Chapter 21: Magnetic Properties

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the important magnetic properties?

• How do we explain magnetic phenomena?

• How are magnetic materials classified?

• How does magnetic memory storage work?

• What is superconductivity and how do magnetic

fields effect the behavior of superconductors?

Chapter 21 - 1
Magnetic medium layer is
usually a cobalt-based alloy

Hard disk drive

for computer

Chapter 21 - 2
1. Introduction
2. Basic Concepts
3. Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism
4. Ferromagnetism
5. Antiferromagnerism and Ferrimagnetism
6. The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior
7. Domains and Hysteresis
8. Magnetic Anisotropy
9. Soft Magnetic Materials
10. Hard Magnetic Materials
11. Magnetic Storage
12. Superconductivity

Chapter 21 - 3
 2. Basic Concepts
Magnetic dipole moment

Magnetic field lines of force

Fig_21_02

Fig_21_01 Chapter 21 -
 Generation of a Magnetic Field - Vacuum

• Created by current through a coil:

B0 N = total number of turns
 = length of each turn (m)
I = current (ampere)
H H = applied magnetic field (ampere-turns/m)
B0 = magnetic flux density in a vacuum
I (tesla)

• Computation of the applied magnetic field, H:

• Computation of the magnetic flux density in a vacuum, B0:

B0 = μ0H
permeability of a vacuum
(1.257 x 10-6 Henry/m)
Chapter 21 - 5
 Generation of a Magnetic Field --
within a Solid Material
• A magnetic field is induced in the material
B
B = Magnetic Induction (tesla)
applied inside the material
magnetic
field H B = μH
permeability of a solid
current I

• Relative permeability (dimensionless)

Chapter 21 - 6
 Generation of a Magnetic Field -
within a Solid Material (cont.)
• Magnetization M = cmH
Magnetic susceptibility
(dimensionless)

• B in terms of H and M B = μ 0H + μ 0M
• Combining the above two equations:
B = μ0H + μ0 cmH
B cm > 0 = (1 + cm)μ0H
vacuum cm = 0 permeability of a vacuum:
(1.26 x 10-6 Henry/m)
cm < 0 cm is a measure of a material’s
magnetic response relative to a
H vacuum

Chapter 21 - 4
Table_21_01

Chapter 21 -
 Origins of Magnetic Moments
• Magnetic moments arise from electron motions and the
spins on electrons.

magnetic moments
electron electron

nucleus spin

electron orbital electron

motion spin
• Net atomic magnetic moment:
-- sum of moments from all electrons.

• Four types of response...

Chapter 21 - 9
 Bohr magnetron
• The most fundamental magnetic moment
– μB , of magnitude 9.27 x10-24 A.m2.

• For each electron in an atom, the spin

magnetic moment is ± μB (plus for spin up,
minus for spin down).

• Furthermore, the orbital magnetic moment

contribution is equal to ml μ B, ml being the
magnetic quantum number of the electron.

Chapter 21 - 10
 3. Types of Magnetism
B = (1 + cm)μ0H
(3) ferromagnetic e.g. Fe3O4, NiFe2O4
(Magnetic flux density)

(4) ferrimagnetic e.g. ferrite(α), Co, Ni, Gd

( cm as large as 106 !)
B (tesla)

(2) paramagnetic ( cm ~ 10-4)

e.g., Al, Cr, Mo, Na, Ti, Zr
vacuum (cm = 0)
(1) diamagnetic (cm ~ -10-5)
e.g., Al2O3, Cu, Au, Si, Ag, Zn

H (ampere-turns/m)
(Magnetic field strength)

Chapter 21 - 11
Table_21_02

Chapter 21 -
 Magnetic Responses for 4 Types
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
(1) diamagnetic

none
random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic
aligned

aligned
(3) ferromagnetic
(4) ferrimagnetic

Chapter 21 - 13
 4. Ferromagnetism
• Metals possess a permanent magnetic moment in
the absence of an external field and manifest very
large and permanent magnetizations.
– displayed by the transition metals iron (as BCC -
ferrite), cobalt, nickel, and gadolinium (Gd).
• Magnetic susceptibilities as high as 106 are
possible for ferromagnetic materials.
• result from atomic magnetic moments due to
uncanceled electron spins as a consequence of
the electron structure.

Chapter 21 - 14
5. Antiferromagnetism (MnO) and Ferrimagnetism (Fe3O4)

Fig_21_08

Fig_21_09

Table_21_03
Chapter 21 -
Table_21_04

Chapter 21 -
6. Temperature on magnetic behavior
• Curie temperature (Tc): with increasing
temp., the saturation magnetism decrease
gradually and then abruptly drops to zero.

Chapter 21 - 17
 7. Domains and Hysteresis
• As the applied field (H) increases the magnetic
domains change shape and size by movement of
domain boundaries.
B sat
H
H
induction (B)

H • “Domains” with
Magnetic

Fig_21_12

aligned magnetic
H moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones!
H
0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
Chapter 21 - 18
 7. Hysteresis and Permanent
Magnetization
• The magnetic hysteresis phenomenon

B
Stage 2. Apply H,
Stage 3. Remove H, alignment align domains
remains! => permanent magnet!

H
Stage 4. Coercivity, HC
Negative H needed to Stage 1. Initial (unmagnetized state)
demagnitize!

Stage 6. Close the

Stage 5. Apply -H, hysteresis loop
align domains

Chapter 21 - 19
 8. Magnetic Anisotropy
• The dependence of magnetic behavior on
crystallography orientation

Fig_21_18

Chapter 21 - 20
9-10. Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials

Hard magnetic materials: B

-- large coercivities
-- used for permanent magnets
-- add particles/voids to
inhibit domain wall motion

Soft
-- example: tungsten steel --
Hc = 5900 amp-turn/m) H

Soft magnetic materials:

-- small coercivities
-- used for electric motors
-- example: commercial iron 99.95 Fe

Chapter 21 - 21
 11. Magnetic Storage
• Digitized data in the form of electrical signals are transferred to
and recorded digitally on a magnetic medium (tape or disk)
• This transference is accomplished by a recording system that
consists of a read/write head
-- “write” or record data by applying a
magnetic field that aligns domains
in small regions of the recording
medium
-- “read” or retrieve data from
medium by sensing changes
in magnetization

Fig. 21.23, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 21 - 22
 Magnetic Storage Media Types
• Hard disk drives (granular/perpendicular media):
-- CoCr alloy grains (darker regions)
separated by oxide grain boundary Fig. 21.24, Callister
segregant layer (lighter regions)

80 nm
& Rethwisch 9e.
(Courtesy of Seagate
-- Magnetization direction of each Recording Media)

grain is perpendicular to plane of

disk

• Recording tape (particulate media):

~ 500 nm

~ 500 nm

-- Acicular (needle-shaped) -- Tabular (plate-shaped)

ferromagnetic metal alloy ferrimagnetic barium-ferrite
particles particles Chapter 21 - 23
 12. Superconductivity
Found in 26 metals and hundreds of alloys & compounds
Mercury

Copper
(normal)

4.2 K

• TC = critical temperature
= temperature below which material is superconductive
Chapter 21 - 24
 Critical Properties of
Superconductive Materials
TC = critical temperature - if T > TC not superconducting
JC = critical current density - if J > JC not superconducting
HC = critical magnetic field - if H > HC not superconducting

Chapter 21 - 25
 Meissner Effect
• Superconductors expel magnetic fields

normal superconductor

• This is why a superconductor will float above a magnet

Chapter 21 - 26
 Advances in Superconductivity
• Research in superconductive materials was stagnant
for many years.
– Everyone assumed TC,max was about 23 K
– Many theories said it was impossible to increase
TC beyond this value
• 1987- new materials were discovered with TC > 30 K
– ceramics of form Ba1-xKxBiO3-y
– Started enormous race
• YBa2Cu3O7-x TC = 90 K
• Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox TC = 122 K
• difficult to make since oxidation state is very important
• The major problem is that these ceramic materials
are inherently brittle.

Chapter 21 - 27
 Summary
• A magnetic field is produced when a current flows
through a wire coil.
• Magnetic induction (B):
-- an internal magnetic field is induced in a material that is
situated within an external magnetic field (H).
-- magnetic moments result from electron interactions with
the applied magnetic field
• Types of material responses to magnetic fields are:
-- ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic (large magnetic susceptibilities)
-- paramagnetic (small and positive magnetic susceptibilities)
-- diamagnetic (small and negative magnetic susceptibilities)
• Types of ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic materials:
-- Hard: large coercivities
-- Soft: small coercivities
• Magnetic storage media:
-- particulate γ-Fe2O3 in polymeric film (tape)
-- thin film CoPtCr or CoCrTa (hard drive)
Chapter 21 - 28