_In the previous chapter, we have studied the position, ive size and nature of the images formed by lenses. an eye has a lens in its structure. In this chapter, we | study functions of this eye lens, defects of vision their correction using spectacles. We shall also study ting of white light into seven colours, formation of ibow, blue colour of sky, white colour of clouds, dish appearance of sun at sunrise and sunset and the ited phenomena. 2. THE HUMAN EYE The human eye is one of the most valuable and sitive sense organs. It uses light and enables us to see , colourful world around us. The human eye is more or less like a photographic mera. The lens system of the eye forms an image of the ject on a light sensitive screen. The essential parts of human eye are shown in Fig. 1. The eye ball is almost spherical in shape having a iameter of about 2-3 cm. Ciliary MusclesCiliary Muscles Cornea Retina Iris. \ Pupil __-Bling Spot Aqueous Optic Nerve Humour Vitreous ~ Humour ‘ttn A VGURE 5.1, The front transparent part of the eye is called cornea, which is bulged outwards. Corea serves as the window of the eye as light from objects to be seen enters the eye through the cornea. Behind the cornea is a circular diaphragm called iris with a hole in its centre. The hole is called pupil of the eye. The iris has muscles and coloured pigments. The colour of the eye depends on the colour of these pigments. The function of iris is to control and regulate the amount of light entering the eye by adjusting the size of the pupil. When intensity of outside light is high, the pupil contracts so that less light enters the eye. When intensity of outside light is low, the pupil expands so that more ligt ers the eye, Eye BallPragcCh wae —— sai le convex lens, called the Behind tear oe of a fibrous, jelly like ee - d in position by the ciliary muscles, ™ The focal length and hence converging power of eve lens is not fixed. It is adjustable, because its curvature can be modified to some extent by the ciliary muscles, When the ciliary muscles are relaxed, the eye lens becomes thin. Its focal length increases and converging power decreases. When the ciliary muscles are tense, the eye Jens becomes thick. Its focal length decreases and converging power increases. Behind the eye lens and at the back part of the eye ball. there is a screen called retina on which image of the object is formed, The retina is a delicate membrane/film covering the entire curved back surface of the eye. It contains enormous number of light sensitive cells in the form of rods and cones. The rod type cells respond to ee of light and cone type cells respond to the colour S ight. These cells get activated upon illumination and oom signals Or nerve impulses which are talormetiog ‘ni we te The brain processes this © objects as they are. Us in se and eye lens is filled : Called aqueous humour, and the Y€en eye lens < . ; jelly called ‘and retina contains a transparent our, The space With a vise; space | vitreous hum s . Aneveliainr.... .jelly Cae t of human eye acts like a shutter An eye lid in fron in a camera. a The least sensitive spot on the retina is called the blind spot. The blind spot is where the optic nerve enters the eye ball. Light rays coming from the object to be seen enter the eye through comea and fall on the eye lens through the pupil of the eye. The eye lens being convex, forms a real, inverted and smaller image of the object on the retina [Fig. 5.2]. As discussed earlier, the retina has very large number of light sensitive cells in the form of rods and cones. The rod type cells respond to the intensity of light and cone type cells respond to the aw 'IGURE 5.2i ed SACL WORLD jase ee y of Light. These cells pet act am colout of Lgl eee A tvatell by the’ light tallitye on the ream and Keherate electrical signals (or nerve umpulses), which are scot to the brain ¥ c pereene objects as they are, Le, seithout anvernuee Te: The brain processes this information, and we $.4, PERSISTENCE OF VISION Tis one of the important characteristics of human the eve is Hever permanent noe n fades away instantly eye. The image of an object formed on the retina of In fact. the image of any object seen persists on the 1 retina for) ¢ second. even after the removal of the vbjcct This continuance af sensation of eye for some 8 Te ohne abject is salied pernitonte of vision, I another object is seen before the sain “ les away completely, bitin oficoscistly velop pletely eye Is not able to separate the two impreswoms, and This property of persistence of vision is used AM cinematography, L¢., an projection of motion pictures. The sequence of still prctures taken by a movie camera 1s projected on screen at a rate of about 24 images or more per second. The successive unpressions af Images on the screen appear to merge smoothly inte one another te give us the feeling of moving images (or movie). 5.5. VIEWING DIFFERENT COLO We knows that retina of ur eve contains a very large number of light sensinve cells Same of them are red shaped cells and others are cone shaped cells. The red shaped cells respond to brightness or intensity of light and cone shaped ceils respond w colour of light, L¢., cone shaped cells enable ux to distinguish between different colours. Ir ts interesting te note that a chicken wakes up with the rising of the sun and goes tw sleep by sunset This is because retina of chicken’s eve contains very few cod shaped cells, which are sensitive to baghtness. of bgbt Similarly. a bee has seme cone shaped cells in the retina, which are sensitive to ultra-veoler hight, Whereas human eye cannot see U,V. light, a bee can ‘Colour Blindness. Colour Mindness is said to. occur when a person cannot distinguish between different colours, though his vision may otherwise be normal. . This ve because retina of eve of such a person docs not possess some specific cone cells. For example, 4 peren whe ix bland to red-green colour may Ibe deficient in cone shaped cells having red and green Pigment in the retina of his cyes. Colour Mindmess is more commen in males than in females. It is a genetic disorder which occurs by of colour blindness so far— are ‘We know that retina of aur eye containsa very large number of light vensitive cells ane of er rod shaped cells and others are cone shaped cells. The rad shaped cells respond to sneer ceil af light and cone shaped cells respond to colour of light, i.e., cone shaped cells enable us berween different colours. / it 1s teresting to note thata chicken wakes up with the neing of the sun and goes to sleep a This is because retmnu of chicken’s eye contains very few rod shaped cells, which are sensitive 10 Se of light Surularly, a bee has some cone shaped cells in the tetina, which are sensitive to ultra-viol Whereas human cye cannot see U.W. light. a hee can Colour Blindness, Colour blindness is said to occur when a person cannot distinguish between differen colours, though his vision may otherwise he normal This ts because retina of eye of such a person does not possess some specific cone cells. Por example, a person who is blind to red-green colour may be deficient in cone shaped cells having red and green pigment in the retina of his cyes. Colour blindness ts more common in males than in females. It is a genetic disorder which occurs by inheritance. Unfortunately, there is no cure for colour blindness so far. 5.6. POWER OF ACCOMMODATION OF HUMAN EYE One of the remarkuble properties of the cye is the ability of the eye (© observe distinctly the objects situated at wadely different distances from the eye. This propemty of the eye is called accommodation or power of accomodation of the eye. * The accommodation of the eye is due to the action of ciliary muscles holding the eve lens. For observing distant objects (say. at infinity), the ciliary muscles are relaxed. The eye lens 1s thin, and it has maximum focal length. and nunimum converging power, The image of the distant object is formed on the sina, Thus. for abserving distant abjects, cye is in relaxed state. It is said to he unaccommodated. For observing nearby objects (say, at about 25 cm), the ciliary muscles contract. The thickness vf. eye ens increases, radii of curvature of its surfaces decrease, focal length ot the lens decreases and its Converging Ses! increases. The image of the nearby object is formed on the retina, Thus, for observing mearby bjerts, the eye is in # state of tension. It is said to be accommodated, The mou distant point at which an object can be seen clearly is called Far Point (F) of the Normal eye, far point ties at infinity. (P) of the eye, Forain itt ¥ * TE NUMAN EYE AND pipp COURT ware ect telay WO oe ht The Me Bet de tvited by the i oD z om ™ 0e-SE8 te the tine siya ll al an m, and we 4. PERSISTENCE OF VISION is one of the important characteristice nf pe eye # neither Permanent te ANNE tte Uae Vedat ned ete @bIes lenage of 2 oiet tre on te > atina for i second. even after the temval uf theo FEES het san pees on the wen after the remavel of the object ix errowuon ot te list object fades ance corer DeTttonce ef vivian athe dec w soon nto ae dense of conumulty: devetopes iy This property Of Perustence of vision ts used ad wmematography, je in The sequence of still pictures taken by @ movie camera is projected — of moton pictures eager oF mere Per second. The twecesaive unpresmona of anager oe the nee te bout 24 iaio one another 16 give us the teclinp of moving images lao . IeeD appear to merge emoothly 5.5, VIEWING DIFFERENT COLOURS 5:5, VIEWING DIFFERENT COLOURS ‘of our eVe contains a very large number (flight sensitive cells. So itive cells. Some of them are mod Fails oe shaped cells, The rod shaped cells respond to brightness or intensity of light and cone shaped cells respond to colour of light, i. shaped cells enable between different colours. of light, Le, cone am aa aad Wis interesting to note that a chicken wakes up with the Maing of the sui und goes to sleep by sunset This is because retina of chicken’s eye contains very few rad shaped cells, which are sensitive to brightness cof ight, Similarly, a bee has some cane shaped cells in the retina, which ure sensitive to ultrz-violet light. ‘Whereas human eye cannot see ULV light, a bee can. ‘Colour Blindness. Colour blindwess ts said to occur when a person cannot distinguish between different colours, though his vision may otherwise be normal. 4 This 1s becanse retina of eye of such a person does not poses some specific cone cells, For example, 4 person who is blind ta red-green colour may be deficient in cone shuped cells having ted and green Pigment in the retina of his eyes. ‘Colour blindness ig more common in males than in females. It is:a-genetic disorder which occurs by Maberitance. Untortunately. there is no cure for colour blindness so far.a fate of shen D4 Beta aoe de Te MES on whip of Moving M WARES OM the ScTOOH appear te) merge smanathly \ 4S. VIEWING DIFFEREN COLOURS ee We know that fefina of ont e apedicelle and others are: ¢¢ ree sod shapers nat ATE Cone Vhaped cells The oc ume! OF Light temsitve celle und cone shaped cells respond The rod shaped cells respond Same of them Sea different colours, 40 colour of light, ie io ere wa imi it 1 dittngetah ie that a chicken wakes ‘Up with the This in because retina or chicken's eye contains ver" { Hsing of the sun and goes to unset 1 ep by of light Simtrty, a bee has soite cone taped th te nt shaped cells, which ute sensiave wo bps Whetew human eye Cannot see U,V lipht, 4 bee me the fetina, which are sensitive to wltra-vinier ligt Colour Mindness. Colour blinders afferent colours, though his vision ohn whem a person cannot distinguish Between This 1s hecause retina of eye of such a ample, «pen who 1 blind to red-green colour maybe deter ans a a ef cu. pigment in the retina of tus eyes, adh ‘YE Contain ay Colour blindness is more common in males joheritance Unfortunately, there is ne cure for cio ocuw = Hour blindness so fat 5.6. POWER OF ACCOMMODATION OF HUMAN EYE ‘One of the remarkable properties of the eye 1s the ability of the eye to observe distinctly the objects situated ut widely different distances from the eye. This property of the ¢ye is called accommodation or power of accomodation of the eye, ‘The accommodation af the eye is due to the action of ciliary muscles holding the exe lens. For observing distant objects (sy, at infinity), the cilsary muscles are selaxed. The eye lens is thin, and it has Maximum focal length, and minimum converging power, The image of the distant object is formed on the retina. Thus, for observing distant objects, eye is in relaxed state, It is said to be unaccommodated. For observing nearhy objects (say, at about 28 em), the ciliary mascles comract. The thickness of eye lens increases. radii of curvature of 1ts surfaces decrease. focal length of the lens decreases and sts converging power increases. The umage of the nearby object 1s formed on the reuna. Thus, for observing nearby objects, the eye is in # state of tension. It is said to be accommodated. The mow disiant point at which an object can be seen clearly i Called Far Point (F) af the ene. For ‘normal eve, far point lies at infirmity.reson the retina nmot curve chough te face at which an abject can be corm clearly by Whee an object ts too close to the eye, the lems © Therefore, the image 1s blurred, Tike point at closest distance, the eve ix called Near Point (Nof the eye. The distance of the near point of a normal eye 1 called the least distance of distinct vision. fe is represented by d. For a normal eye, valwe of least distance of distines vision ix d = 28cm. This distance increases with age, because of decreasing effectiveness of the ciliary muscles and loss of flexibility of the eye lens. The distance between the near point (N) and far point (F) of the eye ts called Range of vision. Hence, Power of Accommodationof eve is the ability of the eye to abserve distinetly the objects sittated at widely different distances from the eye, on account of change in focal length of eve lens by the action of ciliary muscles holding the lens, The maximum power af accommodation of the £00 _ 100, 100 _ = Fp =F dopere, eye for a person having normal vision (d = 25 cm) is P = fo 85.7. DEFECTS OF VISION ical defects of the eye = *llow inp are the there common refractive defeets of vislon oe the Myopia or Short-sightedness . Hypermictropia or Long-sightedness opi or old sight The possible causes of these defects and their correction ace given below : f. Myopia ur Shu it can see clearly \Uhvesliies%is thar defect af human ne besos of are alert by he lei im driving etc. He Thus. myopic Perna has no problems in reading and wrung. But he hes protien SCs Oe cannot see distinctly the objects lying heyond w particular distance me person hay shifted from infinity to some particular distance from the ey f lafinity are: focussed on the In Fig. $ Ma}, we have shown a normal eye. in which paralie} TE ee ata port Pin fro a Fig. 5M) ate a rayopic n,n whieh poll rays yn ella BF wehave fake retina. Thal ts way diane objects ae not nee: cleats, bythe monte #96 ITS aA coat aaee that the rays from a point F are focused on the retina of the memes ihe abyects lying beyond F. myopic eye has shifted from infinity to F, and the myopic eye cannot y nt evirity eye ae st374 The two possible causes of this defect are — (i) increase in the length of the eye ball, as if distance of retina from the eye lens has increased, (i) decrease in focal length of the eye leng when the eye is fully relaxed. This is as if the ciliary muscles holding the eye lens do not relax fully and have some tension x To correct a myopic eye, the person has to wear spectacles with @ concave lens of suitable focal Jength or power. In fact, parallel rays of light from infinity diverge On passing through concave lens, and should appear to come from F, the far point of the myopic eye. This 1s shown 1 Fig. 5.3c) Let x = distance of far point of myopic eye, _f = focal length of concave lens to be used. As the object to be seen is at infinity and its image ts to be formed at the far point, therefore, u = = and —x. Distance of far point F from eye lens is taken same as the distance of far point F from concave lens. 1 1 1 1 L 1 From fou 7 = BS or f=-x Hence, focal length of concave lens used for correcting the myopic eye is equal to distance of far point of the myopic eye. 2. Hypermetropia or Long: sightedness Hypermetropia or Long-sightedness ts that defect of human eye, by virtue of which it can see clearly the objects lying at large distances from it. But the nearby objects cannot be seen clearly by the hypermetrapic eye. Thus, a hypermetropic or long-sighted person has no problem in driving ete. But he has problems in eading and writing. He cannot see distinetly the objects lying closer than a certain distance. This is as if ear point of a hypermetropic person has shifted away from the eye. It is no longer at 25 cm, the least istance of distinct vision for a normal eye. In Fig. 5.4(a), we have shown a normal eye, in which rays from the near point N are focussed on the tina. N is at the least distance of distinct vision (= 25 cm). Fig. 5.4(b) shows a hypermetropic eye, in /hich rays from the normal near point N are focussed at a point P’ beyond the retina of the eye. That is why