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Math Handbook
of Formulas, Processes and Tricks
(www.mathguy.us)
High School Equivalency (GED) Exam
Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 2.2
April 10, 2017
Copyright 2008‐17, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved
Math Handbook
of Formulas, Processes and Tricks
(www.mathguy.us)
Pre‐Algebra
Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 2.4
April 2, 2017
Copyright 2010‐2017, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved
-8-
Pre‐Algebra
Divisibility Rules
The following rules can be used to determine whether a number is divisible by other numbers.
This is particularly useful in reducing fractions to lowest terms because the rules can be used to
test whether both the numerator and denominator are divisible by the same number.
n A number is divisible by “n” if and only if: Examples
16 (even because it end in a 6)
2 It is even, i.e., if it ends in 0, 2, 4, 6 or 8.
948 (even because it ends in an 8)
The sum of its digits is divisible by 3. You may 42 (4+2=6)
3
apply this test multiple times if necessary. 948 (9+4+8=21, then 2+1=3)
The number formed by its last 2 digits is 332 (32÷4=8)
4
divisible by 4. 1,908 (08÷4=2)
905 (ends in a 5)
5 It ends in a 0 or 5.
384,140 (ends in a 0)
36 (it is even and 3+6=9)
6 It is divisible by both 2 and 3.
948 (it is even and 9+4+8=21)
Double the last digit and subtract it from the 868 (86‐[2∙8]=70, and 70÷7=10)
7 rest of the number. If the result is divisible by 7, 2,345 (234‐[2∙5]=224, then apply
so is the original number. You may apply this
again: 22‐[2∙4]=14, and 14÷7=2)
test multiple times if necessary.
The number formed by its last 3 digits is 92,104 (104÷8=13)
8
divisible by 8. 727,520 (520÷8=65)
The sum of its digits is divisible by 9. You may 2,385 (2+3+8+5=18, then 1+8=9)
9
apply this test multiple times if necessary. 89,487 (8+9+4+8+7=36, then 3+6=9)
370 (ends in a 0)
10 It ends in a 0.
345,890 (ends in a 0)
996 (9+9+6=24 and 96÷4=24)
12 It is divisible by both 3 and 4.
1,344 (1+3+4+4=12 and 44÷4=11)
Note: 0 is divisible by every number except itself.
Pre‐Algebra
Prime Numbers
Definitions
A prime number is a natural number (i.e., a positive integer) that has no factors other than 1
and itself. The prime numbers less than 50 are:
, , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
A composite number is a natural number that is not prime.
Prime Factorization
Every natural number has a unique prime factorization. This means that if you factor the
number until all you have left are prime numbers, there is only one representation of the
number in this form (ignoring the order of the factors). By mathematical convention, the prime
factorization of a number is expressed as a product of its prime factors in numerical order, from
low to high, with exponents on factors that are repeated.
Examples: 40 2 · 5 330 2 · 3 · 5 · 11 637 7 · 13
Deriving a Prime Factorization
Note: In a prime
To derive the unique prime factorization of a number n:
factorization, all of
• Divide the number by 2 as many times as 2 will go into the number. the factors will be
• Move up to the next prime number and repeat the process. less than √ .
• Repeat the previous step until all of the factors are prime.
Examples: Find the prime factorizations of 336, 1000, and 2160.
336 2 · 168 1000 2 · 500 2160 2 · 1080
2 · 2 · 84 2 · 2 · 250 2 · 2 · 540
2 · 2 · 2 · 42 2 · 2 · 2 · 125 2 · 2 · 2 · 270
2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 21 2 · 2 · 2 · 5 · 25 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 135
2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 7 2 · 2 · 2 · 5 · 5 · 5 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 45
2 · 3 · 7 2 ·5 2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 15
2 · 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 · 3 · 5
2 · 3 · 5
Pre‐Algebra
Prime Factor Trees
What is a Prime Factor Tree?
A Prime Factor Tree is a device that can be used to find the prime factors of a number. Even
though each number has a unique set of prime factors, most numbers do not have a unique
prime factor tree. The nice thing about a tree is that you can work with any factors of the
number, and by the time you have finished, you have found its unique set of prime factors.
To develop a prime factor tree:
• Write the number to be factored at the top of the tree.
• Beneath the number, write a pair of factors that multiply to get the number.
• Repeat the above step until all of the factors are prime.
• It is useful to identify the prime factors you develop in some manner, like circling them.
• Collect all of the prime factors to obtain the prime factorization of the number.
Examples:
One Prime Factor Tree for 120 Another Prime Factor Tree for 120
120 120
12 10 4 30
4 3 2 5 2 2 5 6
2 2 2 3
In both cases, the prime factorization of 120 is determined to be: · ·
Notice that the two trees in the examples obtain the same result even though they take
different paths to get that result. Other paths are possible as well. The important thing is the
result, not the path.
Version 2.1 12/01/2010
-12-
Pre‐Algebra
GCD and LCM
Simple methods for finding the Greatest Common Divisor (GCD) and the Least Common
Multiple (LCM) are related, as shown below. Both involve developing a table of prime factors
for the numbers in question. The methods are best illustrated by example.
Greatest Common Divisor (GCD)
Example A: Find the GCD of 180 and 105.
Step 1: Calculate the prime factors of each number and enter them into a small table:
180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5 Step 2: Line up the prime factors so that those common
105 = 3 x 5 x 7 to all of the numbers are in the same column.
GCD = 3 x 5 Step 3: Bring any factors that show up for every
number (i.e., that fill the column) below the line.
So, GCD = 3 x 5 = 15.
Step 4: Multiply all of the numbers below the line
to obtain the GCD.
Example B: Find the GCD of 140, 210 and 462.
140 = 2 x 2 x 5 x 7
Calculating a Number’s Prime Factors
210 = 2 x 3 x 5 x 7
462 = 2 x 3 x 7 x 11 In order to calculate the prime factors of a number,
GCD = 2 x 7 simply begin dividing it by primes, starting with 2
and working higher until all factors are primes.
So, GCD = 2 x 7 = 14.
Examples: Find the prime factors of …
462 180
Example C: Find the GCD of 32 and 27.
462 = 2 x 231 180 = 2 x 90
32 = 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 x 2 = 2 x 3 x 77 180 = 2 x 2 x 45
27 = 3 x 3 x 3 = 2 x 3 x 7 x 11 180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 15
GCD = (there are no common factors) 180 = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 x 5
So, GCD = 1.
If no common prime factors exist, GCD = 1 and the numbers are said to be relatively prime.
Since 27 and 32 have no common prime factors, they are relatively prime.
Pre‐Algebra
GCD and LCM
Least Common Multiple (LCM)
Example A: Find the LCM of 12 and 18.
Step 1: Calculate the prime factors of each number and enter them into a small table:
Step 2: Line up the prime factors so that those common
12 = 2 x 2 x 3
to all of the numbers are in the same column.
18 = 2 x 3 x 3
LCM = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 Step 3: Bring one factor from every column below
the line.
So the LCM = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 36 Step 4: Multiply all of the numbers below the line
to obtain the LCM.
Example B: Find the LCM of 6, 8 and 18.
6 = 2 x 3
8 = 2 x 2 x 2
18 = 2 x 3 x 3
LCM = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 So, the LCM = 2 x 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 72.
Lowest Common Denominator (LCD)
When fractions with different denominators are to be added or subtracted, it is necessary to
find the Lowest Common Denominator. The LCD is essentially the Least Common Multiple of
the denominators in question. Consider this problem:
Example: Calculate: . In Example A, the LCM of 12 and 18 was calculated to be 36. To
determine which fractional name for 1 must be multiplied by each fraction to obtain a common
denominator, we look for the missing numbers in each row. From Example A above:
missing a “3”
12 = 2 x 2 x 3
18 = 2 x 3 x 3 The missing number in the row for 12 is 3. Therefore, we use as
LCM = 2 x 2 x 3 x 3 = 36 a multiplier for . Similarly, we use as a multiplier for .
missing a “2”
Result:
Pre‐Algebra
Metric Measures
King Henry
The following mnemonic device can be used to remember the order of metric measurements:
In the mnemonic, the “b” in “by” stands for “base unit”; this is the unit that all Note: 1 ml =
others are based upon. The base units above are meters, grams, and liters. 1 cubic
centimeter
The prefixes to the base unit, along with their meanings are:
1
1,000
10
1
100
100
1
10
1,000
Examples:
Add 5 zeroes to the right (for 5 positions moved in
1 100,000
the above chart).
Move the decimal 6 places to the left (for the 6
32 .000 032
positions moved to the left in the above chart).
Move the decimal 3 places to the right (for the 3
2.5 2,500
positions moved to the right in the above chart).
Pre‐Algebra
Measures and Weights – U.S. Conversions
Distance Time
1 foot = 12 inches 1 minute = 60 seconds
1 yard = 3 feet = 36 inches 1 hour = 60 minutes = 3,600 seconds
1 fathom = 2 yards = 6 feet 1 day = 24 hours = 1,440 minutes
1 rod = 5.5 yards = 16.5 feet 1 week = 7 days = 168 hours
1 furlong = 40 rods = 220 yards 1 fortnight = 2 weeks = 14 days
1 mile = 8 furlongs = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet 1 month = 4 1/3 weeks
1 league = 3 miles = 24 furlongs 1 year = 12 months = 52 weeks
1 acre = 43,560 square feet 1 year = 365 1/4 days
1 square mile = 640 acres
Capacity
Weight 1 fluid dram = 60 minims
1 pennyweight = 24 grains 1 fluid ounce = 8 fluid drams
1 dram = 27.344 grains 1 gill = 4 fluid ounces
1 ounce = 16 drams = 437.5 grains 1 cup = 2 gills = 8 fluid ounces
1 Troy ounce = 20 pennyweight = 480 grains 1 pint = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces
1 pound = 16 ounces = 7,000 grains 1 quart = 2 pints = 4 cups
1 stone = 14 pounds 1 gallon = 4 quarts = 16 cups
1 ton = 2,000 pounds 1 peck = 2 gallons
1 long ton = 2,240 pounds 1 bushel = 4 pecks = 8 gallons
Pre‐Algebra
Decimal Conversions
Pre‐Algebra
Applying a Percent Increase
It is common in mathematics to work with percent increases. An example of an everyday
application of this is the sales tax you pay in the local store. Sales tax is expressed in the form
of a percent increase.
Applying a Percent Increase
There are two methods for working with percent increases. Use the one you like best.
Method 1:
• Start with the amount before increase (i.e., the original amount).
• Calculate the amount of the increase.
• Add the original amount and the amount of the increase to obtain the final amount.
·
An advantage of this approach is that you calculate the amount of the increase. Sometimes,
this is an important value to know.
Example: What do you get when you increase 150 by 10%?
10% · 150 15
150 15 165
Method 2:
• Add the percent increase to 100%.
• Multiply the original amount by this new percentage to obtain the final amount.
100%
·
This approach may be easier and has extensive business applications.
Example: What do you get when you increase 150 by 10%?
100% 10% 110% 1.1
150 · 1.1 165
Pre‐Algebra
Applying a Percent Decrease
It is common in mathematics to work with percent decreases. In a store you may see a sign
that says “Sale – 40% off.” In such a case, you may want to calculate the sale price.
Applying a Percent Decrease
There are two methods for working with percent decreases. Use the one you like best.
Method 1:
• Start with the amount before decrease (i.e., the original amount).
• Calculate the amount of the decrease.
• Subtract the amount of the decrease from the original amount to obtain the final amount.
·
An advantage of this approach is that you calculate the amount of the decrease. Sometimes,
this is an important value to know (e.g., how much money did you save?).
Example: What do you get when you decrease 150 by 40%?
40% · 150 60
150 60 90
Method 2:
• Subtract the percent increase from 100%.
• Multiply the original amount by this new percentage to obtain the final amount.
100%
·
This approach may be easier and has the same form as the formula for percent increase. It also
has extensive business applications.
Example: What do you get when you decrease 150 by 40%?
100% 40% 60% 0.6
150 · 0.6 90
Pre‐Algebra
Calculating Percent Increases and Decreases
Many times, you have the original amount and the final amount after either an increase or
decrease in value. You may want to calculate the percent of that increase or decrease.
Percent Increase
Given a starting amount and a final amount,
Example: A stock increases in value from $80 to $96; what percent has it increased?
$96 $80 $16
$16 $80 .20 20%
Percent Decrease
Given a starting amount and a final amount,
Example: A stock decreases in value from $80 to $68; what percent has it increased?
$80 $68 $12
$12 $80 .15 15%
Notice the following:
• You calculate both an increase and a decrease as the difference between the original
and final amounts.
• The percent change is always calculated as the amount of the change divided by the
original amount.
Pre‐Algebra
Estimating Square Roots
Square Roots of Perfect Squares
Table of
The square root of a perfect square can be read right off the table to the Squares
right. For example,
1 1
√36 6 6 36
2 4
It is worthwhile to memorize the perfect squares in this table. They occur 3 9
very frequently in math from 7th grade and up.
4 16
Square Roots of Other Numbers 5 25
Square roots of numbers other than perfect squares can be estimated with 6 36
a process called interpolation. To calculate √ :
7 49
• Find where fits between perfect squares in the right hand column
8 64
of the table to the right.
• Determine the corresponding square roots of the perfect squares 9 81
above and below .
10 100
• Interpolate between the two square roots in the previous step
based on where lies between the perfect squares. 11 121
Example: 12 144
Estimate √127 13 169
127 lies between 121 and 144 in the table to the right. 14 196
Line up the three square roots and perfect squares in a table: 15 225
Pre‐Algebra
Powers of 10
Uses of Powers of 10
Powers of 10 are useful in mathematics and science. In particular, Powers of 10
they are used in scientific notation to express very large numbers
and very small numbers without using up all the space a bunch of 10 0.000 001
zeroes would take. Numbers with a lot of zeroes are also hard to
10 0.000 01
grasp, whereas powers of 10 are relatively easy to grasp.
10 0.000 1
Negative Powers of 10
10 0.001
For negative powers of 10, the number of zeroes before the 1,
including one zero to the left of the decimal point, is equal to the 10 0.01
exponent (disregarding the negative sign). 10 0.1
Zero Power of 10 10 1
10 1 (notice, no zeroes to the left or right of the 1)
10 10
Positive Powers of 10 10 100
10 1,000
For positive powers of 10, the number of zeroes after the 1 is equal
to the exponent.
10 10,000
Fun Only – Special Cases 10 100,000
There are two special cases for powers of 10 that mathematicians 10 1,000,000
have defined. For very big numbers, mathematicians have defined
the googol and the googolplex. These are not to be confused with 10 googol
Google, the internet search engine; they are spelled differently. 10
They are defined as:
10 (a 1 followed by 100 zeroes)
10 (a 1 followed by googol zeroes)
Maybe you can create your own name for:
10 (a 1 followed by googolplex zeroes)
Algebra and PreCalculus
Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 2.9
April 2, 2017
Copyright 2008‐17, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved
-11-
Algebra
Linear Patterns
Recognizing Linear Patterns
The first step to recognizing a pattern is to arrange a set of numbers in a table. The table can
be either horizontal or vertical. Here, we consider the pattern in a horizontal format. More
advanced analysis generally uses the vertical format.
Consider this pattern:
x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21
To analyze the pattern, we calculate differences of successive values in the table. These are
called first differences. If the first differences are constant, we can proceed to converting the
pattern into an equation. If not, we do not have a linear pattern. In this case, we may choose
to continue by calculating differences of the first differences, which are called second
differences, and so on until we get a pattern we can work with.
In the example above, we get a constant set of first differences, which tells us that the pattern
is indeed linear.
x‐value 0 1 2 3 4 5
y‐value 6 9 12 15 18 21
First Differences 3 3 3 3 3
Converting a Linear Pattern to an Equation
Note: If the table does not have a
Creating an equation from the pattern is easy if you have value for x=0, you can still obtain
constant differences and a y‐value for x = 0. In this case, the value of “b”. Simply extend the
• The equation takes the form , where table left or right until you have an
• “m” is the constant difference from the table, and x‐value of 0; then use the first
• “b” is the y‐value when x = 0. differences to calculate what the
corresponding y‐value would be.
In the example above, this gives us the equation: . This becomes your value of “b”.
Finally, it is a good idea to test your equation. For example, if 4, the above equation gives
3·4 6 18, which is the value in the table. So we can be pretty sure our equation is
correct.
Algebra
Identifying Number Patterns
When looking at patterns in numbers, is is often useful to take differences of the numbers you
are provided. If the first differences are not constant, take differences again.
n ∆
‐3
2
‐1 When first differences are constant, the pattern represents a
2
1 linear equation. In this case, the equation is: y = 2x ‐ 5 . The
2
3 constant difference is the coefficient of x in the equation.
2
5
2
7
n ∆ ∆2
2 When second differences are constant, the pattern represents a
3
5 2
5 quadratic equation. In this case, the equation is: y = x 2 + 1 . The
10 2
7 constant difference, divided by 2, gives the coefficient of x2 in the
17 2
9 equation.
26 2
11
37
When taking successive differences yields patterns that do not seem to level out, the pattern
may be either exponential or recursive.
n ∆ ∆2
5 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2
7 2 differences are the same. You might also notice that these
4
11 4 differences are successive powers of 2. This is typical for an
8
19 8
16 exponential pattern. In this case, the equation is: y = 2 x + 3 .
35 16
32
67
n ∆ ∆2 In the pattern to the left, notice that the first and second
2 differences appear to be repeating the original sequence. When
1
3 1 this happens, the sequence may be recursive. This means that
2
5 1 each new term is based on the terms before it. In this case, the
3
8 2 equation is: y n = y n‐1 + y n‐2 , meaning that to get each new term,
5
13 3
8 you add the two terms before it.
21
Algebra
Completing Number Patterns
The first step in completing a number pattern is to identify it. Then, work from the right to the left, filling in
the highest order differences first and working backwards (left) to complete the table. Below are two
examples.
Example 1 Example 2
n Consider in the examples the sequences of six n
‐1 numbers which are provided to the student. You are 2
6 asked to find the ninth term of each sequence. 3
25 5
62 8
123 13
214 21
n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 1: Create a table of differences. Take successive n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
‐1 differences until you get a column of constant 2
7 1
6 12 differences (Example 1) or a column that appears to 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 repeat a previous column of differences (Example 2). 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 8
214 21
n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
Step 2: In the last column of differences you created, n ∆ ∆2 ∆
3
‐1 continue the constant differences (Example 1) or the 2
7 1
6 12 repeated differences (Example 2) down the table. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 Create as many entries as you will need to solve the 5 1
37 6 3 1
62 24 problem. For example, if you are given 6 terms and 8 2
61 6 5 1
123 30 asked to find the 9th term, you will need 3 (= 9 ‐ 6) 13 3
91 6 8 2
214 additional entries in the last column. 21
6 3
6 5
n ∆ ∆2 ∆3 Step 3: Work backwards (from right to left), filling in n ∆ ∆2 ∆3
‐1 each column by adding the differences in the column 2
7 1
6 12 to the right. 3 1
19 6 2 0
25 18 5 1
37 6 In the example to the left, the calculations are 3 1
62 24 8 2
61 6 performed in the following order: 5 1
123 30 13 3
91 6 2
8 2
214 36 Column ∆ : 30 + 6 = 36; 36 + 6 = 42; 42 + 6 = 48 21 5
127 6 13 3
341 42 34 8
169 6 Column ∆: 91 + 36 = 127; 127 + 42 = 169; 169 + 48 = 217 21 5
510 48 55 13
217 34
727 Column n: 214 + 127 = 341; 341 + 169 = 510; 510 + 217 = 727 89
The final answers to the examples are the ninth items in each sequence, the items in bold red.
Algebra
Basic Number Sets
Add the number zero to the set of
Whole Numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, …
Natural Numbers
Whole numbers plus the set of
Integers … ‐3, ‐2, ‐1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …
negative Natural Numbers
Any number that can be expressed All integers, plus fractions and
mixed numbers, such as:
Rational Numbers in the form , where a and b are
2 17 4
integers and 0. , , 3
3 6 5
Any number that can be written in All rational numbers plus roots
Real Numbers decimal form, even if that form is and some others, such as:
infinite. √2 , √12 , π, e
Basic Number Set Tree
Real Numbers
Rational Irrational
Whole Negative
Numbers Integers
Natural Zero
Numbers
Algebra
Operating with Real Numbers
Absolute Value
The absolute value of something is the distance it is from zero. The easiest way to get the
absolute value of a number is to eliminate its sign. Absolute values are always positive or 0.
| 5| 5 |3| 3 |0| 0 |1.5| 1.5
Adding and Subtracting Real Numbers
Adding Numbers with the Same Sign: Adding Numbers with Different Signs:
• Add the numbers without regard • Ignore the signs and subtract the
to sign. smaller number from the larger one.
• Give the answer the same sign as • Give the answer the sign of the number
the original numbers. with the greater absolute value.
• Examples: • Examples:
6 3 9 6 3 3
12 6 18 7 11 4
Subtracting Numbers:
• Change the sign of the number or numbers being subtracted.
• Add the resulting numbers.
• Examples:
6 3 6 3 3
13 4 13 4 9
Multiplying and Dividing Real Numbers
Numbers with the Same Sign: Numbers with Different Signs:
• Multiply or divide the numbers • Multiply or divide the numbers without
without regard to sign. regard to sign.
• Give the answer a “+” sign. • Give the answer a “‐” sign.
• Examples: • Examples:
6 · 3 18 18 6 · 3 18
12 3 4 4 12 3 4
Algebra
Properties of Algebra
Properties of Addition and Multiplication. For any real numbers a, b, and c:
Identity Property 0 0 ·1 1·
1 1
Inverse Property 0 0, · · 1
Commutative Property · ·
Associative Property · · · ·
Distributive Property · · ·
Properties of Zero. For any real number a:
Multiplication by 0 ·0 0· 0
0 Divided by Something 0, 0
Algebra
Probability and Odds
Probability
Probability is a measure of the likelihood that an event will occur. It depends on the number of
outcomes that represent the event and the total number of possible outcomes. In equation terms,
Example 1: The probability of a flipped coin landing as a head is 1/2. There are two equally likely events
when a coin is flipped – it will show a head or it will show a tail. So, there is one chance out of two that
the coin will show a head when it lands.
1 1
2 2
Example 2: In a jar, there are 15 blue marbles, 10 red marbles and 7 green marbles. What is the
probability of selecting a red marble from the jar? In this example, there are 32 total marbles, 10 of
which are red, so there is a 10/32 (or, when reduced, 5/16) probability of selecting a red marble.
10 10 5
32 32 16
Odds
Odds are similar to probability, except that we measure the number of chances that an event will occur
relative to the number of chances that the event will not occur.
In the above examples,
1 1 10 10 5
1 1 22 22 11
• Note that the numerator and the denominator in an odds calculation add to the total number of
possible outcomes in the denominator of the corresponding probability calculation.
• To the beginning student, the concept of odds is not as intuitive as the concept of probabilities;
however, they are used extensively in some environments.
Algebra
Probability with Dice
Single Die
Probability with a single die is based on the number of chances of an event out of 6 possible
outcomes on the die. For example:
2 5
Two Dice
Probability with two dice is based on the number of chances of an event out of 36 possible
outcomes on the dice. The following table of results when rolling 2 dice is helpful in this regard:
1st Die
2nd Die 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
The probability of rolling a number with two dice is the number of times that number occurs in
the table, divided by 36. Here are the probabilities for all numbers 2 to 12.
3
4
6
Algebra
Combinations
Single Category Combinations
The number of combinations of items selected from a set, several at a time, can be calculated
relatively easily using the following technique:
Technique: Create a ratio of two products. In the numerator, start with the number of
total items in the set, and count down so the total number of items being multiplied is
equal to the number of items being selected. In the denominator, start with the
number of items being selected and count down to 1.
Example: How many Example: How many Example: How many
combinations of 3 items can combinations of 4 items can combinations of 2 items can
be selected from a set of 8 be selected from a set of 13 be selected from a set of 30
items? Answer: items? Answer: items? Answer:
8·7·6 13 · 12 · 11 · 10 30 · 29
56 715 435
3·2·1 4·3·2·1 2·1
Multiple Category Combinations
When calculating the number of combinations that can be created by selecting items from
several categories, the technique is simpler:
Technique: Multiply the numbers of items in each category to get the total number of
possible combinations.
Algebra
Statistical Measures
Statistical measures help describe a set of data. A definition of a number of these is provided in the table below:
Add the values and
35 35 37 38 45 15 18 22 22 25 54
Mean Average divide the total by the 38 26
5 6
number of values
Arrange the values from
(1)
Median Middle low to high and take the 37 21(1)
middle value(1)
The value that appears
Mode Most most often in the data 35 20
set
The difference between
Range Size the highest and lowest 45 – 35 = 10 54 – 15 = 39
values in the data set
Values that look very
(2)
Outliers Oddballs different from the other none 54
values in the data set
Notes:
(1) If there are an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values. In Example 2, the median is 21,
which is the average of 20 and 22.
(2) The question of what constitutes an outlier is not always clear. Although statisticians seek to minimize subjectivity in the
definition of outliers, different analysts may choose different criteria for the same data set.
Algebra
Introduction to Functions
Definitions
• A Relation is a relationship between variables, usually expressed as an equation.
• In a typical xy equation, the Domain of a relation is the set of x‐values for which y‐
values can be calculated. For example, in the relation √ the domain is 0
because these are the values of x for which a square root can be taken.
• In a typical xy equation, the Range of a relation is the set of y‐values that result for all
values of the domain. For example, in the relation √ the range is 0 because
these are the values of y that result from all the values of x.
• A Function is a relation in which each element in the domain has only one
corresponding element in the range.
• A One‐to‐One Function is a function in which each element in the range is produced by
only one element in the domain.
Function Tests in 2‐Dimensions
Vertical Line Test – If a vertical line passes through the graph of a relation in any two locations,
it is not a function. If it is not possible to construct a vertical line that passes through the graph
of a relation in two locations, it is a function.
Horizontal Line Test – If a horizontal line passes through the graph of a function in any two
locations, it is not a one‐to‐one function. If it is not possible to construct a horizontal line that
passes through the graph of a function in two locations, it is a one‐to‐one function.
Examples:
Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3:
Not a function. Is a function, but not a one‐ Is a one‐to‐one function.
Fails vertical line test. to‐one function. Passes vertical line test.
Passes vertical line test. Passes horizontal line test.
Fails horizontal line test.
Algebra
Composition of Functions
In a Composition of Functions, first one function is performed, and then the other. The
notation for composition is, for example: or . In both of these notations,
the function g is performed first, and then the function f is performed on the result of g.
Always perform the function closest to the variable first.
Double Mapping
A composition can be thought of as a double mapping. First g maps from its domain to its
range. Then, f maps from the range of g to the range of f:
Range of g
Domain of g Range of f
Domain of f
g f
The Words Method
In the example,
Example: Let • The function says square the argument.
and 1 • The function says add 1 to the argument.
Sometimes it is easier to think of the functions in
Then:
words rather than in terms of an argument like x.
And:
says “add 1 first, then square the result.”
says “square first, then add 1 to the result.”
Using the words method,
Calculate: o 12 Calculate: o 2
g: add 1 to it 12 1 f: square it 2 4
f: square it g: add 1 to it 4 1
Algebra
Inverses of Functions
In order for a function to have an inverse, it must be a one‐to‐one function. The requirement
for a function to be an inverse is:
The notation is used for the Inverse Function of .
Deriving an Inverse Function
The following steps can be used to derive an inverse function. This process assumes that the
original function is expressed in terms of .
• Make sure the function is one‐to‐one. Otherwise it has no inverse. You can accomplish
this by graphing the function and applying the vertical and horizontal line tests.
• Substitute the variable y for .
• Exchange variables. That is, change all the x’s to y’s and all the y’s to x’s.
• Solve for the new y in terms of the new x.
• (Optional) Switch the expressions on each side of the equation if you like.
• Replace the variable y with the function notation .
• Check your work.
Examples:
Derive the inverse of: 2 1
Derive the inverse of: 2
Substitute for : 2 1
Substitute for : 2
Exchange variables: 2 1
Exchange variables: 2
Add 1: 1 2
Subtract 2: 2
Divide by 2:
Multiply by 3: 3 6
Switch sides:
Switch sides: 3 6
Change Notation:
Change Notation:
To check the result, note that:
To check the result, note that:
1 1 2 1 1
o 3 6 3 2 6 o
3
2 2
Algebra
Slope of a Line
The slope of a line tells how fast it rises or falls as it moves from left to right. If the slope is
rising, the slope is positive; if it is falling, the slope is negative. The letter “m” is often used as
the symbol for slope.
The two most useful ways to calculate the slope of a line are discussed below.
Mathematical Definition of Slope
The definition is based on two points with
coordinates , and , . The definition,
then, is:
Comments:
• You can select any 2 points on the line.
• A table such as the one at right can be helpful for doing
your calculations. x‐value y‐value
Point 2
• Note that implies that .
Point 1
So, it does not matter which point you assign as Point 1
and which you assign as Point 2. Therefore, neither does Difference
it matter which point is first in the table.
• It is important that once you assign a point as Point 1 and another as Point 2, that you use
their coordinates in the proper places in the formula.
Examples:
For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:
Red Line x‐value y‐value
Green Line x‐value y‐value
Point A 1 4 Point D 4 ‐2
Algebra
Slope of a Line (cont’d)
Rise over Run
An equivalent method of calculating slope that is more
visual is the “Rise over Run” method. Under this
method, it helps to draw vertical and horizontal lines
that indicate the horizontal and vertical distances
between points on the line.
The slope can then be calculated as follows:
=
The rise of a line is how much it increases (positive) or decreases (negative) between two
points. The run is how far the line moves to the right (positive) or the left (negative) between
the same two points.
Comments:
• You can select any 2 points on the line.
• It is important to start at the same point in measuring both the rise and the run.
• A good convention is to always start with the point on the left and work your way to the
right; that way, the run (i.e., the denominator in the formula) is always positive. The only
exception to this is when the run is zero, in which case the slope is undefined.
• If the two points are clearly marked as integers on a graph, the rise and run may actually be
counted on the graph. This makes the process much simpler than using the formula for the
definition of slope. However, when counting, make sure you get the right sign for the slope
of the line, e.g., moving down as the line moves to the right is a negative slope.
Examples:
For the two lines in the figure above, we get the following:
Algebra
Slopes of Various Lines
line is vertical
When you look at a line, you
4 should notice the following
2 about its slope: 1
5 3
2
line is steep and going down • Whether it is 0, positive,
line is steep and going up
negative or undefined.
• If positive or negative,
whether it is less than 1,
about 1, or greater than 1.
The purpose of the graphs on
this page is to help you get a feel
for these things.
This can help you check: 1
1
• Given a slope, whether you line goes up at a 45⁰ angle
line goes down at a 45⁰ angle drew the line correctly, or
• Given a line, whether you
calculated the slope
correctly.
3 2
17 11
line is shallow and going down line is shallow and going up
0
line is horizontal
Algebra
Various Forms of a Line
There are three forms of a linear equation which are most useful to the Algebra student, each
of which can be converted into the other two through algebraic manipulation. The ability to
move between forms is a very useful skill in Algebra, and should be practiced by the student.
Standard Form
The Standard Form of a linear equation is: Standard Form Examples
3 2 6
where A, B, and C are real numbers and A and B are not both zero. 2 7 14
Usually in this form, the convention is for A to be positive.
Why, you might ask, is this “Standard Form?” One reason is that this form is easily extended to
additional variables, whereas other forms are not. For example, in four variables, the Standard
Form would be: . Another reason is that this form easily lends itself
to analysis with matrices, which can be very useful in solving systems of equations.
Slope‐Intercept Form
Slope‐Intercept Examples
The Slope‐Intercept Form of a linear equation is the one most
familiar to many students. It is: 3 6
3
14
4
where m is the slope and b is the y‐intercept of the line (i.e., the
value at which the line crosses the y‐axis in a graph). m and b must also be real numbers.
Point‐Slope Form
The Point‐Slope Form of a linear equation is the one used least by
the student, but it can be very useful in certain circumstances. In Point‐Slope Examples
particular, as you might expect, it is useful if the student is asked for 3 2 4
the equation of a line and is given the line’s slope and the 2
coordinates of a point on the line. The form of the equation is: 7 5
3
where m is the slope and , is any point on the line. One strength of this form is that
equations formed using different points on the same line will be equivalent.
Algebra
Slopes of Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
Parallel Lines
Two lines are parallel if their slopes are equal.
• In form, if the values of are
the same.
Example: 2 3 and
2 1
• In Standard Form, if the coefficients of and
are proportional between the equations.
Example: 3 2 5 and
6 4 7
• Also, if the lines are both vertical (i.e., their
slopes are undefined).
Example: 3 and
2
Perpendicular Lines
Two lines are perpendicular if the product of their
slopes is . That is, if the slopes have different
signs and are multiplicative inverses.
• In form, the values of
multiply to get 1..
Example: 6 5 and
3
• In Standard Form, if you add the product of
the x‐coefficients to the product of the y‐
coefficients and get zero.
Example: 4 6 4 and
3 2 5 because 4 · 3 6· 2 0
Algebra
Parallel, Perpendicular or Neither
The following flow chart can be used to determine whether a pair of lines are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.
First, put both lines in:
form.
Are the
yes Result: The
slopes of the
lines are
two lines the
parallel.
same?
no
Is the Result: The lines
yes
product of are
the two perpendicular.
slopes = ‐1?
no
Result: The
lines are
neither.
Algebra
Graphs of Inequalities in One Dimension
Inequalities in one dimension are generally graphed on the number line. Alternatively, if it is
clear that the graph is one‐dimensional, the graphs can be shown in relation to a number line
but not specifically on it (examples of this are on the next page).
One‐Dimensional Graph Components
• The endpoint(s) – The endpoints for the ray or segment in the graph are shown as either
open or closed circles.
o If the point is included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is ≤ or ≥), the
circle is closed.
o If the point is not included in the solution to the inequality (i.e., if the sign is < or >),
the circle is open.
• The arrow – If all numbers in one direction of the number line are solutions to the
inequality, an arrow points in that direction.
o For < or ≤ signs, the arrow points to the left ( ).
o For > or ≥ signs, the arrow points to the right ( ).
• The line – in a simple inequality, a line is drawn from the endpoint to the arrow. If there are
two endpoints, a line is drawn from one to the other.
Examples:
Algebra
Compound Inequalities in One Dimension
Compound inequalities are a set of inequalities that must all be true at the same time. Usually,
there are two inequalities, but more than two can also form a compound set. The principles
described below easily extend to cases where there are more than two inequalities.
Compound Inequalities with the Word “AND”
An example of compound inequalities with the word “AND” would be:
12 2 or 1 These are the same conditions,
(Simple Form) (Compound Form) expressed in two different forms.
Graphically, “AND” inequalities exist at points where the graphs of the individual inequalities
overlap. This is the “intersection” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two
examples of graphs of compound inequalities using the word “AND.”
A typical “AND” example: The result is a “AND” compound inequalities sometimes result
segment that contains the points that overlap in the empty set. This happens when no
the graphs of the individual inequalities. numbers meet both conditions at the same time.
Compound Inequalities with the Word “OR”
Graphically, “OR” inequalities exist at points where any of the original graphs have points. This
is the “union” of the graphs of the individual inequalities. Below are two examples of graphs of
compound inequalities using the word “OR.”
A typical “OR” example: The result is a pair of “OR” compound inequalities sometimes result in
rays extending in opposite directions, with a the set of all numbers. This happens when every
gap in between. number meets at least one of the conditions.
Algebra
Absolute Value Functions
Equations
Graphs of equations involving absolute values generally have a “V” pattern. Whenever you see
a “V” in a graph, think “absolute value.” A general equation for an absolute value function is of
the form:
| | | |
where,
• the sign indicates whether the graph opens up (“ ” sign) or down (“ “ sign).
• | |is the absolute value of the slopes of the lines in the graph.
• (h, k) is the location of the vertex (i.e., the sharp point) in the graph.
Examples:
Equation: | 1| 2
Vertex = 1, 2
1; |slopes| 1
Graph opens up
Equation: | 2 1 | 3
Vertex = 1, 3
2; |slopes| 2
Graph opens up
Equation: 3
Vertex = ,3
; |slopes|
Graph opens down
Algebra
Absolute Value Functions (cont’d)
Inequalities
Since a positive number and a negative number can have the same absolute value, inequalities
involving absolute values must be broken into two separate equations. For example:
The first new equation is simply the original
3 4
equation without the absolute value sign.
| 3| 4
In the second new equation, two things
Sign that determines 3 4 change: (1) the sign flips, and (2) the value on
use of “AND” or “OR” the right side of the inequality changes its sign.
At this point the absolute value problem has converted into a pair of compound inequalities.
Equation 1 Equation 2
Solve: 3 4 Solve: 3 4
Step 1: Add 3 3 3 Step 1: Add 3 3 3
Result: 7 Result: 1
Next, we need to know whether to use “AND” or “OR” with the results. To decide which word
to use, look at the sign in the inequality; then …
Note: the English is poor, but the math
• Use the word “AND” with “less thand” signs.
is easier to remember with this trick!
• Use the word “OR” with “greator” signs.
The solution to the above absolute value problem, then, is the same as the solution to the
following set of compound inequalities:
7 1 The solution set is all x in the range (‐1, 7)
Note: the solution set to this example is given in “range” notation. When using this notation,
• use parentheses ( ) whenever an endpoint is not included in the solution set, and
• use square brackets [ ] whenever an endpoint is included in the solution set.
• Always use parentheses ( ) with infinity signs ( ∞ ∞).
Examples:
The range: 6 2 The range: 2
Notation: 2, 6 Notation: ∞, 2
Algebra
Systems of Equations
A system of equations is a set of 2 or more equations for which we wish to determine all
solutions which satisfy each equation. Generally, there will be the same number of equations
as variables and a single solution to each variable will be sought. However, sometimes there is
either no solution or there is an infinite number of solutions.
There are many methods available to solve a system of equations. We will show three of them
below.
Graphing a Solution
In the simplest cases, a set of 2 equations in 2 unknowns can be solved using a graph. A single
equation in two unknowns is a line, so two equations give us 2 lines. The following situations
are possible with 2 lines:
• They will intersect. In this case, the point of intersection is the only solution.
• They will be the same line. In this case, all points on the line are solutions (note: this is
an infinite set).
• They will be parallel but not the same line. In this case, there are no solutions.
Examples
Solution Set: Solution Set: Solution Set:
The point of intersection The empty set; All points on the line.
can be read off the graph; these parallel lines Although the equations look
the point (2,0). will never cross. different, they actually
describe the same line.
Algebra
Systems of Equations (cont’d)
Substitution Method
In the Substitution Method, we eliminate one of the variables by substituting into one of the
equations its equivalent in terms of the other variable. Then we solve for each variable in turn
and check the result. The steps in this process are illustrated in the example below.
Example: Solve for x and y if:
and: 2 .
Step 1: Review the two equations. Look for a variable that can be substituted from one
equation into the other. In this example, we see a single “y” in the first equation; this is a prime
candidate for substitution.
We will substitute from the first equation for in the second equation.
Step 2: Perform the substitution.
becomes:
Step 3: Solve the resulting equation for the single variable that is left.
Step 4: Substitute the known variable into one of the original equations to solve for the
remaining variable.
After this step, the solution is tentatively identified as:
, , meaning the point (3, 1).
Step 5: Check the result by substituting the solution into the equation not used in Step 4. If the
solution is correct, the result should be a true statement. If it is not, you have made a mistake
and should check your work carefully.
Since this is a true mathematical
statement, the solution (3, 1) can
be accepted as correct.
Algebra
Systems of Equations (cont’d)
Elimination Method
In the Substitution Method, we manipulate one or both of the equations so that we can add
them and eliminate one of the variables. Then we solve for each variable in turn and check the
result. This is an outstanding method for systems of equations with “ugly” coefficients. The
steps in this process are illustrated in the example below. Note the flow of the solution on the
page.
Example: Solve for x and y if:
and: 2 .
Step 1: Re‐write the equations in Step 2: Multiply each equation by a value
selected so that, when the equations are added,
standard form.
a variable will be eliminated.
(Multiply by 2)
2 (Multiply by ‐1) 2
Step 3: Add the resulting equations.
Step 5: Substitute the result into
one of the original equations and U 2
solve for the other variable.
Step 4: Solve for the variable.
Step 6: Check the result by substituting
the solution into the equation not used in
Step 5. If the solution is correct, the
result should be a true statement. If it is
not, you have made a mistake and should Since this is a true mathematical statement, the
check your work. solution (3, 1) can be accepted as correct.
Algebra
Systems of Equations (cont’d)
Classification of Systems
There are two main classifications of systems of equations: Consistent vs. Inconsistent, and
Dependent vs. Independent.
Consistent vs. Inconsistent
• Consistent Systems have one or more solutions.
• Inconsistent Systems have no solutions. When you try to solve an inconsistent set of
equations, you often get to a point where you have an impossible statement, such as
“1 2.” This indicates that there is no solution to the system.
Dependent vs. Independent
• Linearly Dependent Systems have an infinite number of solutions. In Linear Algebra, a
system is linearly dependent if there is a set of real numbers (not all zero) that, when
they are multiplied by the equations in the system and the results are added, the final
result is zero.
• Linearly Independent Systems have at most one solution. In Linear Algebra, a system is
linearly independent if it is not linearly dependent. Note: some textbooks indicate that
an independent system must have a solution. This is not correct; they can have no
solutions (see the middle example below). For more on this, see the next page.
Examples
One Solution No Solution Infinite Solutions
Consistent Inconsistent Consistent
Independent Independent Dependent
Version 2.3 04/16/12
-61-
Algebra
Adding and Subtracting Polynomials
Problems asking the student to add or subtract polynomials are often written in linear form:
Add: 3 2 4 2 4 6
The problem is much more easily solved if the problem is written in column form, with each
polynomial written in standard form.
Definitions
Standard Form: A polynomial in standard form has its terms written from highest degree to
lowest degree from left to right.
Example: The standard form of 3 4 is 3 4
Like Terms: Terms with the same variables raised to the same powers. Only the numerical
coefficients are different.
Example: 2 , 6 , and are like terms.
Addition and Subtraction Steps
Step 1: Write each polynomial in standard form. Leave blank spaces for missing terms. For
example, if adding 3 2 4 , leave space for the missing ‐term.
Step 2: If you are subtracting, change the sign of each term of the polynomial to be subtracted
and add instead. Adding is much easier than subtracting.
Step 3: Place the polynomials in column form, being careful to line up like terms.
Step 4: Add the polynomials.
Examples:
: 3 2 4 2 4 6 : 3 2 4 2 4 6
Solution: Solution:
3 2 4 3 2 4
2 4 6 2 4 6
3 2 6 2 3 2 2 10
Algebra
Multiplying Binomials
The three methods shown below are equivalent. Use whichever one you like best.
FOIL Method
FOIL stands for First, Outside, Inside, Last. To multiply using the FOIL method, you make four
separate multiplications and add the results.
Example: Multiply 2 3 · 3 4 The result is obtained by adding the results of
First: 2 ·3 6 the 4 separate multiplications.
Outside: 2 · 4 8 F O I L
Inside: 3· 3 9 2 3 · 3 4 6 8 9 12
Last: 3· 4 12 6 12
Box Method
The Box Method is pretty much the same as the FOIL method, except for the presentation. In
the box method, a 2x2 array of multiplications is created, the 4 multiplications are performed,
and the results are added.
Example: Multiply 2 3 · 3 4
The result is obtained by adding the results of
Multiply 3x the 4 separate multiplications.
2x 6 8 2 3 · 3 4 6 8 9 12
6 12
+3 9 12
Stacked Polynomial Method
A third method is to multiply the binomials 2 3
like you would multiply 2‐digit numbers. · 3 4
The name comes from how the two 8 12
polynomials are placed in a “stack” in
6 9
preparation for multiplication.
6 12
Example: Multiply 2 3 · 3 4
Algebra
Multiplying Polynomials
If the polynomials to be multiplied contain more than two terms (i.e., they are larger than
binomials), the FOIL Method will not work. Instead, either the Box Method or the Stacked
Polynomial Method should be used. Notice that each of these methods is essentially a way to
apply the distributive property of multiplication over addition.
The methods shown below are equivalent. Use whichever one you like best.
Box Method
The Box Method is the same for larger polynomials as it is for binomials, except the box is
bigger. An array of multiplications is created; the multiplications are performed; and like terms
are added.
Example: Multiply 2 2 3 · 2 3 4
Multiply Results:
2 2 3 · 2 3 4
2 3 4
2
4 6 8
4 3
4 6 8
4 6 4
6 9 12
6 6 8
9 8
Stacked Polynomial Method
Results:
In the Stacked Polynomial Method, the 2 2 3
polynomials are multiplied using the same
· 2 3 4
technique to multiply multi‐digit numbers
One helpful tip is to place the smaller 4 8 8 12
polynomial below the larger one in the 3 6 6 9
stack.
2 4 4 6
2 7 6 8 17 12
Algebra
Dividing Polynomials
Dividing polynomials is performed much like dividing large numbers long‐hand.
Long Division Method
This process is best described by example:
This proce ss is best described by example:
Example: 2 5 2 2
Step 1: Set up the division like a typical long hand
division problem. 2 2 5 2
Step 2: Divide the leading term of the dividend by
2
the leading term of the divisor. Place the result
above the term of like degree of the dividend. 2 2 5 2
2 2
2
Step 3: Multiply the new term on top by the divisor 2 2 5 2
and subtract from the dividend.
and subtract from the dividend. 2 4
2 2 2 4 2
Alternatives
This process can be tedious. Fortunately, there are better methods for dividing polynomials
than long division. These include Factoring, which is discussed next and elsewhere in this
Guide, and Synthetic Division, which is discussed in the chapter on Polynomials – Intermediate.
Algebra
Factoring Polynomials
Polynomials cannot be divided in the same way numbers can. In order to divide polynomials, it
is often useful to factor them first. Factoring involves extracting simpler terms from the more
complex polynomial.
Greatest Common Factor
The Greatest Common Factor of the terms of a polynomial is determined as follows:
Step 1: Find the Greatest Common Factor of the coefficients.
Step 2: Find the Greatest Common Factor for each variable. This is simply each variable taken
to the lowest power that exists for that variable in any of the terms.
Step 3: Multiply the GCF of the coefficients by the GCF for each variable.
Example:
Find the GCF of 18 42 30 GCF 18, 42, 30 6
GCF , ,
The GCF of the coefficients and each variable are shown
GCF , ,1 1
in the box to the right. The GCF of the polynomial is the
product of the four individual GCFs. GCF , ,
So, GCF polynomial 6
Factoring Steps
Step 1: Factor out of all terms the GCF of the polynomial.
Step 2: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any binomials that can be Note: Typically only
steps 1 and 2 are
extracted.
needed in high school
Step 3: Factor out of the remaining polynomial any trinomials that can algebra problems.
be extracted.
Step 4: Continue this process until no further simplification is possible.
Examples:
Factor: 3 18 27 Factor: 6 24
3 6 9 6 4
3 3 6 2 2
The factoring of the blue trinomial (2nd line) into The factoring of the blue binomial (2nd line) into
the square of a binomial is the result of binomials of lower degree is the result of
recognizing the special form it represents. Special recognizing the special form it represents. Special
forms are shown on the next two pages. forms are shown on the next two pages.
Algebra
Special Forms of Quadratic Functions
It is helpful to be able to recognize a couple special forms of quadratic functions. In particular,
if you can recognize perfect squares and differences of squares, your work will become easier
and more accurate.
Perfect Squares
Perfect squares are of the form:
Identification and Solution
The following steps allow the student to identify and solve a trinomial that is a perfect square:
Step 1: Notice the first term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 2: Notice the last term of the trinomial is a square. Take its square root.
Step 3: Multiply the results of the first 2 steps and double that product. If the result is the
middle term of the trinomial, the expression is a perfect square.
Step 4: The binomial in the solution is the sum or difference of the square roots calculated in
steps 1 and 2. The sign between the terms of the binomial is the sign of the middle
term of the trinomial.
Example:
– Notice that the middle term is double the product
of the two square roots ( and ). This is a
telltale sign that the expression is a perfect square.
√
Identify the trinomial as a perfect square:
• Take the square roots of the first and last terms. They are 2 and 3 .
• Test the middle term. Multiply the roots from the previous step, then double the result:
2 · 3 · 2 12 . The result (with a “ ” sign in front) is the middle term of the
original trinomial. Therefore, the expression is a perfect square.
To express the trinomial as the square of a binomial:
• The square roots of the first and last terms 2 and 3 make up the binomial we seek.
• We may choose the sign of the first term, so let’s choose the “ ” sign.
• Having chosen the “ ” sign for the first term, the second term of the binomial takes the
sign of the middle term of the original trinomial (“ ”). Therefore, the result is:
Algebra
Special Forms of Quadratic Functions
Differences of Squares
Differences of squares are of the form: ·
These are much easier to recognize than the perfect squares because there is no middle term
to consider. Notice why there is no middle term:
·
these two
terms cancel
Identification
To see if an expression is a difference of squares, you must answer “yes” to four questions:
1. Are there only two terms?
2. Is there a “ ” sign between the two terms?
3. Is the first term a square? If so, take its square root.
4. Is the second term a square? If so, take its square root.
The solution is the product of a) the sum of the square roots in questions 3 and 4, and b) the
difference of the square roots in steps 3 and 4.
Note: A telltale sign of when an expression might be the difference of 2 squares is when the
coefficients on the variables are squares: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, etc.
Examples:
(1) ·
(2) ·
(3) ·
(4) ·
ADVANCED: Over the field of complex numbers, it is also possible to factor the sum of 2 squares:
·
This is not possible over the field of real numbers.
Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – Simple Case Method
A common problem in Elementary Algebra is the factoring of a trinomial that is neither a
perfect square nor a difference of squares.
Consider the simple case where the coefficient of is 1. The general form for this case is:
∙
sign 1 sign 2
coefficient constant
of x
In order to simplify the illustration of factoring a polynomial where the coefficient of is 1, we
will use the orange descriptors above for the components of the trinomial being factored.
Simple Case Method Example: Factor
Step 1: Set up parentheses for a pair of binomials. Put “x” in the
∙
left hand position of each binomial.
Step 2: Put sign 1 in the middle position in the left binomial. ∙
Step 3: Multiply sign 1 and sign 2 to get the sign for the right
binomial. Remember: ∙
∙ ∙
∙ ∙
Step 4: Find two numbers that: The numbers we seek are
Fill in: 4 and 7 because:
(a) Multiply to get the constant, and ___ ∙ ___ ___ 4 ∙ 7 28, and
(b) Add to get the coefficient of ___ ___ ___ 4 7 3
Step 5: Place the numbers in the binomials so that their signs
∙
match the signs from Steps 2 and 3. This is the final
answer.
Step 6: Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to see 7 ∙ 4
if you get the original trinomial. 4 7 28
3 28
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Algebra
Factoring Trinomials – AC Method
There are times when the simple method of factoring a trinomial is not sufficient. Primarily this
occurs when the coefficient of is not 1. In this case, you may use the AC method presented
here, or you may use either the brute force method or the quadratic formula method
(described on the next couple of pages).
AC Method
The AC Method derives its name from the first step of the Example: Factor
process, which is to multiply the values of “ ” and “ ” from the
general form of the quadratic equation:
6 2
Step 1: Multiply the values of “ ” and “ ”.
12
Step 2: Find two numbers that:
Fill in:
(a) Multiply to get the value of ,
___ ∙ ___ ___ 4 ∙3 12
and
___ ___ ___ 4 3 1
(b) Add to get the coefficient of
Step 3: Split the middle term into two terms, with coefficients 6 4 3 2
equal to the values found in Step 2. (Tip: if only one of
the coefficients is negative, put that term first.)
Step 4: Group the terms into pairs. 6 4 3 2
Step 5: Factor each pair of terms. 2 3 2 1 3 2
Step 6: Use the distributive property to combine the ∙
multipliers of the common term. This is the final
answer.
Step 7: Check your work by multiplying the two binomials to 2 1 ∙ 3 2
see if you get the original trinomial. 6 4 3 2
6 2
Algebra
Table of Powers and Roots
Square Root Number Square Cube 4th Power
√1 1.000 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
√2 1.414 2 2 4 2 8 2 16
Algebra
The Quadratic Formula
The Quadratic Formula is one of the first difficult math formulas that students are asked to
memorize. Mastering the formula, though difficult, is full of rewards. By knowing why it works
and what the various parts of the formula are, a student can generate a lot of knowledge in a
short period of time.
For a quadratic function of the form:
Quadratic
The formula for the roots (i.e., where y = 0) is: Formula
How Many Real Roots?
The discriminant is the part under the radical:
• If the discriminant is negative, the quadratic function has 0 real roots. This is because a
negative number under the radical results in imaginary roots instead of real roots. In
this case the graph the graph will not cross the x‐axis. It will be either entirely above the
x‐axis or entirely below the x‐axis, depending on the value of “a”.
• If the discriminant is zero, the quadratic function has 1 real root. The square root of
zero is zero, so the radical disappears and the only root is . In this case, the
2
graph will appear to bounce off the x‐axis; it touches the x‐axis at only one spot – the
value of the root.
• If the discriminant is positive, the quadratic function has 2 real roots. This is because a
real square root exists, and it must be added in the formula to get one root and
subtracted to get the other root. In this case, the graph will cross the x‐axis in two
places, the values of the roots.
Where are the Vertex and Axis of Symmetry?
The x‐coordinate of the vertex is also easily calculated from the quadratic formula because the
vertex is halfway between the two roots. If we average the two roots, the portion of the
formula disappears and the resulting x‐value is . The y‐value of the vertex must still
2
be calculated, but the x‐value can be read directly out of the quadratic formula.
Also, once the x‐value of the vertex is known, the equation for the axis of symmetry is also
known. It is the vertical line containing the vertex:
2
.
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Algebra
Radical Rules
Simple Rules Involving Radicals
General Radical Rule Rule for Square Roots Example
√ · √ ·√ √ · √ ·√ √12 √4 · √3 2√3
√ √ 5 √5 √5
√ √ 4 √4 2
Note also that: √
e.g., √ , so the rules for exponents also apply for roots.
Rationalizing the Denominator
Mathematicians prefer to keep radicals out of the denominator. Here are two
methods to accomplish this, depending on what’s in the denominator.
Case 1: Simple radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply the beginning
expression by a fraction which is the offending radical divided by itself.
√ √ √ √ √
Example: ·
√ √ √
Case 2: Number and radical in the denominator. Solution: multiply by the
beginning expression by a fraction which is designed to eliminate the radical from
the denominator. The numerator and denominator of the fraction are created by
changing the sign between the number and the radical in the denominator.
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Example: ·
√ √ √
Algebra
Simplifying Square Roots – Two Methods
Method 1: Extracting Squares
In this method, you pull squares out from under the radical. This is the quickest
method if you are comfortable with what the squares are and with dividing them
out of larger numbers.
1 1 11 121
Examples: (1) √98 √49 · √2 2 4 12 144
7√2
3 9 13 169
(2) √9600 √100 · √96 4 16 14 196
Algebra
Solving Radical Equations
When an equation involves radicals, the radicals must be eliminated in order to obtain a
solution. The one special thing about these equations is that, in the process of eliminating the
radical, it is possible to add another solution that is not a solution to the original problem.
Solutions that are added by the process used to solve the problem are called Extraneous
Solutions. At the end of the problem, we must check for extraneous solutions and eliminate
them.
Solving a Radical Equation
The steps to solving an equation involving radicals are:
• Isolate the radical on one side of the equation. To do this, add or subtract any variables
or constants that are on the same side of the equation as the radical.
• If the radical is a square root, square both sides of the equation. If the radical is a cube
root, cube both sides, etc. This should get rid of the radical.
• If there are any radicals remaining in the problem, repeat the first two steps until they
are gone.
• Solve the equation that remains.
• Check all solutions to the problem using the equation in the original statement of the
problem.
• Discard extraneous roots.
Example: Solve √4 5
Starting Problem: √2 6 1
Subtract 1 from both sides: √2 6 1 If we allowed to
Square both sides: 2 6 2 1 be 2, the equation would
work and 1 would work as a
Subtract from both sides: 4 5 0 solution. However, the
Factor: 5 1 0 square root of a number is
defined to be the positive
Obtain Preliminary Solutions: 1, 5 root only. So, 1 fails as a
Test as a solution: 2 1 6 1 1 ? solution to the problem.
Matrices
Addition and Scalar Multiplication
What is a Matrix?
A matrix is an ordered set of numbers set up in a 2‐dimensional array. Matrices are very useful
in algebra, statistics and other applications because they provide a concise way to carry out
more complex mathematical methods and processes.
Matrices have dimensions, expressed as the number of rows x the number of columns. For
example, a 2x3 matrix (read “2 by 3 matrix”) has 2 rows and 3 columns. Knowing the
dimensions of a matrix is important because many matrix operations can only occur on
matrices with certain dimensions.
Adding Matrices
Each number in a matrix is called an element. Matrices are added by adding the corresponding
elements in the matrices. Matrices must have the same dimensions to be added.
Example:
2 3 1 1 2 4 1 1 5
5 1 2 2 1 0 3 2 2
1st row, 1st column: 2 + (‐1) = 1
1st row, 2nd column: (‐3) + 2 = ‐1
Scalar Multiplication
Multiplying a matrix by a scalar (i.e., a number) is accomplished by multiplying each element in
the matrix by the scalar. The term scalar simply refers to “scaling” the matrix by making its
values larger or smaller. Scalar multiplication can be performed on matrices of any dimensions.
Example:
1 2 4 3 6 12
3·
2 1 0 6 3 0
1st row, 1st column: 3 ∙ (‐1) = ‐3
1st row, 2nd column: 3 ∙ 2 = 6
Matrices
Multiplying Matrices
Multiplying Matrices
Multiplication of matrices is a more complex process. Although the student may find it difficult
at first, it is a powerful tool that is useful in many fields of mathematics and science.
Matrix multiplication can be performed only on matrices that are conformable (i.e., compatible
in size). In order for two matrices to be multiplied together, the number of columns in the first
matrix must equal the number of rows in the second matrix. If an m x n matrix is multiplied by
an n x p matrix, the result is an m x p matrix. This is illustrated as follows:
must match
·
size of resulting matrix
To multiply matrices, you multiply the elements in a row of one matrix by the corresponding
elements in a column of the other matrix and add the results. If row i in the first matrix is
multiplied by row j in the second matrix, the result is placed in row i, column j of the resulting
matrix. The element in position i, j of a matrix is often denoted , .
Example 1:
Notice that multiplying a 2 x 3
1 2
2 3 1 1 0 matrix by a 3 x 2 matrix results
· 2 1
5 1 2 1 13 in a 2 x 2 matrix.
3 1
1st row, 1st column: [ 2 ∙ 1] + [ (‐3) ∙ 2] + [ 1 ∙ 3] = ‐1
1st row, 2nd column: [ 2 ∙ (‐2) ] + [ (‐3) ∙ (‐1) ] + [ 1 ∙ 1] = 0
2nd row, 1st column: [ 5 ∙ 1] + [ 1 ∙ 2] + [ (‐2) ∙ 3] = 1
2nd row, 2nd column: [ 5 ∙ (‐2) ] + [ 1 ∙ (‐1) ] + [ (‐2) ∙ 1] = ‐13
Example 2:
1 2 8 5 5 Notice that multiplying a 3 x 2
2 3 1
2 1 · 1 7 4 matrix by a 2 x 3 matrix results
5 1 2 in a 3 x 3 matrix.
3 1 11 8 1
From the examples, it is clear that matrix multiplication is not commutative. That is, if we
name two matrices A and B, it is not necessarily true that A∙B = B∙A. Further, if matrices are
not square (i.e., having the same number of rows and columns), matrix multiplication is never
commutative; that is A∙B ≠ B∙A.
Algebra
Exponent Formulas
Quotient of Powers
Power of a Power ·
Power of a product · ·
Power of a quotient
Algebra
Logarithm Formulas
0
Log (base anything) of 1 is
zero
Exponents and logs are , 0
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
Logs and exponents are , 0
inverse operators, leaving
what you started with
The log of a product is the , , 0
sum of the logs ·
Algebra
Table of Exponents and Logarithms
Definition: if and only if
024
Algebra
Converting Between Exponential and Logarithmic Forms
To convert between an exponential expression and a logarithmic expression, it is often helpful
to use the “first‐last‐middle” rule to perform the conversion. If necessasy, set the expression
equal to before applying the rule.
Note: the “first‐last‐middle” rule requires that the logarithmic or exponential portion of the
expression be on the left‐hand side of the equation.
Examples: Examples:
So, we have: So, we have:
Geometry
Prepared by: Earl L. Whitney, FSA, MAAA
Version 3.0
April 10, 2017
Copyright 2010‐2017, Earl Whitney, Reno NV. All Rights Reserved
-11-
Geometry
Types of Angles
C
A B D
Supplementary Angles Complementary Angles
Angles A and B are supplementary. Angles C and D are complementary.
Angles A and B form a linear pair.
90⁰
180⁰
Angles which are opposite each other when
two lines cross are vertical angles.
Angles E and G are vertical angles.
F Angles F and H are vertical angles.
E G
H
In addition, each angle is supplementary to
the two angles adjacent to it. For example:
Vertical Angles
Angle E is supplementary to Angles F and H.
An acute angle is one that is less than 90⁰. In
the illustration above, angles E and G are
acute angles.
A right angle is one that is exactly 90⁰.
Acute Obtuse
An obtuse angle is one that is greater than
90⁰. In the illustration above, angles F and H
are obtuse angles.
A straight angle is one that is exactly 180⁰.
Right Straight
Geometry
Parallel Lines and Transversals
Transversal
Alternate: refers to angles that are on
opposite sides of the transversal.
A B Consecutive: refers to angles that are
C D on the same side of the transversal.
Parallel Lines Interior: refers to angles that are
F between the parallel lines.
E
H Exterior: refers to angles that are
G
outside the parallel lines.
Corresponding Angles
Corresponding Angles are angles in the same location relative to the parallel lines and the
transversal. For example, the angles on top of the parallel lines and left of the transversal (i.e.,
top left) are corresponding angles.
Angles A and E (top left) are Corresponding Angles. So are angle pairs B and F (top right), C
and G (bottom left), and D and H (bottom right). Corresponding angles are congruent.
Alternate Interior Angles
Angles D and E are Alternate Interior Angles. Angles C and F are also alternate interior angles.
Alternate interior angles are congruent.
Alternate Exterior Angles
Angles A and H are Alternate Exterior Angles. Angles B and G are also alternate exterior
angles. Alternate exterior angles are congruent.
Consecutive Interior Angles
Angles C and E are Consecutive Interior Angles. Angles D and F are also consecutive interior
angles. Consecutive interior angles are supplementary.
Note that angles A, D, E, and H are congruent, and angles B, C, F, and G are congruent. In
addition, each of the angles in the first group are supplementary to each of the angles in the
second group.
Geometry
Proving Lines are Parallel
The properties of parallel lines cut by a transversal can be used to prove two lines are parallel.
Corresponding Angles
If two lines cut by a transversal have congruent corresponding angles,
then the lines are parallel. Note that there are 4 sets of corresponding
angles.
Alternate Interior Angles
If two lines cut by a transversal have congruent alternate interior angles
congruent, then the lines are parallel. Note that there are 2 sets of
alternate interior angles.
Alternate Exterior Angles
If two lines cut by a transversal have congruent alternate exterior
angles, then the lines are parallel. Note that there are 2 sets of
alternate exterior angles.
Consecutive Interior Angles
If two lines cut by a transversal have supplementary consecutive
interior angles, then the lines are parallel. Note that there are 2 sets of
consecutive interior angles.
Geometry
Congruent Triangles
The following theorems present conditions under which triangles are congruent.
Side‐Angle‐Side (SAS) Congruence
SAS congruence requires the congruence of
two sides and the angle between those sides.
Note that there is no such thing as SSA
congruence; the congruent angle must be
between the two congruent sides.
Side‐Side‐Side (SSS) Congruence
SSS congruence requires the congruence of all
three sides. If all of the sides are congruent
then all of the angles must be congruent. The
converse is not true; there is no such thing as
AAA congruence.
Angle‐Side‐Angle (ASA) Congruence
ASA congruence requires the congruence of
two angles and the side between those angles.
Note: ASA and AAS combine to provide
congruence of two triangles whenever
any two angles and any one side of the
Angle‐Angle‐Side (AAS) Congruence triangles are congruent.
AAS congruence requires the congruence of
two angles and a side which is not between
those angles.
CPCTC
CPCTC means “corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent.” It is a very
powerful tool in geometry proofs and is often used shortly after a step in the proof where a pair
of triangles is proved to be congruent.
Geometry
Inequalities in Triangles
Angles and their opposite sides in triangles are related. In fact, this is often reflected in the
labeling of angles and sides in triangle illustrations.
Angles and their opposite sides are often
labeled with the same letter. An upper case
letter is used for the angle and a lower case
letter is used for the side.
The relationship between angles and their opposite sides translates into the following triangle
inequalities:
If , then
If , then
That is, in any triangle,
• The largest side is opposite the largest angle.
• The medium side is opposite the medium angle.
• The smallest side is opposite the smallest angle.
Other Inequalities in Triangles
Triangle Inequality: The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle
is greater than the length of the third side. This is a crucial element in
deciding whether segments of any 3 lengths can form a triangle.
Exterior Angle Inequality: The measure of an external angle is greater than the measure of
either of the two non‐adjacent interior angles. That is, in the figure below:
Note: the Exterior Angle Inequality is much less relevant than the Exterior Angle Equality.
Exterior Angle Equality: The measure of an external angle is equal to the sum of the measures
of the two non‐adjacent interior angles. That is, in the figure below:
Geometry
Polygons ‐ Basics
Basic Definitions
Polygon: a closed path of three or more line segments, where:
• no two sides with a common endpoint are collinear, and
• each segment is connected at its endpoints to exactly two other segments.
Side: a segment that is connected to other segments (which are also sides) to form a polygon.
Vertex: a point at the intersection of two sides of the polygon. (plural form: vertices)
Diagonal: a segment, from one vertex to another, which is not a side.
Vertex
Diagonal
Side
Concave: A polygon in which it is possible to draw a diagonal “outside” the
polygon. (Notice the orange diagonal drawn outside the polygon at
right.) Concave polygons actually look like they have a “cave” in them.
Convex: A polygon in which it is not possible to draw a diagonal “outside” the
polygon. (Notice that all of the orange diagonals are inside the polygon
at right.) Convex polygons appear more “rounded” and do not contain
“caves.”
Names of Some Common Polygons
Geometry
Interior and Exterior Angles of a Polygon
Interior Angles
Interior Angles
The sum of the interior angles in an ‐sided polygon is: Sum of Each
Sides Interior Interior
∑ · ° Angles Angle
3 180⁰ 60⁰
If the polygon is regular, you can calculate the measure of 4 360⁰ 90⁰
each interior angle as: 5 540⁰ 108⁰
6 720⁰ 120⁰
· ° 7 900⁰ 129⁰
8 1,080⁰ 135⁰
9 1,260⁰ 140⁰
Notation: The Greek letter “Σ” is equivalent 10 1,440⁰ 144⁰
to the English letter “S” and is math short‐hand
for a summation (i.e., addition) of things.
Exterior Angles
Exterior Angles
No matter how many sides there are in a polygon, the sum Sum of Each
of the exterior angles is: Sides Exterior Exterior
Angles Angle
∑ ⁰ 3 360⁰ 120⁰
4 360⁰ 90⁰
If the polygon is regular, you can calculate the measure of
5 360⁰ 72⁰
each exterior angle as:
6 360⁰ 60⁰
7 360⁰ 51⁰
⁰
8 360⁰ 45⁰
9 360⁰ 40⁰
10 360⁰ 36⁰
Geometry
Definitions of Quadrilaterals
Name Definition
Quadrilateral A polygon with 4 sides.
A quadrilateral with two consecutive pairs of congruent sides, but
Kite
with opposite sides not congruent.
Trapezoid A quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides.
Isosceles Trapezoid A trapezoid with congruent legs.
Parallelogram A quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel.
Rectangle A parallelogram with all angles congruent (i.e., right angles).
Rhombus A parallelogram with all sides congruent.
Square A quadrilateral with all sides congruent and all angles congruent.
Quadrilateral Tree:
Quadrilateral
Square
Geometry
Figures of Quadrilaterals
Kite Trapezoid Isosceles Trapezoid
• 2 consecutive pairs of • 1 pair of parallel sides • 1 pair of parallel sides
congruent sides (called “bases”) • Congruent legs
• 1 pair of congruent • Angles on the same • 2 pair of congruent base
opposite angles angles
“side” of the bases are
• Diagonals perpendicular supplementary • Diagonals congruent
Parallelogram Rectangle
• Both pairs of opposite sides parallel • Parallelogram with all angles
• Both pairs of opposite sides congruent congruent (i.e., right angles)
• Both pairs of opposite angles congruent • Diagonals congruent
• Consecutive angles supplementary
• Diagonals bisect each other
Rhombus Square
• Parallelogram with all sides congruent • Both a Rhombus and a Rectangle
• Diagonals perpendicular • All angles congruent (i.e., right angles)
• Each diagonal bisects a pair of • All sides congruent
opposite angles
Geometry
Introduction to Transformation
A Transformation is a mapping of the pre‐image of a geometric figure onto an image that
retains key characteristics of the pre‐image.
Definitions
The Pre‐Image is the geometric figure before it has been transformed.
The Image is the geometric figure after it has been transformed.
A mapping is an association between objects. Transformations are types of mappings. In the
figures below, we say ABCD is mapped onto A’B’C’D’, or ’ ’ ’ ’. The order of the
vertices is critical to a properly named mapping.
An Isometry is a one‐to‐one mapping that preserves lengths. Transformations that are
isometries (i.e., preserve length) are called rigid transformations.
Isometric Transformations
Reflection is flipping a Rotation is turning a Translation is sliding a
figure across a line called figure around a point. figure in the plane so that
a “mirror.” The figure Rotated figures retain it changes location but
retains its size and shape, their size and shape, but retains its shape, size and
but appears “backwards” not their orientation. orientation.
after the reflection.
Table of Characteristics of Isometric Transformations
Geometry
Introduction to Transformation (cont’d)
Transformation of a Point
A point is the easiest object to transform. Simply reflect, rotate or translate it following the
rules for the transformation selected. By transforming key points first, any transformation
becomes much easier.
Transformation of a Geometric Figure
To transform any geometric figure, it is only necessary to transform the items that define the
figure, and then re‐form it. For example:
• To transform a line segment, transform its two endpoints, and then connect the
resulting images with a line segment.
• To transform a ray, transform the initial point and any other point on the ray, and then
construct a ray using the resulting images.
• To transform a line, transform any two points on the line, and then fit a line through the
resulting images.
• To transform a polygon, transform each of its vertices, and then connect the resulting
images with line segments.
• To transform a circle, transform its center and, if necessary, its radius. From the
resulting images, construct the image circle.
• To transform other conic sections (parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas), transform the
foci, vertices and/or directrix. From the resulting images, construct the image conic
section.
Example: Reflect Quadrilateral ABCD
Geometry
Similar Polygons
In similar polygons,
• Corresponding angles are congruent, and
• Corresponding sides are proportional.
Both of these conditions are necessary for two
polygons to be similar. Conversely, when two
polygons are similar, all of the corresponding
angles are congruent and all of the sides are proportional.
Naming Similar Polygons
Similar polygons should be named such that corresponding angles are in the same location in
the name, and the order of the points in the name should “follow the polygon around.”
Example: The polygons above could be shown similar with the following names:
~
It would also be acceptable to show the similarity as:
~
Any names that preserve the order of the points and keeps corresponding angles in
corresponding locations in the names would be acceptable.
Proportions
One common problem relating to similar polygons is to present three side lengths, where two
of the sides correspond, and to ask for the length of the side corresponding to the third length.
20 12
10
6
Notice that the left polygon is represented on the top of both proportions and that the left‐
most segments of the two polygons are in the left fraction.
Geometry
Scale Factors of Similar Polygons
From the similar polygons below, the following is known about the lengths of the sides:
That is, the ratios of corresponding sides in the
two polygons are the same and they equal
some constant , called the scale factor of the
two polygons. The value of , then, is all you
need to know to relate corresponding sides in
the two polygons.
Finding the Missing Length
Any time the student is asked to find the missing length in similar polygons:
• Look for two corresponding sides for which the values are known.
• Calculate the value of .
• Use the value of to solve for the missing length.
is a measure of the relative size of the two polygons. Using this knowledge, it is possible to
put into words an easily understandable relationship between the polygons.
• Let Polygon 1 be the one whose sides are in the numerators of the fractions.
• Let Polygon 2 be the one whose sides are in the denominators of the fractions.
• Then, it can be said that Polygon 1 is times the size of the Polygon 2.
12
2
6
Then solve for based on the value of :
20
2 10
Also, since 2, the length of every side in the blue polygon is double the length of its
corresponding side in the orange polygon.
Geometry
Similar Triangles
The following theorems present conditions under which triangles are similar.
Side‐Angle‐Side (SAS) Similarity
SAS similarity requires the proportionality of
two sides and the congruence of the angle
between those sides. Note that there is no such
thing as SSA similarity; the congruent angle must
be between the two proportional sides.
Side‐Side‐Side (SSS) Similarity
SSS similarity requires the proportionality of all
three sides. If all of the sides are proportional,
then all of the angles must be congruent.
Angle‐‐Angle (AA) Similarity
AA similarity requires the congruence of two
angles and the side between those angles.
Similar Triangle Parts
In similar triangles,
• Corresponding sides are proportional.
• Corresponding angles are congruent.
Establishing the proper names for similar triangles is crucial to line up corresponding vertices.
In the picture above, we can say:
∆ ~∆ or ∆ ~∆ or ∆ ~∆ or
∆ ~∆ or ∆ ~∆ or ∆ ~∆
All of these are correct because they match corresponding parts in the naming. Each of these
similarities implies the following relationships between parts of the two triangles:
and and
Geometry
Proportion Tables for Similar Triangles
Setting Up a Table of Proportions
It is often useful to set up a table to identify the proper proportions
in a similarity. Consider the figure to the right. The table might look
something like this:
The purpose of a table like this is to organize the information you have about the similar
triangles so that you can readily develop the proportions you need.
Developing the Proportions
To develop proportions from the table:
• Extract the columns needed from the table:
AB BC
DE EF Also from the above
table,
• Eliminate the table lines.
• Replace the horizontal lines with “division lines.”
• Put an equal sign between the two resulting fractions:
Solving for the unknown length of a side:
You can extract any two columns you like from the table. Usually, you will have information on
lengths of three of the sides and will be asked to calculate a fourth.
Look in the table for the columns that contain the 4 sides in question, and then set up your
proportion. Substitute known values into the proportion, and solve for the remaining variable.
Geometry
Pythagorean Triples
Pythagorean Theorem:
Pythagorean triples are sets of 3 positive integers that meet the requirements of the
Pythagorean Theorem. Because these sets of integers provide “pretty” solutions to geometry
problems, they are a favorite of geometry books and teachers. Knowing what triples exist can
help the student quickly identify solutions to problems that might otherwise take considerable
time to solve.
3‐4‐5 Triangle Family 7‐24‐25 Triangle Family
Sample Sample
Triples Triples
3‐4‐5 7‐24‐25
6‐8‐10 14‐48‐50
9‐12‐15
21‐72‐75
12‐16‐20 . . .
30‐40‐50
70‐240‐250
9 16 25 49 576 625
5‐12‐13 Triangle Family 8‐15‐17 Triangle Family
Sample Sample
Triples Triples
5‐12‐13 8‐15‐17
10‐24‐26 16‐30‐34
15‐36‐39 24‐45‐51
. . . . . .
50‐120‐130 80‐150‐170
25 144 169 64 225 289
Geometry
Special Triangles
The relationship among the lengths of the sides of a triangle is dependent on the measures of
the angles in the triangle. For a right triangle (i.e., one that contains a 90⁰ angle), two special
cases are of particular interest. These are shown below:
45⁰‐45⁰‐90⁰ Triangle
In a 45⁰‐45⁰‐90⁰ triangle, the congruence of two
angles guarantees the congruence of the two
√
legs of the triangle. The proportions of the three
1
sides are: √ . That is, the two legs have
the same length and the hypotenuse is √ times
1 as long as either leg.
30⁰‐60⁰‐90⁰ Triangle
In a 30⁰‐60⁰‐90⁰ triangle, the proportions of the
2 three sides are: √ . That is, the long leg
√ is √ times as long as the short leg, and the
hypotenuse is times as long as the short leg.
1
In a right triangle, we need to know the lengths of two sides to determine the length of the
third. The power of the relationships in the special triangles lies in the fact that we need only
know the length of one side of the triangle to determine the lengths of the other two sides.
Example Side Lengths
45⁰‐45⁰‐90⁰ Triangle 30⁰‐60⁰‐90⁰ Triangle
√ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
√ √ √ √ √ √ √
Geometry
Trig Functions and Special Angles
Trigonometric Functions
SOH‐CAH‐TOA
Special Angles
Trig Functions of Special Angles
Radians Degrees
0 0⁰ √0 √4 √0
0 1 0
2 2 √4
√1 1 √3 √1 √3
6 30⁰
2 2 2 √3 3
√2 √2 √
4 45⁰ √
1
2 2
√3 √1 1 √3
3 60⁰ √3
2 2 2 √1
√4 √0
2 90⁰ 1 0 undefined
2 2
Geometry
Trigonometric Function Values in Quadrants II, III, and IV
In quadrants other than Quadrant I, trigonometric values for angles are calculated in the
following manner:
• Draw the angle θ on the Cartesian Plane.
• Calculate the measure of the angle from the x‐
axis to θ.
• Find the value of the trigonometric function of
the angle in the previous step.
• Assign a “ ” or “ “ sign to the trigonometric
value based on the function used and the
quadrant θ is in.
Examples:
Θ in Quadrant II – Calculate: 180⁰
For 120⁰, base your work on 180° 120° 60°
√ √
sin 60° , so: °
Θ in Quadrant III – Calculate: 180⁰
For 210⁰, base your work on 210° 180° 30°
cos 30° √ √
, so: °
Θ in Quadrant IV – Calculate: 360⁰
For 315⁰, base your work on 360° 315° 45°
tan 45° 1, so: °
Geometry
PartsofCircles
Center–themiddleofthecircle.Allpointsonthecircle
arethesamedistancefromthecenter.
Radius–alinesegmentwithoneendpointatthecenter
andtheotherendpointonthecircle.Theterm“radius”is
alsousedtorefertothedistancefromthecentertothe
pointsonthecircle.
Diameter–alinesegmentwithendpointsonthecircle
thatpassesthroughthecenter.
Arc–apathalongacircle.
MinorArc–apathalongthecirclethatislessthan180϶.
MajorArc–apathalongthecirclethatisgreaterthan
180϶.
Semicircle–apathalongacirclethatequals180϶.
Sector–aregioninsideacirclethatisboundedbytwo
radiiandanarc.
SecantLine–alinethatintersectsthecirclein
exactlytwopoints.
TangentLine–alinethatintersectsthecircle
inexactlyonepoint.
Chord–alinesegmentwithendpointsonthe
circlethatdoesnotpassthroughthecenter.
Geometry
Angles and Circles
Central Angle Inscribed Angle
Vertex inside the circle Vertex outside the circle
· · · ·
Tangent on one side Tangents on two sides
·
Geometry
Perimeter and Area of a Triangle
Perimeter of a Triangle
The perimeter of a triangle is simply the sum of the measures of the three sides of the triangle.
Area of a Triangle
There are two formulas for the area of a triangle, depending on what information about the
triangle is available.
Formula 1: The formula most familiar to the student can be used when the base and height of
the triangle are either known or can be determined.
where, is the length of the base of the triangle.
is the height of the triangle.
Note: The base can be any side of the triangle. The height is the measure of the altitude of
whichever side is selected as the base. So, you can use:
or or
Formula 2: Heron’s formula for the area of a triangle can be used when
the lengths of all of the sides are known. Sometimes this formula,
though less appealing, can be very useful.
, , are the lengths of the sides of the triangle.
Geometry
Perimeter and Area of Quadrilaterals
1
Trapezoid
2
Parallelogram 2 2
Rectangle 2 2
1
Rhombus 4
2
1
Square 4
2
Version 2.5 April 22, 2014
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Geometry
Perimeter and Area of Regular Polygons
Definitions – Regular Polygons
• The center of a polygon is the center of its circumscribed
circle. Point O is the center of the hexagon at right.
• The radius of the polygon is the radius of its
circumscribed circle. and are both radii of the
hexagon at right.
• The apothem of a polygon is the distance from the center
to the midpoint of any of its sides. a is the apothem of
the hexagon at right.
• The central angle of a polygon is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle and whose
sides pass through consecutive vertices of the polygon. In the figure above, is a
central angle of the hexagon.
Area of a Regular Polygon
where, is the apothem of the polygon
is the perimeter of the polygon
Perimeter and Area of Similar Figures
Let k be the scale factor relating two similar geometric figures F1 and F2 such that · .
Then,
and
Geometry
Circle Lengths and Areas
Circumference and Area
· is the circumference (i.e., the perimeter) of the circle.
is the area of the circle.
where: is the radius of the circle.
Length of an Arc on a Circle
A common problem in the geometry of circles is to measure the length of an arc on a circle.
Definition: An arc is a segment along the circumference of a circle.
·
where: AB is the measure (in degrees) of the arc. Note that
this is also the measure of the central angle .
is the circumference of the circle.
Area of a Sector of a Circle
Another common problem in the geometry of circles is to measure the area of a sector a circle.
Definition: A sector is a region in a circle that is bounded by two radii and an arc of the circle.
·
where: AB is the measure (in degrees) of the arc. Note that
this is also the measure of the central angle .
is the area of the circle.
Geometry
Area of Composite Figures
To calculate the area of a figure that is a composite of shapes, consider each shape separately.
Example 1:
Calculate the area of the blue region in the figure to the right.
To solve this:
• Recognize that the figure is the composite of a
rectangle and two triangles.
• Disassemble the composite figure into its components.
• Calculate the area of the components.
• Subtract to get the area of the composite figure.
· · ·
Example 2:
Calculate the area of the blue region in the figure to the right.
To solve this:
• Recognize that the figure is the composite of a square and a
circle.
• Disassemble the composite figure into its components.
• Calculate the area of the components.
• Subtract to get the area of the composite figure.
· ~ .
Geometry
Surface Area by Decomposition
Sometimes the student is asked to calculate the surface are of a prism that does not quite fit
into one of the categories for which an easy formula exists. In this case, the answer may be to
decompose the prism into its component shapes, and then calculate the areas of the
components. Note: this process also works with cylinders and pyramids.
Decomposition of a Prism
To calculate the surface area of a prism, decompose it and look at each of the prism’s faces
individually.
Example: Calculate the surface area of the triangular prism at right.
To do this, first notice that we need the value of the hypotenuse of the
base. Use the Pythagorean Theorem or Pythagorean Triples to
determine the missing value is 10. Then, decompose the figure into its
various faces:
The surface area, then, is calculated as:
2
1
2· ·6·8 10 · 7 8·7 6·7 216
2
Decomposition of a Cylinder
The cylinder at right is
decomposed into two circles (the
bases) and a rectangle (the lateral
face).
The surface area, then, is calculated as:
2
2· ·3 6 ·5 48 ~ 150.80
Geometry
SummaryofPerimeterandAreaFormulas–2DShapes
ࡼ ൌ ࢈ ࢈ ࢉ ࢊ ۯൌ ሺ ܊ ܊ ሻܐ
Trapezoid
ܾଵ ǡ ܾଶ ൌ ܾܽݏ݁ݏ
ܿǡ ݀ ൌ ݏ݁݀݅ݏ ଵ ǡ ଶ ൌ
ൌ
ۯൌ ܐ܊
ࡼ ൌ ࢈ ࢉ
Parallelogram ܾ ൌ ܾܽ݁ݏ
ܾǡ ܿ ൌ ݏ݁݀݅ݏ
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ۯൌ ܐ܊
ࡼ ൌ ࢈ ࢉ
Rectangle ܾ ൌ ܾܽ݁ݏ
ܾǡ ܿ ൌ ݏ݁݀݅ݏ
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ࡼ ൌ ࢙ ൌ ࢈ࢎ ൌ ሺࢊ ࢊ ሻ
Rhombus
ݏൌ ݁݀݅ݏ ݀ଵ ǡ ݀ଶ ൌ ݀݅ܽ݃ݏ݈ܽ݊
ࡼ ൌ ࢙ ൌ ࢙ ൌ ሺࢊ ࢊ ሻ
Square
ݏൌ ݁݀݅ݏ ݀ଵ ǡ ݀ଶ ൌ ݀݅ܽ݃ݏ݈ܽ݊
ࡼ ൌ ࢙ ൌ ࢇ ή ࡼ
RegularPolygon
݊ ൌ ݊ݏ݁݀݅ݏ݂ݎܾ݁݉ݑ
ݏൌ ݁݀݅ݏ ܽ ൌ ݄ܽ݉݁ݐ
ܲ ൌ ݎ݁ݐ݁݉݅ݎ݁
ൌ ࣊࢘ ൌ ࣊ࢊ
ൌ ࣊࢘
Circle ݎൌ ݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ
ݎൌ ݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ
݀ ൌ ݀݅ܽ݉݁ݎ݁ݐ
Geometry
SummaryofSurfaceAreaandVolumeFormulas–3DShapes
ࡿ ൌ ࣊࢘ࢎ ࣊࢘ ࢂ ൌ ࣊࢘ ࢎ
Right
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ ݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
Cylinder
ݎൌ ݁ݏܾܽ ݂ ݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ ݎൌ ݁ݏܾ݂ܽݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ
ࡿ ൌ ࣊࢘ ࣊࢘ ࢂൌ ࣊࢘ ࢎ
Cone
݈ ൌ ݐ݄݄݃݅݁ݐ݈݊ܽݏ
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ݎൌ ݁ݏܾ݂ܽݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ
ݎൌ ݁ݏܾ݂ܽݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ
Square ࡿ ൌ ࢙ ࢙ ࢂൌ ࢙ ࢎ
Pyramid ݏൌ ܾ݄ܽݐ݈݃݊݁݁݀݅ݏ݁ݏ
ݏൌ ܾ݄ܽݐ݈݃݊݁݁݀݅ݏ݁ݏ
݈ ൌ ݐ݄݄݃݅݁ ݐ݈݊ܽݏ
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ࡿ ൌ ή ሺ࢝ ࢎ ࢝ࢎሻ ࢂ ൌ ࢝ࢎ
Rectangular
Prism ݈ ൌ ݈݄݁݊݃ݐ ݈ ൌ ݈݄݁݊݃ݐ
ݓൌ ݄ݐ݀݅ݓ ݓൌ ݄ݐ݀݅ݓ
݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ ݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ࡿ ൌ ࢙ ࢂ ൌ ࢙
Cube
ݏൌ ݄ݐ݈݃݊݁ ݁݀݅ݏሺ݈݈ܽ ݏ݁݀݅ݏሻ ݏൌ ݄ݐ݈݃݊݁݁݀݅ݏሺ݈݈ܽ ݏ݁݀݅ݏሻ
ࡿ ൌ ࡼࢎ ࢂ ൌ ࢎ
General
ܲ ൌ ܲ݁݁ݏܽܤ݂ݎ݁ݐ݁݉݅ݎ ܤൌ ܽ݁ݏܽܤ݂ܽ݁ݎ
RightPrism ݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐሺ݄ݐ݈݃݊݁ݎሻ ݄ ൌ ݄݄݁݅݃ݐ
ܤൌ ܽ݁ݏܽܤ ݂ ܽ݁ݎ