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May 4, 20101
1
J.D.Jackson, ”Classical Electrodynamics”, 2nd Edition, Section 7
Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell Equations
? A basic feature of Maxwell equations for the EM field is the existence
of travelling wave solutions which represent the transport of energy from
one point to another.
? The simplest and most fundamental EM waves are transverse, plane
waves.
In a region of space where there are no free sources (ρ = 0, ~J = 0),
Maxwell’s equations reduce to a simple form given
~
∇ ~ =0 ,
~ ·E ~ + 1 ∂B = 0
~ ×E
∇
c ∂t
~
∇ ~ =0 ,
~ ·B ~ − µ ∂ E = 0
~ ×B
∇ (1)
c ∂t
~ and H
where D ~ are given by relations
~ = E
D ~ ~ = 1B
and H ~ (2)
µ
where is the electric permittivity and µ the magnetic permeability
which assumed to be independent of the frequency.
Electromagnetic Waves
Plane Electromagnetic Waves
Maxwell’s equations can be written as
~
µ ∂ 2 B ~
µ ∂ 2 E
~ −
∇2 B =0 ~ −
and ∇2 E =0 (3)
c ∂t 2
2 c ∂t 2
2
~ and E
In other words each component of B ~ obeys a wave equation of
the form:
1 ∂2u c
∇2 u − 2 2 = 0 where v = √ (4)
v ∂t µ
is a constant with dimensions of velocity characteristic of the medium.
The wave equation admits admits plane-wave solutions:
~
u = e i k·~x −iωt (5)
~ (~x , t) = Ee
E ~ ik~n·~x −iωt ~ x , t) = Be
and B(~ ~ ik~n·~x −iωt (6)
where the relation between the frequency ω and the wave vector ~k is
ω √ ω ω 2
k = = µ or ~k · ~k = (7)
v c v
also the vectors ~n, E~ and B
~ are constant in time and space.
Electromagnetic Waves
If we consider waves propagating in one direction, say x-direction then
the fundamental solution is:
which represents waves traveling to the right and to the left with
propagation velocities v which is called phase velocity of the wave.
? From the divergence relations of (1) by applying (6) we get
~n · E~ = 0 and ~=0
~n · B (9)
~ ) and B
This means that E~ (or E ~ are both perpendicular to the
~ (or B)
~
direction of propagation n. Such a wave is called transverse wave.
? The curl equations provide a further restriction
~ = √µ ~n × E~
B
1
and E~ = − √ ~n × B
~ (10)
µ
The combination of equations (9) and (10) suggests that the vectors ~n, E~
and B~ form an orthonormal set.
Also, if ~n is real, then (10) implies that that E~ and B
~ have the same
phase.
Electromagnetic Waves
It is then useful to introduce a set of real mutually orthogonal unit
vectors (~1 ,~2 , ~n).
In terms of these unit vectors the field
strengths E~ and B ~ are
or
Electromagnetic Waves
Thus the wave described by (6) and
(11) or (12) is a transverse wave
propagating in the direction ~n.
~S = 1 c E ~∗ = 1 c E
h i
~ ×H ~R × H
~R + E
~I × H
~I + i E~I × H
~R − E
~R × H
~I
2 4π 2 4π
~ and H
where E ~ are the measured fields at the point where ~S is
evaluated.2
2
Note : we use the magnetic induction H ~ because although B
~ is the applied
induction, the actual field that carries the energy and momentum in media is H.~
Electromagnetic Waves
The time averaged flux of energy is:
r
~S = c
|E0 |2~n (15)
8π µ
The total time averaged density (and not just the energy density
associated with the electric field component) is:
1 ~ ·E~∗ + 1B ~ ∗ = |E0 |2
~ ·B
u= E (16)
16π µ 8π
The ratio of the magnitude of (15) to (16) is the speed of energy flow i.e.
√
v = c/ µ. 3 (Prove the above relations)
Project:
What will happen if ~n is not real?
What type of waves you will get?
What will be the form of E?
3
Note: To prove the above relations use hcos2 xi = 1/2 and since
~ ~ +E
ER = ( E ~ ∗ )/2 we get hE
~ R2 i = E
~ ·E
~ ∗ /2.
Electromagnetic Waves
Linear and Circular Polarization of EM Waves
The plane wave (6) and (11) is a wave with its electric field vector always
in the direction ~1 . Such a wave is said to be linearly polarized with
polarization vector ~1 . The wave described by (12) is linearly polarized
with polarization vector ~2 and is linearly independent of the first.
The two waves :
~1 ~ ~ 2 = ~2 E2 e i~k·~x −iωt
E = ~1 E1 e i k·~x −iωt , E
with (17)
~ ~
~ i = √µ k × Ei , i = 1, 2
B
k
Can be combined to give the most general homogeneous plane waves
propagating in the direction ~k = k~n,
~ (~x , t) ~
E (~1 E1 + ~2 E2 ) e i k·~x −iωt
= (18)
h i
~ (~x , t) = ~1 |E1 | + ~2 |E2 |e i(φ2 −φ1 ) e i~k·~x −iωt+iφ1
E (19)
The amplitudes E1 = |E1 |e iφ1 and E2 = |E2 |e iφ2 are complex numbers in
order to allow the possibility of a phase difference between waves of
different polarization.
Electromagnetic Waves
LINEARLY POLARIZED
If the amplitudes E1 = |E1 |e iφ1 and E2 = |E2 |e iφ2 have the same phase
(18) represents a linearly polarized wave with the polarization vector
making an angle θ = tan−1 (<(E2 )/=(E1 )) (which remains constant as
the field
p evolves in space and time) with ~1 and magnitude
E = E12 + E22 .
ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED
If E1 and E2 have the different phase the wave (18) is elliptically
polarized and the electric vector rotates around ~k.
Electromagnetic Waves
Circular Polarization
• E1 = E2 = E0
• φ1 − φ2 = ±π/2 and the wave becomes
Figure: The figure shows the general case of elliptical polarization and
~ and B
the ellipses traced out by both E ~ at a given point in space.
Electromagnetic Waves
Polarization
Figure: The figure shows the linear, circular and elliptical polarization
Electromagnetic Waves
Stokes Parameters
The polarization content of an EM wave is known if it can be written in
the form of either (18) or (24) with known coefficients (E1 , E2 ) or
(E− , E+ ) .
In practice, the converse problem arises i.e. given a wave of the form (6),
how can we determine from observations on the beam the state of
polarization?
A useful tool for this are the four Stokes parameters. These are
quadratic in the field strength and can be determined through intensity
measurements only. Their measurements determines completely the state
of polarization of the wave.
For a wave propagating in the z-direction the scalar products
~ , ~2 · E
~1 · E ~ , ~∗ · E
~ , ~∗ · E
~ (25)
+ −
s0 ~ |2 + |~2 · E
= |~1 · E ~ |2 = a 2 + a 2
1 2
s1 ~ 2 ~
= |~1 · E | − |~2 · E | = a1 − a22
2 2
h i
s2 = 2< (~1 · E ~ )∗ (~1 · E
~ ) = 2a1 a2 cos(δ1 − δ2 ) (26)
h i
s3 = 2= (~1 · E ~ )∗ (~1 · E
~ ) = 2a1 a2 sin(δ1 − δ2 )
Electromagnetic Waves
Stokes Parameters
In terms of the linear polarization bases (~+ , ~− ), the Stokes parameters
are:
s0 ~ |2 + |~∗ · E
= |~∗+ · E ~ |2 = a 2 + a 2
− + −
h i
∗ ~ ∗ ∗ ~
s1 = 2< (~+ · E ) (~− · E ) = 2a+ a− cos(δ− − δ+ ) (28)
h i
s2 = 2= (~∗+ · E ~ )∗ (~∗ · E
~ ) = 2a+ a− sin(δ− − δ+ )
−
s3 ~ |2 − |~∗ · E
= |~∗+ · E ~ |2 = a 2 − a 2
− + −
Electromagnetic Waves
Reflection & Refraction of EM Waves
The reflection and refraction of light at a plane surface between two
media of different dielectric properties are familiar phenomena.
The various aspects of the phenomena divide themselves into two classes
I Kinematic properties:
I Angle of reflection = angle of incidence
sin i n0
I Snell’s law: sin r = n where i, r are the angles of incidence
and refraction, while n, n0 are the corresponding indices of
refraction.
I Dynamic properties:
I Intensities of reflected and refracted radiation
I Phase changes and polarization
? The kinematic properties follow from the wave nature of the
phenomena and the need to satisfy certain boundary conditions (BC).
But not on the detailed nature of the waves or the boundary conditions.
? The dynamic properties depend entirely on the specific nature of
the EM fields and their boundary conditions.
Electromagnetic Waves
Figure: Incident wave ~k strikes plane interface between different media,
giving rise to a reflected wave ~k 00 and a refracted wave ~k 0 . The media
below and above the plane z = 0 have permeabilities and dielectric
constants µ, and √ µ’, ’ respectively. The indices of refraction are
√
n = µ and n0 = µ0 0 .
Electromagnetic Waves
According to eqn (18) the 3 waves are:
INCIDENT
~ ~
E ~ 0 e i~k·~x −iωt ,
~ =E ~ = √µ k × E
B (30)
k
REFRACTED
~k 0 × E~0
~ 0 e i~k 0 ·~x −iωt ,
~0 = E ~0 =
p
E 0 B µ0 0 (31)
k0
REFLECTED
~k 00 × E ~ 00
~ 00 e i~k 00 ·~x −iωt ,
~ 00 = E ~0 =
p
E 0 B µ0 0 (32)
k 00
The wave numbers have magnitudes:
ω√ ωp 0 0
|~k| = |~k 00 | = k = µ , |~k 0 | = k 0 = µ (33)
c c
Electromagnetic Waves
AT the boundary z = 0 the BC must be satisfied at all points on the
plane at all times, i.e. the spatial & time variation of all fields must be
the same at z = 0.
Thus the phase factors must be equal at z = 0
~k · ~x = ~k 00 · ~x = ~k 0 · ~x (34)
z=0 z=0 z=0
Electromagnetic Waves
Reflection & Refraction of EM Waves
The dynamic properties are contained in the boundary conditions :
• normal components of D ~ = E ~ and B ~ are continuous
• tangential components of E and H = [c/(ωµ)]~k × E
~ ~ ~ are continuous
In terms of fields (30)-(32) these boundary conditions at z = 0 are:
h i
E ~0 + E ~ 00 − 0 E ~ 0 · ~n = 0
0 0
h i
~k × E~ 0 + ~k 00 × E
~ 00 − ~k 0 × E~ 0 · ~n = 0
0 0
~0 + E
E ~ 00 − E~ 0 × ~n = 0 (37)
0 0
1 ~ ~ ~ 00 − 1 ~k 0 × E
k × E0 + ~k 00 × E 0
~ 0 × ~n = 0
0
µ µ0
Two separate situations, the incident plane wave is linearly polarized :
• The polarization vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence (the
plane defined by ~k and ~n ).
• The polarization vector is parallel to the plane of incidence.
• The case of arbitrary elliptic polarization can be obtained by
appropriate linear combinations of the two results.
Electromagnetic Waves
~ : Perpendicular to the plane of incidence
E
E0 + E000 − E00 = 0
s
0 0
r
(E0 − E000 ) cos i − E cos r = 0 (38)
µ µ0 0
Electromagnetic Waves
~ : Perpendicular to the plane of incidence
E
The relative amplitudes of the refracted and reflected waves can be found
from (38)
E00
2n cos i 2 2 sin r cos i
= = =
1 + µµ0 tan i
p
E0 n cos i + µµ0 n02 − n2 sin2 i tan r
sin(i + r ) µ=µ0
p
E000 n cos i − µµ0 n02 − n2 sin2 i 1 − µµ0 tan i
tan r sin(r − i)
= = = (39)
1 + µµ0 tan i
p
E0 n cos i + µ0 n02 − n2 sin2 i tan r
sin(i + r ) µ=µ0
µ
p
Note that n02 − n2 sin2 i = n0 cos r but Snell’s law has been used to
express it in terms of the angle of incidence.
For optical frequencies it is usually permitted to put µ = µ0 .
Electromagnetic Waves
~ : Parallel to the plane of incidence
E
Electromagnetic Waves
~ : Parallel to the plane of incidence
E
1 − 0 tan i
tan r tan(i − r )
= tan i
= (41)
1 + 0 tan r tan(i + r ) µ=µ0
Electromagnetic Waves
Normal incidence i = 0
E00 2 2n
= →
n0 + n
q
E0 1+ µ0
µ0
q 0
E000 −1 + µ
µ0 n0 − n
= q 0 → 0 (42)
E0 1 + µ n +n
µ0
EXERCISES:
What are the conditions for:
I Total reflection
I Total transmision
Electromagnetic Waves