods of representation
are:
 Ocuppacy grids. They describe the vehicle surroundings by dividing the space into
several regular cells and assigning a probabilistic value of the area by setting empty
and occupied criterias, as described in [46] and [82].
 Topological maps. An example of such maps is represented by the Voronoi diagrams
[54].
 Feature based maps. Basics of environmental representation is achieved by using a
set of geometric primitives such as points, lines and planes above the raw data
extracted from sensors as described in [21], [18].
Figure 3.3: Generating maps by extracting lines from points
17
 Maps generated from successive scans. The raw data of the sensors are aligned
directly through a process of translation and rotation by finding a maximum overlap
with the data contained in the previous scan. Maps are obtained as segments that are
fused to each new data acquisition. It is suitable for use in situations where no simple
geometric representation of the environment can be obtained. So far, it has been
proven successful only for laser scaners, according to studies [22].
Figure 3.4: Maps generated from successive scans [19]
Once the selection of the method of representation is done, the technical difficulty of
SLAM's main achievement is defined by reducing the possible growing uncertainties and
noise reduction, namely the error of sensors. It is essential to find an effective method in
terms of calculation able to cope with uncertainty, to make an accurate representation to
obtain a precise map, and therefore a reliable vehicle location. Other technical difficulties
related to the SLAM problem refers to the extraction of particular features and the association
problem. Obtaining reliable information from noised sensor data, and discernmenting to
identify previous exploration of the same territory leads to the key of the convergence of a
SLAM algorithm.
3.2. Extracting particular features of the navigation environment
Representations depend on the choice of navigation environment and the type of

sensor used. Choices cause large differences in interpretation. For example, a laser sensor data
can be used either directly, by making global coordinates transformation or processing of the
particular features. [89], [23]. Occupancy grids commonly used sensor models in order to
provide information on the volumes occupied. Extraction methods based on particular
features of the navigation environment are mainly used for processing data from sensors in
order to find entities that can be identified repeatedly. These entities are called individual
characteristics and the process of obtaining them is called to extraction of particular features.
By this technique, for obtaining the particular features, the information provided by
various sensors is handled so as to achieve an extraction as feasible and to meet a number of
criteria.
18
3.3. Data association
3.3.1. Data association using the nearest neighbor method
A quick calculation method on the association of internal sensor observations (the

vehicle) is described by the nearest neighbor method [83, 8]. It starts from a random object to
which it is most closely associated with the object distance in space depending on a parameter
set. In this way, a neighborhood that can be associated is searched. The version of the
algorithm used associates objects within a so-called regions of interest (ROI), which limits the
space of association data. By defining the ROI, the computational effort is reduced
consistently compared to other existing algorithms and data association is maximal.
Figura 3.5: Asocierea datelor în regiunea de interes (ROI)
If there is only one association made by limiting the ROI, this is done. The other rows
and columns of the matrix calculation containing the extracted data are excluded.
To achieve accurate navigation maps, the sensors perceptual values must be
interpreted. Environmental features are extracted and interpreted due to specific scenes in
order to minimize the environmental impact of imperfection of individual sensors in order to
achieve a robust navigation.
Correct association of data is a crucial component in achieving SLAM algorithms that
can influence estimative methods such as extended Kalman filters (EKF). Data association
methods are dependent on the types of data from sensors. Applications that use the raw data
of the sensors as successive scan, chains scan data by matching the observation with the
previous representation of the map. This technique can be classified into two categories:
 using raw data representation;
 using geometric representations of the scanned environment.
A widely used concept to combine maps is "map matching", which seeks the common
elements of segments generated in maps and overlapps them in a new map.
The overlap method requires significant resources both for representation and for the
final calculation because the processing is done point by point. In this sense, a simple
approach applied in this project is immediately mating features that are extracted in a
predetermined area of interest of the vehicle on the move. The method is described in detail in
19
order to achieve a fusion in the simulation software environment by merging generated scan
lines.
3.4. Autonomous vehicle localization
Locating an autonomous vehicle is the answer to the question: "Where am I?" In this
context the challenge is to extract features and combining data for a more accurate
localization. Operating a vehicle environment is an important role due to the contact surfaces
influencing the vehicle odometer and the objects identified due to extraction of features. By
applying correction filters, these shortcomings can be removed.
Finding an optimal solution depends on vehicle operating characteristic environment,
different solutions are presented in [57, 59, 20, 29, 45, and 87].
Figure 3.8: General scheme of an autonomous vehicle localization process
An important element is attached to the extraction of features, defining the so-called

observations that represent navigation markers (landmarks). By efficiently using the
landmarks the autonomous vehicle position update is done.
Figure 3.9: Localization using landmaks
An algorithm developed for the vehicle localization refers to extracting parts of the
lines representing edges of the object. Landmarks are the main features extracted, and by their
re-scan the localization is performed during the navigation procedures. Landmarks of the
20
maps are outlined during construction, so the localization phenomenon is strictly related to the
generation of map. Thus, the two components, mapping and localization, complement each
other.
3.5. Real-time environmental mapping and navigation
Mapping is the problem of integrating information from data acquired from sensors
and their representation in a map. This process can be described by the question "What does
the environment look line in which to operate?" Central issues relate to environmental
representation and interpretation of data from sensors. In contrast, the problem of estimating
the location refers to the robot position relative to a map. In other words, the robot has to
answer the question "Where am I?" A distinction of the track position is made, where the
starting position of the vehicle is known, and the global location of the vehicle, where there is
no known a priori information. The control problem or the effectiveness involves determining
the travel path to guide a vehicle to a point set. The solution would include the answer to the
question: "How to reach effectively a given location?"
The major problem is that the three can not have an independent approach. Before a
robot can respond to the question of how the environment looks like depending on the sets of
observations, it must know the location from which the observations were made. At the same
time is difficult to estimate the position of the vehicle without a map. According to [19]
integrated approaches are solutions for planning, simultaneous localization and mapping.
Finally, it is assumed that the mobile robot has developed an accurate model of environmental
and has determined its own position relative to this model.
Figure 3.10: Tasks required for a mobile robot so that it accurately models the environmental records.
Overlapping areas are areas of common elements in the field.
21
Key issues in the context of real-time mapping refer to questions such as:
 where should the vehicle be guided during a self-exploration?
 how to solve the noise problem when estimating the position and the landmarks
observed?
 how to interpret the robot's uncertainty in the global model and interpreted data from
sensors?
 how to shape the environment variable changes over time?
 how to effectively coordinate an autonomous mobile vehicle?
The contributions in this context are solutions of different aspects of learning above
a global map and location of mobile autonomous vehicle in the map generated.
In terms of data acquisition in the field of mobile robots, one important factor is the location
of the robot in an unknown environment. An accurate estimation of the position is the core of
any navigation system including dynamic construction of the map and trajectory planning.
Using data from robot vehicle odometer are not sufficient because they introduce
errors in the positioning system according to [12] and the results of the measurements made
and shown in the prototype implementation section above. Solving the problem is the
complementary use of various sensors (sonar, infrared, laser, video, etc.) and subsequent
merging of data processed.
3.6. Building a graphical virtual map. Simulation of the system
The perception of the navigation environment is performed on a software platform

developed in the programming environment Matlab / Simulink using the limits imposed on
the processing system to run in real time. After testing and evaluating the communication
command and control system presented in the pervious chapter criteria were established for
use strictly Embedded Software Platform. It was thus ruled out the use of operating systems
on the command and control modules of the PC-104 for algorithmic processing. Two aplroach
levels are developed, simulation and hardware implementation. Sensor interfaces are modeled
mathematical in the simulation to match the actual implementation interface. The diagram
below shows the two levels discussed. A fast implementation is feasible given that the
simulation has strict structure. For this a limitation of the programming code is done in order
to use only dedicated library functions available.
Using a control interface and visualization is available directly in the simulated
environment. The implemented level contains only the compiled code of the application,
visualization is transferred through the WLAN module to the host computer, on the basis of
the communication established.
Dimensions have been introduced to scale the intelligent autonomous vehicle used
also for laboratory tests. Handling objects have similar sizes to the vehicle operating with a
simpified rectangular shape.
22
Figure 3.12: Software platform of the simulation
3.6.1. The vehicle module „Vehicle”
This module contains the vehicle dynamic model with parameters for determining the
position Xv, Yv, Thetav and the speed V.
With a kinematic model of the transporter, the inverse kinematics problem is solved.
More specifically, knowing the trajectory and speed values, the main task is to determine the
time variation of the angle of the wheels and draw it on the map.
3.6.2. The vehicle control module „Vehicle control”
The parameters that were set here are: acceleration, braking and steering of the vehicle
by assigning experimentally determined values. The model also requires consideration of
vehicle dynamics by setting a variable parameter of friction with air.
3.6.3. The laser scanner module „Scanner”
This is shaping laser scanner interface module for data delivery to the mapping and
location and trajectory planning.
3.6.4. Global coordinate transformation „World coordinates”
This module coordinates the transformation performed by the laser sensor purchased
from a local reference in the global coordinate system.
The reference point of the local coordinate system is the rear axle of the autonomous
vehicle. It differentiates between the sensor coordinate system OL, the rest frame and the
reference of the vehicle global OG.
23
3.6.5. The map generation module „Map generation”
Represents a complex module for map generation. It includes algorithms and features
extraction from scanned environment. A diagram showing the internal structure of this
module is presented below.
Figure 3.16: Internal structure of the mapping and simultaneous localization module
The common interface of sensor data transformed into the global Cartesian
coordinates are also input for the map generation module The first phase provides a
breakdown of points in clusters on the basis of minimum distance between them. For this
purpose the defined region of interest ROI around the vehicle is 10x10 m. Successive scans
are acquired in cycles of 10 scans, the experimentally determined number to process the
relevant data. A vector out of the "cluster scans" contains data grouped; forming an edge by
taking the following lines in the block function to extract objects.
Figure 3.17: Grouping points of intersection with objects in clusters
Measured points not belonging to any cluster are returned to the position of the group
for a possible re-associate the data from t-1 with the current scan at time t. A data reduction
algorithm performed the extraction of lines scanned on an expanded concept of the evolution
of extended contour DCE and is presented in detail. Data are obtained as reductions of up to
80%. Only the ends of the extracted lines are memorized for further processing, achieving a
data filtering irrelevant for the extraction of features. Merging short line segments in a line
graph to define a relevant detected contour is performed in the „merge Objects”.
24
Schematically a map construction problem is to determined by the next steps:

 environmental sensitization by acquiring data from the laser sensor at time t;
 processing of data from sensors by extraction lines and particularities;
 integration of time t observations determined in the structure of environmental
observations at time t-1.
Below are cases where the merger of line realizes a further reduction in data,
implicitly considered the method described in [75]. The center of gravity of the lines is used
and coordinates are projected onto a new direction resulting by representing the average of
two lines directions.
3.6.5.1. Algorithms in the mapping process
În procesul de cartografiere există o serie de abordări atât de calcul, cât şi de

reprezentări grafice. Cele mai uzuale tehnici se referă la extracţia particularităţiilor din datele
senzorilor, dar şi procesarea directă a datelor neprelucrate ale senzorilor. Abordările care se
referă la extragerea particularităţiilor geometrice din datele iniţiale ale senzorilor au fost
studiate intensiv în domeniul localizării roboţiilor mobili. Acestea sunt descrise în cercetări
precum [18], [29], [87] ca fiind tehnici compacte care necesită mai puţin spaţiu în ceea ce
priveşte prelucrarea, atingând performanţe de un standard relativ înalt. În ceea ce priveşte
eficienţa algoritmilor care au la bază particularităţile geometrice parametrizate, acestea s-au
dovedit a fi preferate în comparaţie cu algoritmi de calcul care au la bază prelucrarea directă a
punctelor de la senzori. De menţionat este însă că în cazuri particulare o abordare combinată
reuşeşte să satisfacă împlinirea sarcinii de realizare a unei hărţi precise de navigare.
Segmentele de linie reprezintă printre primitivele geometrice cel mai simplu element.
Este uşor de descris în aproape orice mediu şi reprezintă totodată şi cel mai comun mod de
abordare în ceea ce priveşte reprezentarea 2D. În lucrarea sa, Castellanos [20] descrie un
algoritm bazat pe o metodă de segmentare inspirată din domeniul prelucrării video. Vandorpe
[98] introduce un algorim de generarea dinamică a unei hărţi bazându-se pe tehnica extragerii
de linii şi cercuri utilizând un scaner laser.
Pe baza comparaţiei de algoritmi descrisă în [37] au fost selectaţi algoritmii descrişi în
ceea ce urmează, pentru testarea performanţelor, cât şi pentru a dezvolta un algoritm propriu
care să satisfacă necesităţiile proiectului. Informaţiile aferente descriu paşii de realizare a
acestora.
3.6.6. The “split and merge” algorithm
3.6.7. Linear regression
3.6.8. The RANSAC algorithm
3.6.9. The Hough transformation
25
3.6.10. Line extraction algorithm based on DCE technique (extDCE)
Given the development of algorithms that operate in real time and analying the results
and effectiveness based on the previously presented algorithms, an algorithm was developed
to meet the project requirements. This algorithm is based on successive extraction of lines
while the vehicle is moving. Unlike previous algorithms, which are based on data collected
before the application,this algorithm is based on the line extraction technique DCE [53] with
an immediate processing, the collection is defined by a "buffer" to determine the necessary
points to extract lines resulting from the scanning cycle. For this the algorithm is used in the
processing software to generate a real-time virtual map. The algorithm comes from the
graphic domain, where line extraction is a basic technique.
1. Initialisation: collecting a number of n scans (minimum 3 points)

2. Checking the minimum distance between three points defined by a parameter
3. If parameter value is lower, go through step 5
4. Otherwise the points are returned in the cycle of n scans for new associations
5. Check with a fixed angular value the parameter and condition L12 <L1 + L2 for three
consecutive points
6. Processing of n scans applying the algorithm and extract the lines
7. If the value generated for angular lines coincide, they are merged into a new line
The comparisons of mapping algorithms were evaluated based on criteria described in

the table below.
Table 3.1: Algorithm comparison

Algoritm Processing Nr. of Corectness Precision
speed lines Real False σΔr σΔα
[Hz] pozition pozition [cm] [grade]
[%] [%]
Split&merge+cluster 1470 641 86.0 8.9 1.95 0.74
Incremental 344 561 77.8 5.9 2.04 0.72
Incremental+cluster 617 567 79.2 5.1 1.99 0.76
Liniar regresion 364 577 76.4 10.1 1.97 0.80
Liniar regresion + 384 562 75.8 8.4 1.68 0.79
cluster
RANSAC 29 749 75.6 31.5 1.37 0.77
RANSAC+cluster 93 547 70.7 12.2 1.63 0.70
extDCE 377 720 81.3 13.8 1.59 0.72
26
3.6.10.1. Data reduction by merging lines with common properties
The shape of the obstacles and their orientation and also the location error of the
vehicle cause wrong positioning of the lines representing edges of the identified obstacle. The
figure below shows such a case.
Figure 3.24: The phenomenon of edge extraction
To solve this problem of representation it is considered calculating the Euclidean

distance between two line segments by determining the minimum distance between any
elements of the two lines.
Figure 3.26: Substitution of small line segments belonging to the same cluster with complete long line segments
After calculating the distance between the generated lines, an outline data reduction is
made by merging lines with common parameters and belonging to the same cluster. This
provides a data reduction up to 70% of the extraction system features by merging lines
parameters.
27
3.6.11. Extracting landmarks from the navigation environment
For extracting parts the reduction of the DCE algorithm designed to represent edges of
navigation is used. Completion is described below, with the end points of lines as
initialization statements.
The identification of the same reference points provides in the phi / rho space a
clustered representation of points in the same area.
Figure 3.29: Extracting landmarks from features (lines)
3.6.12. Kalman filter model used for odometry correction
The Kalman filter consists of a system of mathematical equations based on minimizing

the squared errors and is thus an optimal estimator for autonomous vehicle position
correction.
However the question arises: Why just Kalman filter?
Arguments supporting its use in the automation industry refer to:
 effective implementation;
 estimating the current and possible future states;
 measuring of „hidden” states;
 measuring the quality of predictions by variances;
 robustness, the filter behaves very well in inaccurate models under specific conditions
and is stable
Operation models are based on the following cyclic scheme:
28
Figure 3.30: Kalman filter estimation and correction
The first phase includes the temporary update in which the state vector is estimated for
the next step. In the next phase an estimation of the state of its first phase is realised by
adapting the current measurement, so that it can be corrected.
The adjustment difference is estimated so that a prediction of the Kalman filter would
reduce the difference between the theoretical and actual curve to a minimum, the system
becomes more accurate.
The estimation and calculation of travel triectory, respectively of the odometry
improvement of the vehicle is shown in Chapter 4 in an application developed on the scaled
autonomous vehicle.
3.6.13. Using an extended Kalman filter for localization
An extended Kalman filter describing a mathematical model for intelligent

autonomous vehicles for position correction by using odometer data and environment
information such as landmarks is described in [95].
The state vector contains the current position of the vehicle condition (xr, yr, Θr), as
well as parts of absolute position of the landmarks in the configuration (xn, yn). The vector
size is 3 +2 n where n is the number of lanmarks
3.6.14. The trajectory planning module „Trajectory planning”
This module realizes an optimal trajectory planning based on the common interface in
order to generate the map. It contains the trajectory calculation based on Bezier curves and the
potential field method.
29
A number of factors are taken into account in order to establish a robust model, to
extract relevant information from the environment and its use for interpreting the scene, the
trajectory of movement of autonomous vehicle.
The operating environment of an autonomous vehicle can be determined by a
continuous geometric description or through a map. The first step is the transformation of
possible trajectory planning environments into discrete map models to choose an algorithm
suitable for navigation.
Depending on how decomposition affects the environment, path planners can be
cathegorized in three general strategies:
1. Map of trails: in this respect, a number of possible routes in space are identified.
2. Decomposition in the cells (grids): provides a discrimination between occupied and
blank cells to static environments.
3. Potential field: to travel in a ramdom space a mathematical function is required
An autonomous vehicle moving between a home and target location points should be
made having regard to the optimal path representing a path of maximum security without
collision and quickly calculated. Such a requirement is satisfied by the potential field method.
In this sense, the trajectory calculated depends on the environment navigation, previously
identified obstacles and accurate representation. An optimal travel path is not represented only
by calculating the shortest way to go.
Figure 3.33: Vehicle trajectory using the method of potential fields [34]
There are several suggested methods of dealing with local minimum phenomenon. The
occurrence of this phenomenon causes the vehicle to stop and the inability to move forward.
One idea is to avoid local minimum of the potential field is to inlclude an intelligent scheduler
so that the vehicle uses information derived from sensors, but still planning to conduct
comprehensive [27].
3.6.15. Object avoidance module „Track deviation”
This module contains objects avoidance algorithms for safe navigation without
collisions. A comparison between the calculated curve and the curve actually traveled by
vehicle is made.
Avoiding objects focuses on changing the path of travel with information delivered
from sensors. The robot movement is both a function of current sensor data and the relative
position of the target point. A number of algorithms and techniques to avoid objects are
presented in [42]. Simple algorithms that use only current sensor data to avoid collisions are
30
preferred in this case because of the simplicity and fast response of detection systems based
on current information of the sensors.
A model for such a mechanism is shown below.
Figure 3.35: Obstacle avoidance mechanism
3.6.15.1. Object avoidance using specific curves for trajectory calculation:
The bezier curve is defined by two control points. The other points define the
beginning and end of the curve. Control points determine the curvature of this function.
The integration of the autonomous vehicles path planning involves setting the control points
as the acceleration of the vehicle, thereby realizing the establishment of the optimal curves to
avoid obstacles.
The integration of these points is made for both clothoids and Bezier spline by using a
VP matrix.
0 0 0 0
R p dx1 1

R p dx 2 1
 
R p dx3 1
R p dx 4 1
VP   
0 0 0 3 (3.51 )
0 0 0 0
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
 
 0 0 0 0
Considering a move with constant speed during the maneuver, the following segment
is calculated. In this case, the segments are segments of a clothoid, that changes its curvature
proportional to length.
31
Figure 3.38: Segmentele de curba pentru stabilirea traiectoriei de evitare
3.7. Probabilistic mapping as an alternative method of navigation
There are several advantages of using occupancy grids in terms of achieving real-time
computation, accuracy and robustness depend on the adjustment parameters, namely the
working method. The most important aspects of intelligent autonomous vehicles probabilistic
mapping are detailed as follows.
3.7.1. Bayes method. General aspects
3.7.2. Derivation of the Bayes method
For the derivation of the relation similar steps as described in [124] were made, while
having implementing own specific defined issues.
In the first step, in order to define the measurement, the probability of detecting
objects is realised by using the sensors detection rank.
Tolerated values and measured values are those that determine the probability of
detecting objects as determined in relations.
Mapping using the probability scale is achieved by defining a grid that contains the
probabilities of occupancy cells. The grid is defined as a stationary object moving in this
direction from cell to cell within the grid.
Due to the size dependence of individual cells that influence the intensity of
calculation, the approach is one that concerns only a limited area (50x30 m).
(3.57)
For initialization, each cell is assigned the value 0.5.

When an object is detected, the probability tends to a cell occupied while the blank value
drops to 0. The precision of the method depends on cell size and the probability of detection
of the sensor.
32
Figure 3.42: Occupacy grid
In principle the two resulting probabilities are occupied or unoccupied defining the
configurations totaling value.
Occupancy grid update reprezents an inflection point for the computing performance
of the system. Basically, after each point generated by the sensor, the probability scale should
be fully updated. In order to achieve a good real-time mapping, the process depends on the
processing power and size of the computational system defined cells, responsible for
positioning the probability value of the objects identified.
3.8. Conclusions
To be successful in integrating methods of mapping and path planning it is not

sufficient to consider only the navigation architecture; important aspects are also computer
technology, control and memory. Overall architectural design is the innovative area of the
future in achieving intelligent vehicles. Algorithms require special attention because of the
limitation of the system which makes the project different from other current approaches. The
purpose of this implementation is the independence from operating systems to achieve a real-
time processing. The embedded knowledge level offers algorithmic robustness and ease of
processing and implementation.
The following steps were made in the development phase and they are representing
both algorithmic and simulation own contributions:
33
 a software environment has been created, that contains a separate module to

generate a virtual map and calculate trajectories of moving non-holonomic
vehicles due to generated data interfaces;
 a data reduction was achieved by filtering and selecting consistent data relevant
data by developing algorithms to extract features from the software sensor models;
 a Kalman filter concept was integrated allowing the vehicle to localise itself by
extracting relevant parts (landmarks) from the navigation environment;
 regarding the strategy level; an interface was developed that allows specifying the
desired travel path and obtain a data set that are actually used in autonomous
vehicle control;
 follow a path without obstacles;
 implement an obstacle avoidance technique based on special curved segments
(clothoids and Bezier curves);
 an alternative mapping concept to the concept of mapping and localization by
extracting features was developed using probabilistic calculation methods.
Because precision is required in autonomous vehicle navigation, the probabilistic
method is recommended only for small spaces. In this case the precision limitation coincides
with the cell size. This implies also a power-performance computing.
The simulation level can provide a rapid development of the concepts studied. In this
respect, opportunities for practical implementation were seeked parallel to the software
evolution.
34
Navigation tests and applications of the autonomous vehicle
CHAPTER 4: NAVIGATION TESTS AND APPLICATIONS

OF THE AUTONOMOUS VEHICLE
„Practice is everything“ (Periander)
4.1. The communication infrastructure used for tests conduction
Given the need to optimize the process of mapping and to locate the VIA in a system
the following evaluation was performed in two stages:
1. Simulation using Embedded Matlab and Simulink
2. Experimentation with the 1:8 scaled vehicle
In simulation models of the sensors were used to evaluate methods and system
limitations in terms of achieving further performance of the VIA during the software transfer.
The previously tested algorithms in the simulated environments have been described
previously and were evaluated during the same scenario representing a corridor environment
with objects.
Algorithms running are using a 3.3 GHz processor for the computer simulation
environment on a Windows 7 operating system. The software transfer is done by compiling
the program with functions performed by the Embedded PC of the VIA as a target system.
Communication is a standard wireless 802.11 and of 2.4 GHz. The target is a PC 104
industrial embedded computation unit with the ability to run real-time applications because of
the XPC software from MATLAB.
Host PC Target PC
WLAN
Scaner laser / senzori

ultrasonici
Emergency Embedded Software

control
Figure 4.1: Communication system of the host-target system
35
Data sharing allows viewing the results in a graphical interface where sensor data are
displayed as points and odometer data of the system in the x and y directions and also the
travel speed and distance.
The virtual map is generated in real-time, therefore algorithms and vehicle control of
the VIA are realized on the target unit while the host computer draws the navigation map
incrementally.
4.2. Comparing data from separate odometer systems
To evaluate data from odometer sensors, measurements were made by comparing two
systems.
Values indicate that the odometer is more accurate trough special sensors. The value
of the inertia sensors contained in GIGABOX considers any inclination of the vehicle during
the navigation.
Figure 4.3: Comparative values of the odometer sensors
4.3. Mapping the environment
The tests with the scaled vehicle were made under laboratory conditions. Obstacles
placed along the route have different sizes, but are similar in overall dimensions. After
conducting several tests in the same scene the sample time was modified from 0.01sec to 0.05
sec to allow a discharge of the process on the XPC computer processor. The odometer module
can provide data with an accuracy of about 500mm to 10m of navigation, without correction.
For speeds above 3 m / s the odometer system errors are correlated with the
performance of the laser scanning wich results in a positioning error of up to 10%.
36
Figure 4.8: Real time environment mapping in the laboratory environment
4.4. Implementation of the Kalman filter for odometer improving while mapping the
environment
The description of the model in the previous chapter is a general and theoretical one,
based on the concept of autonomous vehicle position prediction. A parameterization of the
quantities used is described in what follows. The vehicles operation is considered in a
cartesian coordinate system with the state vector (x, y, v, Θ) where the positon is given by x,y
and Θ, and the speed vector v is indicated.
Input variables are defined:
dt=0.1 the sample-time coincides with the model adopted in the software
amax=30 experimentally determined
thetamax= 1,57 experimentally determined
State vector is initialised by a zero vector:
[ ] (4.1)
The covariance matrix is initialized:
[ ] (4.2)
The system matrix is given by:
37
( )
( )
[ ] (4.3)
Modelul măsurărilor este dat de:
[ ] (4.4)
The measurement model is given by:
( ( ) ( ))
( ( ) ( ))
[ ( ) ]
(4.5)
The measurement noise is:
[ ] (4.6)
In the first stage following calculations are made:
Calculation of the predicted state:
xpred = A•xest (4.7)
The covariance matrix becomes:
ppred = A•pest•A‟+Q (4.8)
The measurement update phase is made by these calculations:
The Kalman gain is calculated as:
(4.9)
( )
The estimated state is updated:
xest = xprd+Klmgain• ( z - H• xprd) (4.10)
The above implementation shows defining the next test where the actual trajectory is
callculated in order to close a navigation loop.
With this model the following characteristic problem are solved:
 errors in the four-wheel drive model;
 odometer errors during wheel slipping;
38
 measurement errors due to sensors measuring the pozition angle;

 temperature dependence of the sensors.
Figure 4.10: The difference between the calculated trajectory and real trajectory of the vehicle
The tendency of swinging around the odometer values in order to minimize

positioning error and equaling of the path is observed. To include features, the model is
extended with coordinates measured. Speed and acceleration values are also indicated for the
linearity analysis during the navigation. Differences are observed due to influence of the
electric motor and the control.
4.4.1. Mapping the environment through by extraction of features
The next event is defined for mapping. Extracted features are analyzed by applying the
algorithm described in chapter three.
Figure 4.14: Environment mapping scene (laboratory testing)
39
The graphical representation of the navigation situation indicates objects identified by

extracted lines.
Figure 4.15: GUI representation of the mapping data
There is a doubled line representation, a phenomenon that appears due to imprecision

of the sensors and their reflections, but also due to the dynamic movement of the vehicle and
thus reviewing these objects while moving. Below are the relevant parameters for the
extraction of features represented in the test environment.
Tabele 4.3: Evaluation parameters for the extraction of features

Algoritm extDCE Measurement unit
Driven distance 4,10 m
Extracted objects 3
No of objects 3
Extracted lines 26
Single points 15
Deviation in x direction 0,05 m
Deviation in y direction 0,02 m
Maximum speed 0.62 m/s
Maximum velocity 17 m/s2
Maximum gyroscopic rate 1,8 °/s
The figures below show the parameter values recorded during tests. Important are
deviations in x and y directions and values that estimate the vehicle position by using the
Kalman filter.
Vehicle speed and acceleration values are also indicated in order to analyse the motion
of the vehicle. There is a signal drop in the calculation of the difference in regulation.
40
4.4.2. Changing the scanning perspective
A test that is based on the change of perspective representation of objects in space

navigation refers to the situation below. In this, the trajectory is calculated using Bezier
curves and the movement is performed using a system matrix “VP”. This application aims to
extract edges represented in the form of the "L" letter for a correct representation of the edges
of objects as used in the testing scene.
A limitation of the representation is the description of objects through simple lines.
For complex geometries it is possible to overlay contours of objects in order to extract the
specific shape. For the association of lines for objects represented only a part of the object is
required at a time. Similar approaches do not take into account this phenomenon, on the
premise of a full scan of the object within a single step, which implies offline data processing.
To generate lines the extraction algorithm criteria must be met. At least three points are
needed to extract a line, and if they are double associated within the first phase a data
reduction is done while checking common line characteristics in order to fusionate the
segments of the extracted lines.
Figure 4.19: Representation of the maneuver while changeing the scanning perspective
41
Values recorded during performance of the maneuver are represented below. It is

noted in this case a deviation in x and y directions while changing direction of movement.
Speed and acceleration has an inflection while the transition is made, then their value remains
constant.
Table 4.4: Evaluation parameters for the extraction of features

Algoritm extDCE Measurement unit
Driven distance 4,6 m
Extracted objects 2
No of objects 9
Extracted lines 18
Single points 0,04 m
Deviation in x direction 0,09 m
Deviation in y direction 0.61 m/s
Maximum speed 16 m/s2
Maximum velocity 31 °/s
Maximum gyroscopic rate 50 °
4.5. The visual reprezentation of the navigation environment
4.5.1. Identifying floor markings in specific environments
To initiate a guidance process in the handling space

the following criteria must be met:
 Correct identification of the space;
 verifying the achievement of the maneuvers in the guidance space;
 verifying the availability of instantaneous space;
 identification of any objects in the (static / dynamic) area of handling.
Video sensors are an optimal solution in order to detect guided markings for
identifying handled objects. Below the concept of extracting the necessary data is presented
by processing image data (video) for guiding autonomous intelligent vehicle into specific
manipulation spaces. A transformation of the representation in the perspective of the so-called
"bird view" is made. This involves using a transformation model based on the darkroom
operation principle.
By using Matlab / Simulink a live capture of the video
is performed and then converted into gray tones to focus strictly on edge extracting of the
necessary information.
42
Figure 4.23: Transformation of the gray tones (left) and the extraction of edges (right)
The image matrix is modified by assigning the property to identified edges to 0 or 1,

so edges rezulted from the background extraction is performed on the differential color
criterion (Sobel).
4.5.2. Hough transformation of extracted lines
4.5.3. Transformation of extracted edges and limitation by line atributes
By applying the maximum local function a space is searched for dual Hough
transformation after the start and end points of the domain that is found. This information is
stored in a matrix with theta and rho values. The following figures simulating a navigation
space highlight the calculation.
Figure 4.27: Extracting lines from the hough space and limit definition
Generated points are used by the module interface which realises the navigation based
on the potential field theory. Minimal information is used to achieve a representative real-time
navigation.
4.5.4. Perspective transformation using the darkroom principle
4.5.5. Representation of the transformed markings
Capturile imaginilor au fost realizate în mediul de laborator reprezentând o suprafaţă

netedă cu marcaje predefinite. Camera video a fost montată pe un suport cu 400 [mm]
înălţime cu o înclinare de 35° faţă de suprafaţa de rulare a vehiculului autonom.
Camera perspective is highlighted below. To note is that the floor has sections that
reflect light, which limits the identification of system for continuity, a general problem
discussed in the video processing community. However, defining the system limits, we obtain
a robust possibility of using intelligent autonomous vehicles guided by markings. The
43
transformation model provides results with errors of measurement in the area [± 4 mm]. The
need to implement a detection system taking in account the angles during acceleration and
braking is important in order to outline the correction of the position during navigation.
Figure 4.31: Perspective transformation of the extracted floor markings
4.6. Analysis of people and objects in the navigation environment
To analyze dynamic objects and people, different approaches are described in [17] or
using dynamic Bayesian networks as described in [83]. Extracting accurate data is
complicated by factors such as occlusion, noise or confusion arising in the background. By
using the optical flow method an apparent motion and model of objects is determined, where
surfaces and margins (edges) in a scene have a relative motion between the observer (camera)
and scene. Specific data indicate dynamic vectors during the the change of direction which are
observed depending on the movement of objects to identify dynamic motion vectors values
different from the rest of the captured scene (background). A distinction is to be made
between the optical flow and the motion field.
Extracting features from the background is performed by using the Lucas-Kanadae
algorithm described in [17]. Dynamic objects extraction is shown below:
The diagram below shows the information flow of the video algorithm:
Figure 4.32: The flow of information necessary for identifying and classifying objects
44
It is not necessarily to achieve a classification of the objects in motion, a simple

identification of them is sufficient to cause the vehicle to take safety measures regarding the
movement in its active space.
Figure 4.32: Detection of people by background substraction
By background extraction, the computation is performed in two phases. Image noise

plays an important role in this respect and is minimized by filters.
Figure 4.34: Relevant angles for identification
To determine the direction of movement of the border for dynamic calculation, the
difference in directions x and y position it the times t and t-1 are needed.
Height is determined relatively accurately, while the width of the object remains
uncertain. However, the algorithm implemented is fast and robust.
0,8
0,6 distance
0,4 height
width
0,2
0
average position error
Figure 4.38: Error values of deviation from the real position of the object
45
4.7. Conclusions
The bidimensional (2D) mapping of the environment is a simplified method of

representation of the concepts used for autonomous navigation of intelligent vehicles. On the
specific navigation environment, where objects are identified and represented as standard
shapes, a 2D mapping concept is sufficient to detect obstacles and handle containers. On the
other hand, in terms of autonomous vehicles as independent systems, they have to determine
their own location as a process of simultaneously 2D mapping the environment. For a better
representation of the navigation environment and to have greater control over the tasks which
have to be fulfilled by a vehicle it is necessary to implement additional systems such as video
cameras to detect moving objects. The basic problem is the representation of the environment,
fusioning fata from different sensors to improve the navigation system completely in terms of
accurate mapping and location, where odometer data is not sufficient for effective location.
The data reduction algorithms using simple geometry extraction based on particularities such
as lines is an advantage for specific environments such as manufacturing systems. In this
respect, the development of a 3D scanning system would benefit of graphics views, but not
necessary aplicable in real-time processing tasks of autonomous intelligent vehicles of the
current tehnologies. This problem is directly dependent on computing resources and the
control processing unit. Moving can be improved by identifying markings on the floor and
follow them with visual sensor systems such as the system developed.
The test conducted to the following contributions and implementation steps:
 evaluation by comparison of the odometer vehicle sensors available;
 improving and correction of the vehicle position by implementation and
parameterization of the programmed Kalman filter;
 environment representation by using navigation scenes in the laboratory;
 evaluating and identifying features extracted and objects with proximity sensors;
 analysis of parameter values on the speed of navigation, positioning and giration rate;
 implementation and evaluation of the concept by identifying floor markings using the
video sensor;
 implementation and evaluation of a concept for identification of dynamic objects and
people from the navigation environment using the video camera.
Environmental complexity in navigation techniques combines different representation
techniques. Given the task of simplifying the navigation environment as possible, its
representation contains only relevant information for a correct navigation.
46
Applications in the flexible manufacturing system of automotive industry
CHAPTER 5: APPLICATIONS IN THE FLEXIBLE

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM OF AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
„The value of an idea lies in the fact

that is shoud be valued.” (T.A. Edison)
Within the CAM sistem (Computer Aided Manufacturing) the flexible manufacturing
system (FMS - Flexible Manufacturing System) has a special place. This is defined differently
from country to country, but in essence a production unit is capable of manufacturing a wide
(family) of discrete products with minimal manual intervention. It includes workstations
equipped with high production capacity (numerical control machine tools or other equipment
assembly or treatment) linked by a material handling system for the purpose of moving parts
from one workstation to another and act as an integrated system with fully programmable
control.
PP&C CAM product manufacturing CAQ

Capacity CNC/FMS programming Quality-
planning and stock transport manufacturing assembly related
resource material flow activities
Figure 5.2: The role of the transport in the manufacturing system
Handling flexibility, can be achieved by using an automatic transfer systems and / or

robotic of types: AGVs, orientation and transport systems using automated and robotic
manipulators, automatic transfer lines, warehouses, automated deposits associated with
computer-aided management, capable of finding on new paths for a blocked workstation.
Flexibility in the transfer of a given system is expressed as the ratio between the number of
trajectories that the system can achieve and the number of feasible paths realized by a
universal system.
(5.1)
By program flexibility, virtual factory operates unattended for a long time. This
reduces the total processing time by reducing the time in order to reorganize, introduce some
procedures from which to obtain high quality products and precision and efficiency that leads
to an increased production capacity of the system.
Following are realised in this regard:
 a simultaneous improvement of productivity and quality;
 a reduction of total time with increasing effective capacity in order to produce
unattended.
An evaluation of the flexibility program can be based on the time gained by
eliminating reorganizations reported to the total processing time.
(5.2)
47
Compared to product flexibility, production flexibility requires considerable

organization, but not necessarily additional capital investment.
Production flexibility is resulting from the aggregation ability and flexibility of the system of
transfer machines, plus the flexibility of the informational and control system.
5.1. Modeling and simulation of the environment of a six cell flexible manufacturing
system
To study the behavior of the flexible manufacturing system operated by a single

guided vehicle the following case is considered with the scheme associated and the
components described below. The configuration is a generalized model in an automated
system for manufacturing operations, existing in the "University Heilbronn"
Figure 5.8: Manufacturing system layout with six work cells served by VIA
Each cell served by the mobile robot is equipped with a transfer belt that connects the
processing machine tool and the mobile robot platform via the transfer shuttles. Setting the
flow of material is made depending on the production schedule adopted. The autonomous
vehicle is moving on a line with a virtual set priority. The necessary material exchanged
during the stops
Table 5.1: Components of the flexible manufacturing system

Cells operated 1 2 3 4 5 6
by VIA
Automa Lathe Robotic Milling Pressing Injection cell
tic cell arm cell center cell
deposit
Cells operated 7 8 9
by human
CAD CAQ Montaje cell
laboratory laboratory
48
The navigation is performed by using a laser and ultrasonic sensor system mounted on
the vehicle, without any other outside navigation sources.
Download and delivery of the goods transported is handled by the presence sensor at the end
of the cell lines of working transfers. VIA ensure the functioning of each individual
workstation.
Figure 5.11: Possible tehnologial links
Once slowing the navigatin, objects in the environment are reviewed, and associations
can be made to reduce data. There is an increase in the number of lines reduced while the
travel speeds is low.
Navigation environment at different speeds

100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
speed >10 m/s speed <3 m/s
single points 72 7
reduced lines 4 15
extracted objects 18 44
Figure 5.15: Representation of the navigation environment at different speeds
49
The study of the VIA behavior problems in navigation is made considering a 6-cell
system described in an active (CL).
There is a substantial reduction of data while items are reviewd during the navigation.
Basically ~ 20% of the extracted objects are reduced lines. The number of unrelated items is
determined either by the sensitivity of the region of interest in that the vehicle scans, or its
displacement effect caused by the nonlinear dynamic.
Figure 5.18: VIA operating the active cells
The particularities extracted from the environment are measured differently from each
transfer made to highlight associations, namely the number of unassigned points in the
scanned environment.
Navigaton environment
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
transfer1 transfer2 transfer3 transfer4 transfer5 transfer6
single points 12 18 25 34 29 22
reduced lines 4 7 16 12 8 5
extracted objects 15 12 32 28 18 21
Figure 5.19: Environment representation for navigation on the transfer application
The observed increase in the number of points is unrelated to a maximum during

transfer three parts corresponding to the acquisition of the injection cell in order to transfer
them in the automatically deposit. There is also a large number of lines reduced due
reobservation of the edges by performing specific maneuvers.
50
Navigation times are represented comparatively below.
Navigation time during transfers
80
60
40
20
0
transfer1transfer2
transfer3 navigation time(s)
transfer4
transfer5
transfer6
transfer1 transfer2 transfer3 transfer4 transfer5 transfer6

navigation time(s) 42 34 51 46 36 61
Figure 5.20: Transfer times
For the calculation of the operating time following technological parameters are taken
into account, valid for the six cells activities.
Operation time of the VIA
1000
500
time in s
time in s
operation time of the VIA 270
total operation times 627
Figure 5.21: Operarion times
Transfer time is approximately 43% of the time required to achieve the complete
operation. To improve this time of transfer, improvements are needed at the strategic level.
5.1.1. Modeling and simulation of the application with occupacy grids
An alternative approach to represent the navigation environment is studied while using

occupacy grids for modeling the environment after the concept developed in section 3.7.
The cells are defined as having dimensions of 1x1 m. The detection probability is
analysed. The figure below shows the occupancy grid in global coordinates. A cell can
51
contain multiple points resulting from detection of objects by the laser scanner. In this data
reduction is achieved by establishing the cell size. It also influences the accuracy of detection
of objects regarding their location in space.
Figure 5.22: Environment representation using grids
Given the size of cells, they can be processed faster when their dimensions are large
defined, a division of cells in small cells often require an intensive computation beyond the
computer system.
For this case we have a 50x30 cell field, which takes 1500 calculations for each
measurement that requires an update.
Environment has the following characteristics:
 measuring points of the laser scanner defined by the scanning area;
 occupied cells containing points of measurement and distances;
 updated free cells.
Navigation characteristics
1500
1000
500
0
environment cells
spare cells 1338
occupied cells 162
measured values 972
Figure 5.23: Navigation features of the environment
A relatively low occupancy rate is observed, only 10.8% of the cells are used. The
tolerance range and precision of the laser scanner assigns values to neighboring cells. The
52
representation error for determining the minimum distance between the vehicle and an
occupied cell is possible to determine only by calculating the route on free cells.
5.2. Conclusions
The benefits of flexibility are sought in each production system, this is the current
manufacturing strategy. But its feasibility is proved only under complete control of
technology.
Plants and processes are too expensive to be rebuilt every time a change is required for
the production design. In this respect they are required to be flexible and easily configurable.
For the reconfiguration processes a direct control over the elements is necessary. For this it is
recommended the configuration to have a strong and stable communication network covering
the needs of operating machines and operators. Centralized production is component of past,
current attempts are providing reliable breakdown of activities of individual systems while the
processing category also includes transfer vehicles.
The application developed is detailing key points of the researched and implemented
sistem with contribution in:
 analysis of the flow of raw material handling and transport of a Flexible
Manufacturing System;
 modeling and integration of the manufacturing software system developed to analyze
the concept of navigation;
 representation of the navigation environment during displacement while analysing
features extracted in order to identify the correctness of objects placements in specific
environments;
 analysis of transfer times between active work cells;
 analysis of specific phenomena that occur in the navigation of the flexible
manufacturing system;
 studying the alternative abordation for representation of the environment with
occupancy cells presenting advantages and disadvantages of use.
The representation and interpretation of extracted data from the navigation
environment is an important component for a vehicle to reach its autonomy. Although there is
a limitation in terms of space navigation, extracted features provide real-time navigation
through simple algorithmic processing of features extracted from the environment.
Based on this concept, the environment and vehicle operating in these components are
interconnected throughout the navigation software, without a visible physical connection,
talking from this point of view of a flexible autonomous transfer system.
53
Conclusions and further research
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND

FURTHER RESEARCH
The possibility of a vehicle to move independently in a structured or unstructured

environment either internal or external, to achieve a virtual map and to to locate itself in it are
important aspects of the development of navigation systems used in the manufacturing
industry and in other areas involving the transport.
The research within the project highlighted in this thesis the implemented concept of
autonomous vehicle navigation in two stages:
1. Creating a software concept that allows modeling and simulation of algorithms
developed using the sensor behavior models;
2. Realisation of a scaled autonomous vehicle, allowing testing and implementation
of the developed concepts.
The first phase of the research includes an analysis of the possibilities of implementing
the concept of mapping and self localization (SLAM). Algorithms have been developed,
particularry extraction algorithms by extending the existing DCE concept to simplify the
representation during the vehicles navigation. The necessity of localization led to examination
the existing possibilities and to the development of a concept using a quasi Hough space for
extraction and analysis of identified landmarks. The alternative mapping approach and
alanysis of the grid cells revealed the possibility of implementing probabilistic calculation
methods. With the prerequisite for achieving a real-time processing, computer algorithms
were programmed in effective code, thereby maximizing the opportunities for their
implementation on dedicated computer systems (embedded). Through this the development of
an independent programming and computing platform was ensured.By using vehicle systems
without an additional operating system form the category Windows / Linux or external data
libraries, the implicit development costs are low. The research is trough this fact different
from many current approaches. The results and contributions of the first development stage
are presented below.
Theoretical contributions
 study the possibility of further development of autonomous vehicles based on current

research principles and industrial handling vehicles;
 establish a navigation concept based on SLAM tehniques by extracting features for
recognizing the environment both internally and externally;
 develop a proper algorithm for extracting lines and data reduction resulting in
implementation of a virtual map;
 analysis and benchmarking of algorithms available to validate the concept;;
 development of a method for extracting landmarks for the vehicle location
determination using a quasi Hough space;
 kalman filter modeling for position correction of an autonomous vehicle and
integrating features while exploring the environment;
54
 developing a method to avoid obstacles using a matrix with specific curve calculation
using the avialable process infrastructure;
 research and modeling of an alternative mapping method based on probabilistic
methods for mapping;
 a study on the applicability and implementation of methods investigated;
 development of a concept of people and objects representation in the dynamic
navigation environment;
 createing a navigation concept based on identifying markings in dedicated spaces;
 behaviour analysis of the vehicle during its navigation in a manufacturing space based
on two concepts of representation of the environment.
In the second stage the theoretical research was performed by the implementations. By
creating a physical prototype, an important step in analyzing the behavior of both concepts
and software developed was made. By establishing a communication concept based on the
target-host technology an important component was developed in terms of use and monitoring
of the vehicle during its operation. As the odometer has proven to be imperfect, a Kalman
filter was implemented to correct the vehicles position during navigation without any
additional systems such as GPS, system that is limited by indoor applications. By equipping
the vehicle with a different architecture of sensors in order to remove environmental
dependencies the research is also representing an original model of the trend in the current
approach to automated systems. Differences between theoretical and practical approaches
showed a clear difference both in terms of development and level of implementation, often
requiring changes in the software, therefore, changes in the first stage of development. In
these assessments practical implementations and own contributions are outlined below:
Practical contributions
 evaluation and testing of components necessary to achieve an autonomous intelligent

vehicle infrastructure;
 development of a prototype of an autonomous vehicle with a limitated processing
system for embedded programming in order to navigate in real time;
 development of a communication concept between the vehicle and a central control
system for active monitoring of processes;
 development of communication concept between two PC-104 systems by processing
and synchronizing the flow of information;
 programming of a simulation in Matlab/Simulink environment with embedded
integration for modeling and rapid prototyping of navigation algorithms.
 integration of the theoretical concept on mapping and localization of autonomous
vehicles in a specific environment;
 implementing an obstacle avoidance technique based on special curved segments
(clothoid and Bezier splines);
 the optical research level was achieved by creating a graphical representation of the
results of the mapping algorithm in order to create virtual maps;
55
 implementation of a Kalman filter for correcting the position of the vehicle during
autonomous navigation;
 implementation of a concept that identifies persons and objects for dynamic and safe
navigation trough the environment;
 implementation of the concept for floor markings in dedicated spaces using a video
camera, required for navigation maneuvers.
By completing the two steps, a realisation of an optimal configuration for the

development of autonomous navigation systems is achieved. The complexity of the project
had the disadvantage that certain aspects of navigation were addressed only tangentially. By
this it was pointed out that the usefulness of these systems depends on the specific areas of
application.
Each chapter presents the final conclusions and original contributions.
Through modeling and simulating an application in a flexible manufacturing system
certain aspects that can be taken into account in order to increase its total flexibility have been
highlighted. This refers to both, the handling within a manufacturing system, but also the
possibility to that merge area with the logistics field.
Further research directions
Future research directions in this area can rely on the sayings of P. Drucker: „We must
become managers of technology, not just user of it”.
If expectations in recent years have not yet brought the desired smart products on the
market, sooner or later they will appear. The confluence of advanced technology will bring
new possibilities closer to reality with practical features, small, effective and of low cost. The
artificial intelligence, the robotic structures and robustness issues will become indispensable
in any field. Looking closely, the future in the development of the autonomous systems in
flexible manufacturing depends on the applications and technologies used.
A diagnosis by computer will allow estimating possible errors of the machine
guidance system and sustaining teams in detecting faults. International coordination and
control of manufacturing facilities by advanced communication technology is a clear line of
research manufacturing systems. Using robots equipped with different sensors to simplify the
tasks of production, and also to estimate the process in simulations are growing and are also
essential components of future plants.
All forms of technological progress from the invention of new sensors to
microprocessors is growing at a significantly rate and provides new concepts in mobile robot
architectures, so unimaginable tactics will become possible to apply.
With reference to the process-product matrix, one can achieve a high flexibility
through innovative technical level and organizational efforts. The Volvo company for
example is based on a manufacturing process in which machines are assembled on mobile
pallets and there is no assembly line in this respect. The process incorporates flexibility.
At the present time, small versionsof flexible manufacturing systems impose. Due to
relatively small production volumes and large variety of applications, automation technology
developed also a largely used segment for other market segments. Innovation comes rather
56
from the existing applications in different areas than form a totally unexplored concept. Using
mapping technologies for mobile robot navigation in specific environments for the transfer in
the field of industrial automation becomes a real-time application of complex adaptive
systems.
57
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61
INDEX OF ABBREVIATIONS
AGV MAP
EN: automated guided vehicle EN: Manufacturing Automation Protocol
RO: vehicul ghidat automat RO: protocolul fabricaţiei automate
ASC SPS
EN: writing/reading device EN: programable logic controller
RO: aparat scriere/citire RO: modul logic de programare
ASM ROI
EN: initialization module EN: region of interest
RO: modul de initializare RO: regiune de interes
CAN SLAM
EN: control area network EN: simultaneous localization and mapping
RO: reţea de control RO: cartografiere şi localizare simultană
CNC TR
EN: numerical comand control EN: transfer rate
RO:control cu comandă numerică RO: rata de transfer
DARPA UDP
EN: Defense advanced research project agency EN:user datagram protocol
RO: agenţia de proiect de cercetare în apărare RO:protocol de pachete
avansată
DCE VIA
EN: discrete contour evolution EN: intelligent autonomous vehicle
RO: evoluţia discretă a conturului RO: vehicul inteligent autonom
DARPA VP
EN: Defense advanced research project agency EN: control matrix
RO: agenţia de proiect de cercetare în apărare RO: matricea de control
avansată
extDCE:
EN: extended discrete contour evolution
RO: evoluţia discrete a conturului extinsă
GUI
EN: graphical user interface
RO: interfaţă grafică de utilizator
IP
EN: internet protocoll
RO: protocol de internet
I/O
EN: input/output
RO: intrări/ieşiri

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UNIVERSITY „LUCIAN BLAGA” SIBIU

PRESIDENT: Prof. Dr. -Ing. Ioan Bandrea

SCIENTIFIC COORDINATOR: Prof. Dr. -Ing. Carmen Simion

REVIEWERS: Prof. Dr. Rer. Nat. Fritz Tröster

Prof. Dr. -Ing. Nouraş Barbu Lupulescu

Prof. Dr. -Ing. Laurean Bogdan

Dipl. -Ing. Răzvan Luca

Structure of the thesis ...................................................................................................... 4 4

Chapter 1: Current state ................................................................................................ 6 6

3.6.10. Line extraction algorithm based on DCE technique (extDCE) ................. 65 26

5.1. Modeling and simulation of the environment of a six cell

Bibliogrphy ........................................................................................................................ 140 58

Index of abbreviations .................................................................................................. 149 62

Appendix ............................................................................................................................. 150 .

The flexible manufacturing concepts "Flexible Manufacturing" and ecological storage

OBJECTIVES OF THE THESIS

Purposeful practical doctorate is an advantage for both, industry and academic

1. studying the current state of research of transfer vehicles in order to improve

STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS

CHAPTER 1: CURRENT STATE

1.1. Market research, importance and applicability of autonomous intelligent vehicles

Strategic areas of research in production refer to building an organization's strengths

1.2. Evolution of autonomous vehicles

Figure 1.2: Evolution of autonomous vehicles [116]

1.3.1. Networked systems with wire guide

1.3.2. Guidance systems with magnets

1.3.3. Laser guidance systems

1.3.4. Hybrid systems

Figure1.3: Hybrid material handling system [109]

1.4. Application areas of autonomous vehicles

1.5. Operating strategies of industrial AGV systems

Table 1.1: Presenting quality criteria of the guidance systems

In order to achieve an optimal flexibility in manufacturing systems, it is recommended

The industrial use of autonomous vehicles is an advantage in raw material handling,

CHAPTER 2: INFRASTRUCTURE OF AUTONOMOUS INTELLIGENT

Given the criterion of transportation, the infrastructures of vehicles used in industrial

2.1. Non-holonomic autonomous intelligent vehicle

The objective of constructing a non-holonomic vehicle on a 1:8 scale operating in both

2.2. Prototype realisation

2.2.1. Running platform and odometer sensors

2.2.2. Detection and guidance sensors

2.2.2.1. LASER sensor

2.2.2.2. Ultrasonic sensors

2.2.3. Odometer sensors

2.2.4. Video sensors

2.2.5. Data aquisition, command and control system

The limitations of the command and control system is defined by a computer

A parallel running configuration of the data acquisition and applications on a concept

c PCM 3910 Advantech

e IO 526 Sensoray senzor card

2.2.5.1. Comunication of the vehicle on the target-host principle

Figure 2.13: Target-host communication scheme

CHAPTER 3: MAPPING AND LOCALIZATION AS SIMULTANEOUS

“Once you have mapped out the road, it„s impossible

3.1. The concept of simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM)

Figure 3.3: Generating maps by extracting lines from points

Figure 3.4: Maps generated from successive scans [19]

3.2. Extracting particular features of the navigation environment

Representations depend on the choice of navigation environment and the type of

3.3. Data association

3.3.1. Data association using the nearest neighbor method

A quick calculation method on the association of internal sensor observations (the

Figura 3.5: Asocierea datelor în regiunea de interes (ROI)