12/30/2017 Pap Smear: Overview, Indications, Preparation

Pap Smear
Updated: Feb 29, 2016
Author: Nicole W Karjane, MD; Chief Editor: Christine Isaacs, MD more...

OVERVIEW

Overview
Worldwide, approximately 500,000 new cases of cervical cancer and 274,000 deaths are attributable
to cervical cancer yearly, making cervical cancer the second most common cause of death from
cancer in women. [1] Fortunately, the incidence of cervical cancer has decreased by more than 50% in
the past 30+ years, largely due to the increasing use of cervical cancer screening with cervical
cytology. [2]

In fact, the incidence of cervical cancer in the United States has decreased from 14.8 cases per
100,000 women in 1975 to only 6.5 cases per 100,000 women in 2012. [3, 4] This corresponds to
approximately 10,000 new diagnoses and 4,000 deaths attributable to the disease annually in this
country. In 2012, 12,042 women in the United States were diagnosed with cervical cancer and 4,074
women in the United States died from the disease, and the rates for 2015 are not expected to be
significantly different. [4, 5] Although worldwide cervical cancer rates have decreased dramatically with
the increase in screening efforts, incidence and prevalence in developing countries remains high due
to lack of screening programs, with approximately 80% of all cervical cancer deaths occurring in the
developing world. [1]

The mainstay of cervical cancer screening for the last 60+ years has been the Papanicolaou test. The
Papanicolaou test, also known as the Pap test or the Pap smear, was developed in the 1940s by
Georgios Papanikolaou. It involves exfoliating cells from the transformation zone of the cervix to
enable examination of these cells microscopically for detection of cancerous or precancerous lesions.

An image depicting a Pap smear can be seen below.

Pap smear.

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In the technique known as liquid-based cytology, these collected cells are released into a vial of liquid
preservative that is then used in the cytology lab to produce a slide for microscopic evaluation of the
cells. The older, traditional Pap technique involves direct transfer of the cervical cells to a microscope
slide for evaluation. Although the traditional method may introduce confounders such as blood and
other debris to the slide, which may make interpretation more difficult, both conventional cytology and
liquid-based cytology have been shown to have similar sensitivity and specificity for moderate
dysplasia or worse lesions when using a threshold of LSIL or higher. In addition, both types of
cytological screening are considered acceptable by the American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists. [2]

When abnormal cells are detected on the Pap Test, diagnostic testing in the form of colposcopy is
often indicated. This testing may be followed by diagnosis of dysplasia via colposcopic biopsies.
Subsequent cervical cancer may be prevented through the diagnosis and treatment of these cervical
cancer precursors.

Evidence shows that approximately 99-100% of cervical cancers are attributable to infection by high-
risk types of the human papillomavirus (HPV). HPV represents a family of double-stranded, circular
DNA viruses that can infect skin or mucosal cells, including the anogenital region and the oral cavity,
and may be transmitted easily via sexual intercourse or direct contact. [6, 7]

More than 100 types of HPV exist, 12 of which can involve the anogenital region and are considered
"high risk" or oncogenic in nature. These include HPV types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58,
and 59. Of these, HPV 16 is responsible for the largest number of CIN 3 and cervical cancer cases,
and HPV 16 and 18 combined are thought to be responsible for nearly 70% of all cases of cervical
cancer. [6] Although HPV is a necessary factor in the development of cervical dysplasia that can
eventually lead to cervical cancer, most women infected with HPV will not develop cervical dysplasia.
[8] The presence of high-risk HPV DNA is accompanied by cytologic abnormalities approximately one
third of the time. Whether an HPV infection will progress relates to the persistence of the infection and
also possibly to the immune response and smoking status of the woman. [9]

Relevant Anatomy
The female reproductive organs can be subdivided into the internal and external genitalia. The internal
genitalia are those organs that are within the true pelvis. These include the vagina, uterus, cervix,
uterine tubes (oviducts or fallopian tubes), and ovaries. The external genitalia lie outside the true
pelvis. These include the perineum, mons pubis, clitoris, urethral (urinary) meatus, labia majora and
minora, vestibule, greater vestibular (Bartholin) glands, Skene glands, and periurethral area.

The cervix is the inferior portion of the uterus, separating the body of the uterus from the vagina. The
cervix is cylindrical in shape, with an endocervical canal located in the midline, allowing passage of
semen into the uterus. The external opening into the vagina is termed the external os, and the internal
opening into the endometrial cavity is termed the internal os. The internal os is the portion of a female
cervix that dilates to allow delivery of the fetus during labor. The average length of the cervix is 3-5
cm.

For more information about the relevant anatomy, see Female Reproductive Organ Anatomy. Also see
Uterus Anatomy and Vaginal Anatomy.

Indications

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The Pap test is indicated to screen for malignant and premalignant lesions of the cervix. The
recommended age at initiation of cervical cancer screening has undergone significant revision over
time as the natural history of HPV infection and subsequent cervical dysplasia has been elucidated.
Although former guidelines recommended starting Pap smear screening at age 18 or the onset of
sexual activity, these guidelines were revised in 2006 to recommend initiation 3 years after the onset
of sexual activity or age 21, whichever comes first. In 2009, these were further revised to recommend
that cervical cancer screening begin at age 21, regardless of sexual history. This recommendation
was confirmed in 2012 and again in January 2016. [2]

Abnormal cervical cytology is very common in young women, and most abnormal cytology resolves
without treatment in adolescents. In addition, women under the age of 21 account for only 0.1% of all
cervical cancers, and no evidence exists that cervical cancer screening in this age group reduces
cervical cancer incidence, morbidity, or mortality.

Recognizing these facts and the likelihood of cervical cancer screening leading to unnecessary and
potentially harmful evaluation and treatment in women at very low risk for malignancy, the 2009 ACOG
guideline revision recommended cervical cancer screening beginning at age 21 years of age,
regardless of sexual history, and that recommendation remains unchanged. [2]

Both the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) and the American Cancer Society (ACS)
agreed with this recommendation and issued age-appropriate screening strategies for cytology (Pap
tests) and HPV testing for cervical cancer screening in 2012 (see Table). [10, 11]

Table. Summary of 2012 Screening Guidelines from the American Cancer Society, American Society
for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology (Open Table in a
new window)

Parameters ACS Recommendations

Begin screening with cytology at 21

Age to start screening
years old, regardless of sexual history

Screen with cytology alone every 3

Screening interval age 21–29 years.* HPV testing should not be
used for screening in this age group.

Screen with a combination of cytology

and HPV testing every 5 years
Screening interval age 30-65 (preferred) or cytology alone every 3
years. Screening by HPV testing alone
is generally not recommended.*

Age 65, if the woman has adequate

negative prior screening and is not
Age to stop screening
otherwise at high risk for cervical
cancer

Screening after hysterectomy Not indicated for women without a

cervix and without a history of a high-
grade precancerous lesion (eg, CIN2

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or CIN3) in the past 20 years or

cervical cancer ever

Screen according to the same

HPV-vaccinated women recommendations as for unvaccinated
women

These guidelines do not address special populations

(eg, women with a history of cervical cancer, women
who were exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol, women
who are immunocompromised) who may require more
intensive or alternative screening.

*If abnormal test results are present, further testing and

management should be performed according to the
ASCCP Guidelines as noted below under Management
of Abnormal Cytology.

The ACS and USPSTF 2012 guidelines did not address special populations (eg, women with a history
of cervical cancer, women who were exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol (DES), women who are
immunocompromised) who may require more intensive or alternative screening. ACOG recommends
annual screenings for immunocompromised patients, women with history of CIN2, CIN3, or cancer;
and women who were exposed to DES in utero. According to the latest ACOG recommendations, [2]
HIV-positive women should be screened with cervical cytology at the onset of sexual activity or age 21
years, whichever comes first, and should undergo annual screening until they have at least 3
consecutive normal annual cytology results. HIV-infected women age 30 years and older can undergo
cytology alone or cotesting. Once there are 3 consecutive negative annual cytology results or one
negative cotest, screening can be extended to 3 years. Screening should continue for at least 20
years after treatment of CIN2 or more. [2]

Testing for the high-risk HPV types, often referred to as HPV DNA testing, has become increasingly
used in cervical cancer screening and may be performed from any liquid-based cytology specimen.
Currently, there are four FDA-approved HPV DNA tests on the market used for reflex testing with
ASC-US cytology and for co-testing with the Pap test in women age 30 years or older. Type-specific
testing for HPV 16/18, also known as HPV genotyping, is also FDA approved for the same indications;
however, it is currently only recommended by the ASCCP for triage of women age 30 years and older
who have negative cytology and are HPV DNA positive.

Note that HPV DNA testing for the purpose of primary cervical cancer screening is currently not yet
recommended by major societies in women younger than age 30 years due to the high prevalence of
HPV infections in this age group as well as the transient nature of these infections. HPV DNA testing
is also NOT recommended in women younger than 21 years of age for any reason or following any
cytology result (and if performed should be ignored). In addition, testing for low-risk HPV types is
never appropriate and should not be performed under any circumstances.

Reviews conducted for the US Preventive Services Task Force support these indications. Vesco et al
confirmed the low incidence of cervical cancer among women younger than 20 years and underscored
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the difficulties of detection and the high frequency of false-positives in this age group. [12] Further,
incidence of and mortality rates from cervical cancer in women aged 65 years and older who have had
a Pap smear within 3 years have decreased since 2000, and available evidence reinforces
discontinuation of cervical cancer screening among these women who have had satisfactory
screening and are not otherwise at high risk.

In a systematic review, Whitlock et al found evidence supporting the use of liquid-based or

conventional cytology for cervical cancer screening, but cautioned that more evidence is needed
before adopting HPV-enhanced primary screening for women aged 30 years and older. [13]

Preparation
See the list below:

Ideally, cervical screening should be scheduled when the patient is not menstruating.
Avoid vaginal intercourse, douching, use of tampons, use of medicinal vaginal cream or
contraceptive cream for 24-48 hrs prior to cervical screening.
Ideally, pre-existing cervicitis should be treated prior to cervical screening.
Screening, however, should proceed in the presence of bleeding or cervicitis, as these
symptoms may be related to cervical dysplasia or neoplasm, which may be detected with
cervical screening.

Equipment
The following equipment is necessary to perform the Pap test:

Examination table with foot supports

Examination light
Metal or plastic speculum
Examination gloves
Cervical spatula and cytobrush
Liquid-based cytology container or glass slide and fixative

Positioning
The patient should be supine, in dorsal lithotomy position to correctly perform a pap smear (see the
image below). The coccyx of the patient must be at the edge of the examination table to provide
adequate visualization of the cervix once the speculum is inserted.

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Positioning and procedure.

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Technique
A metal or plastic speculum is placed in the vagina to examine the cervix. If necessary, lukewarm
water may be used to lubricate and warm the speculum for patient comfort. In situations in which a
lubricant must be used, only a small amount should be applied to the outer portion of the speculum,
with caution to avoid the tip. According to Hologic Inc, maker of ThinPrep pap test, the following
lubricants do not contain substances that interfere with the liquid-based Pap tests: Surgilube,
Astroglide, and Crystelle. [14]

To ensure an adequate sample is collected, the surface anatomy of the cervix must be fully visualized,
including the squamous epithelium of the ectocervix, squamocolumnar junction, and the external os.
The transformation zone of the cervix is the region where squamous epithelium replaces glandular
epithelium in a process called squamous metaplasia. Because HPV has a predilection for this region,
[15] screening must focus on sampling the cells at the transformation zone to adequately detect the
presence of dysplasia. Discharge covering the cervix may be removed carefully using a large swab,
ensuring that the cervix is minimally traumatized.

To obtain the specimen, a cervical broom or cervical spatula is applied to the surface of the cervix and
turned in a single direction to achieve an adequate sample for cytology, making sure to rotate it at
least 360 º for the spatula and 5 rotations for the broom. If the spatula is used, a cytobrush is
additionally needed and must be inserted into the cervix so that the outermost bristles are still visible
at the external os. The brush is then rotated one half turn in a single direction to achieve an adequate
cytology sample (see image below).

The specific protocol for specimen transfer varies depending on the test used. For SurePath, after the
cervical broom or cervical spatula and cytobrush are removed from the cervix, they are placed
specimen side down into the liquid cytology vial, each removable head is snapped off, and the vial is
labeled and sent to pathology. For ThinPrep, the spatula and brush are to be swirled vigorously in the
vial 10 times to release the specimen and then discarded. Similarly, if the broom is used, it is to be
pushed into the bottom of the vial 10 times and then swirled vigorously and discarded. When
conventional cytology is to be performed, the specimens are smeared on a glass slide and
subsequently sprayed with fixative or placed in 90% alcohol solution.

Although the FDA-approved protocol for the cervical broom does not require use of the cytobrush,
some practitioners use the cytobrush following the broom in an attempt to improve the likelihood of

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obtaining an endocervical component in the sample. Small studies show no significant difference in
acquiring endocervical cells between the broom and spatula plus cytobrush; [16, 17] however, other
studies have shown the spatula/cytobrush method to be better at sampling endocervical cells than the
broom alone. [18, 19]

In addition, 2 much larger studies found that the broom/cytobrush combination improves sampling of
the endocervix compared to the broom alone. [20, 21] Whether these potential sampling differences
affect the sensitivity of cervical cytology for detecting moderate or severe dysplasia or cancer is
unclear; however, based on the available data, using the cytobrush to obtain endocervical cells in
addition to the spatula or the broom is reasonable.

Pap smear.
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Complications
Complications are extraordinarily rare and include minor bleeding and infection. The patient must be
educated on the likelihood of vaginal spotting immediately after a pap smear is performed, as this is
considered normal.

Limitations
Although the Pap smear is one of the best screening tests in medicine and its implementation has
decreased the incidence of cervical cancer by over 50%, it does have its limitations. First, the
sensitivity of one Pap smear for cervical dysplasia ranges from 30-87% [22] (with the average
approximately 58%). [23] In addition, the intraobserver and interobserver reproducibility is poor and
ranges from approximately 43-68% at best. Nearly half of all new cervical cancers are found in women
who have never had cervical cytology screening prior to diagnosis. Unfortunately, however, false-
negative Pap smears are associated with up to 30% of all new cervical cancer diagnoses.

HPV DNA testing has improved sensitivity over cervical cytology but lower specificity. For women age
30 years and older, the sensitivity and specificity of the HPV DNA test for detecting CIN 2 or worse are
roughly 95% and 87%, respectively. [24] For younger women who are more likely to have transient
HPV infections, the specificity is much lower.

Interpreting Cytology Results

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Results from cervical cytology specimens are reported according to the 2001 Bethesda System
Classification, as listed below. [25]

Negative for intraepithelial lesion or malignancy

Epithelial cell abnormality

Squamous cell

Atypical squamous cells (ASC) of undetermined significance (ASC-US) or atypical squamous

cells that cannot exclude HSIL (ASC-H)
Low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), includes human papillomavirus (HPV), mild
dysplasia, and CIN 1
High-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL), includes moderate to severe dysplasia,
carcinoma in situ, CIN 2, and CIN 3
Squamous cell carcinoma

Glandular cell

Atypical glandular cells (AGC), specify endocervical, endometrial, or not otherwise specified
(NOS)
Atypical endocervical cells, favor neoplastic, specify endocervical or NOS
Endocervical adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS)
Adenocarcinoma

Other

See the list below:

Endometrial cells in a woman 40 years of age or older

Management of Abnormal Cytology

The following section discusses management of abnormal cytology (2012 ASCCP Consensus
Guidelines). [26, 27, 28]

Management of women with ASC-US

See the list below:

HPV testing is preferred; if negative, repeat co-testing in 3 years; if positive, perform colposcopy
Repeat cytology in 1 year is acceptable; if negative, repeat cytology in 3 years; if ASC or greater,
perform colposcopy

Women aged 21-24 years with ASC-US

Repeat cytology in 12 months

If repeat cytology is ASC-H, AGC, or HSIL, perform colposcopy; otherwise, repeat cytology in
another 12 months
If repeat cytology at 24 months is negative, resume routine screening; otherwise, perform
colposcopy

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Alternative is to perform HPV testing; if positive, repeat cytology in 12 and 24 months as above;
if negative, resume routine screening.

Women aged 20 years or younger with ASC-US or LSIL

HPV infection and minor abnormal cytology results common in adolescents, but invasive cancer
is rare
Per 2009 ACOG guidelines, Pap tests only recommended beginning at age 21 years, regardless
of sexual history; however, Pap tests are still performed in the 20 years or younger age group in
some cases because of lack of knowledge of current guidelines
Conservative management preferred for this group because of the high likelihood of
spontaneous resolution within 2 years of initial infection; abnormal cervical cytology in
adolescents, therefore, should be followed according to the recommendations for women ages
21-24 years, as described above

Pregnant women with ASC-US

Managed same as nonpregnant women

Endocervical curettage (ECC) is contraindicated in pregnant women and should not be collected
if colposcopy is performed
Deferring colposcopy until at least 6 weeks postpartum is also acceptable

Management of women with ASC-H

See the list below:

Perform colposcopy (regardless of HPV status)

Management of women with LSIL

Women aged 25 years or greater with LSIL

Perform colposcopy
If HPV co-testing was performed and negative, repeat co-testing in 1 year is preferred

Women aged 21-24 years with LSIL

Repeat cytology in 12 and 24 months; follow guidelines for ASC-US

Pregnant women with LSIL

Managed same as nonpregnant women

ECC is contraindicated in pregnant women and should not be collected if colposcopy is
performed
Also acceptable to defer colposcopy until at least 6 weeks postpartum

Postmenopausal women with LSIL

Acceptable options include reflex HPV testing, repeat Pap at 6 and 12 months, and colposcopy
If HPV negative or no CIN on colposcopy, repeat cytology in 12 months; if HPV positive or
repeat cytology is ASC or greater, perform colposcopy
May return to routine screening if 2 consecutive negative cytology results

Management of women with HSIL

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See the list below:

Refer to colposcopy regardless of age

Immediate loop electrosurgical excision is acceptable, except in patients younger than 25 years
or who are pregnant

Pregnant women with HSIL

Managed same as nonpregnant women

ECC and immediate loop electrosurgical excision are contraindicated in pregnant women and
should not be performed

Management of women with AGC

Women with AGC, including ASC-NOS, AGC-favor neoplasia, and AIS

Refer to colposcopy with endocervical sampling

If age 35 or greater or with other risk factors for endometrial neoplasia, endometrial sampling
should also be performed.

Women with atypical endometrial cells

Perform endometrial biopsy and endocervical sampling. If no pathology found, proceed with
colposcopy.

Management of women with benign endometrial cells found in cervical cytology

See the list below:

No additional evaluation is required in asymptomatic premenopausal women

In postmenopausal women, perform endometrial biopsy

Management of women age 30 years and older who are Pap negative and HPV
positive
Repeat cytology and HPV DNA testing in 12 months

If cytology negative, HPV negative, repeat co-testing in 3 years

If cytology abnormal with any HPV result, perform colposcopy
If cytology negative, HPV positive, perform colposcopy

Another option would be to perform HPV 16 and 18 testing

If 16 or 18 positive, perform colposcopy

If 16 and 18 negative, repeat co-testing in 12 months
If cytology negative, HPV negative, repeat co-testing in 3 years
If cytology abnormal with any HPV result, perform colposcopy
If cytology negative, HPV positive, perform colposcopy

Primary High-Risk HPV Screening

In 2014, the FDA approved one of the HPV DNA tests (cobasHPV test) for primary screening for
cervical cancer in women aged 25 years and older. Although not yet fully endorsed by major societies,
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a panel of experts co-sponsored by the ASCCP and the Society for Gynecologic Oncologists (SGO)
published recommendations for using primary HPV testing for cervical cancer screening. [29] In the
proposed algorithm, women aged 25 years and older would undergo cervical HPV testing for
screening, as opposed to cytology. Women who test negative for high-risk HPV should be re-screened
no sooner than every 3 years. For women who test positive for high-risk HPV, HPV genotyping is
performed, and those who test positive for HPV 16/18 are referred for coloposcopy. Those who are
high-risk HPV positive but 16/18 negative undergo cervical cytology. Those with negative cytology
results are rescreened in 1 year, and those with ASC-US cytology or greater are referred for
colposcopy.

The above algorithm appears to be at least as effective as current cytology-based screening

guidelines and therefore may be considered as a reasonable alternative. Nonetheless, cytology alone
and cotesting, as outlined above, remain the screening modalities recommended by guidelines of
major societies.

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