Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Notes based

on online course given by Leonard Susskind

- Lecture 4

Spin
Review of Harmonic Oscillator
Harmonic Oscillation is common for equilbrium systems that have been slightly disturbed from
equilibrium

Might oscillate with more than one frequency

Example is oscillation of magnetic field in a cavity or a wave guide; equilibrium for EM field is
vacuum with no oscillations, give it a knock by eg sending in microwaves -> will oscillate, oscillation
describes a collection of photons

Another example, sounds waves (phonons) travelling through a crystal

We used (with mass=1)

p2 ω 2 x2 p ± iωx
H= + and constructed a± =
2 2 2ω
+ -
N=a a N|n>=n|n> with eigenvalues n being integers starting at zero

1 ℏω
H=ℏω(N + ) the being the ground state
2 2

[a+ ,a- ] = 1

Finding ground state by solving the Schrödinger equation

Replace state vectors |Ψ> by wave functions ψn (x) label according to which level of eigenstate they
apply to eg ψ0 (x) for the ground state

Operator X -> multiple by x

ⅆ
Operator P -> -i
ⅆx

Is there a solution where a- Ψ>=0 ?

We know there must be a ground state as our H is always positive (squares)

Can only have a floor if the bottom state is annihilated by a- , if you dont get to zero on the right

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hand side there would be another state with one unit lower energy

Once we know a- Ψ>=0

then N|ψ> = a+ a- |ψ> N|0> = a+ a- |0> = 0

ℏω
Ground state is
2

Now translate this into wave functions

p2 ω 2 x2
Time independent Schrödinger Equation (ref H = + )
2 2
1 ⅆ2 1 2 2
- ψ(x) + ω x ψ(x) = E ψ(x)
2 ⅆx2 2

This is a second order differential equation; can always solve for any value of E but most values of
E will give solutions where the wave function doesn’t go to zero at inifinity ie is not normalisable.

So restrict to solutions that are square integrable ie ∫ ψ* (x) ψ(x) = 1

There are definite values of E that will have square integrable wave functions - these Es are the
eigenvalues; use these and throw away the ones that blow up

Use the fact that the lowering operator on the ground state gives 0 to help us find the ground state

(p - iωx)ψ(x)=0
ⅆ
(-i - i ω x) ψ(x) = 0
ⅆx

Trick is to write ψ(x) as an exponential ef (x) and try that

ⅆ
(-i - i ω x) ef (x) = 0
ⅆx

ⅆef (x)
+ ω x ef (x) = 0
ⅆx

ⅆf (x)
ef (x) + ω x ef (x) = 0
ⅆx

ⅆf (x)
+ ω x= 0
ⅆx

ω x2
f(x) = - + constant
2

ω x2
-
ψ(x)= constant e 2

+∞ 2
We could normalise to find the constant ∫-∞ ψ0 (x) dx = 1 but just ignore it for now

He says “Can go back and check original Schrödinger Equation is satisfied” so let’s try
1 ⅆ2 1
- ψ(x) + ω2 x2ψ(x) = E ψ(x)
2 ⅆx2 2
ω x2 ω x2
1 ⅆ2 - 1 -
gives - e 2 + ω 2 x2 e 2 =0
2 ⅆx2 2

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ωℏ
Not sure what happened to the ground state energy constant ? We’ve been simplifying all over
2
the place so guess it was lost as a result. Will leave for now.

1.0

0.8
ψ (x) is Gaussian
0
2

0.6 similar to e-x

0.4

0.2

-4 -2 2 4

Note: centralised around the origin - very smooth

First Excited state

|1> = a+ |0>

ⅆ
ψ1 (x) is proportional to (p + iωx) ψ0 (x) = ( -i + iωx) ψ0 (x)
ⅆx
ω x2
ⅆ -
= ( -i + iωx) e 2
ⅆx

ω x2
-
= ( +i wx + iωx) e 2

ω x2
-
= 2iωx e 2

Note:
- odd, ie reflection in x or y changes sign, anti-symmetric
- square of the wave (probability) is symmetric
- goes through origin, probability at x=0 is zero
- ground state had no nodes, this first excited state has 1 node
- each time you act with a+ you make a higher order polynomial and add a node

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0.3

0.2

0.1

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3

As go higher the bulk gets pushed out further and it oscillates more rapidly toward the centre
- more wiggles means more momentum
- far from origin -> Potential Energy
- more and more PE and momentum as move out to higher levels
x2
HermiteH[n, x] ⅇ- 2
ψ[n_, x_] :=
2n n ! π

Plot[ψ[30, x], {x, - 20, 20}]

0.4

0.2

-20 -10 10 20

-0.2

-0.4

Plot[ψ[51, x], {x, - 20, 20}]

0.4

0.2

-20 -10 10 20

-0.2

-0.4

To see classical behaviour you need to take wave packets, superpose many energy levels

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Time dependent Schrödinger equation has every energy level oscillating with a different frequency.

Normalisation assumed by fact that a+ and a- are hermitian conjugates

In wider class of wave functions that are not square integrable waves a+ and a- wouldn’t be
hermitian

Spin
Half spin - electron, proton

Electron at rest would have no centre of mass momentum (r x p) but would still have spin

Spin transforms under rotation, is angular momentum

2 states usually choose up and down then define left, right, in and out in terms of up and down

3 components connected with x, y and z, could have connected them with something else

[Lx ,Ly ]=iLz

Ly ,Lz]=iLx
[Lz,Lx ]=iLy

Similar to relations of the 3 Pauli matrices

0 1 0 -i 1 0
1 0 x i 0 y 0 -1 z

0 1 0 -i 0 -i 0 1
[σx ,σy ]= -
1 0 i 0 i 0 1 0
i 0 -i 0 2i 0
= - = =2i σz
0 -i 0 i 0 -2 i

ie [σx ,σy ]=2i σz etc similar to the angular momentum ones but a factor of 2 out

But if use each spin matrix divided by 2

σ x σy σ
 , ]=i z
2 2 2

1
0 1
σz 2
= -1
-> eigenvalues ±
2 2
0
2

1
These are the multiplets that start from ± and are raised/lowered by integers
2

1 1
If total angular momentum is then the multiplet only contains ±
2 2

Every particle has a spin property though it can be zero eg Higgs, Deuteron

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1
Here we’ll look at spin particles eg muon neutrino, electron, quark
2

0:55:00 Two kinds of angular momentum

1. Orbital angular momentum of the centre of mass
2. Spin in the centre of mass frame

Total is the sum of them and is a vector- there are maths rules for the sum but didn’t go into them

J = L + S for a particle

L is the r x p orbital angular momentum, includes r so is relative to the origin which for an atom is
usually picked to be the nucelus

0:59:18 Fermions and Bosons

Connected to Pauli exclusion

Remember approximate energy levels of hydrogen using L2 = l(l +1)

....... ......... total 1+3+5+7+9=25

4
E
....... total 1+3+5+7=16
3

total 1+3+5=9
2

1 total 1+3=4

total 1
0
1 3 5 7 9 degeneracy for l

0
1 2 3 4
l
Hydrogen has one electron in the ground state

Helium behaves like 2 electrons in the ground state

For Lithium might expect the next electron to go in the ground state too, but it goes in the first
excited state. It would have had lower energy if it went in the ground state.

Pauli had idea that no 2 electrons could go into same state, exclusion principle.

BUT we have put 2 in the ground state -> electron needs another property with 2 values to make
these states different -> spin

Can have same orbital angular momentum as long as spin is different

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So first 2 electrons are l =0 m=0, spin up and l =0,m=0, spin down

1:12:59
Next energy state (1) has 4 states - see above, which with spin give 8 combinations

l =0 m=0, spin up and l =0,m=0, spin down

l =1 m=0, spin up and l =1,m=0, spin down
l =1 m=-1, spin up and l =1,m=-1, spin down
l =1 m=+1, spin up and l =1,m=+1, spin down

Can check the pairs of up/down by putting particle in a magnetic field, spin angular momentum +
the charge makes it behave like a magnet ie in magnetic field electrons would align along or against
the field and have 2 different energy levels?

2 kinds of particle
1. Cannot put 2 in same state - > Fermion
2. Can put 2 or more in same state (is preferential) -> Bosons

Photons are bosons. Laser works by creating lots of photons in the same state. Electrons cant be in
same state so couldn’t create an ‘electron laser’

Note: when atom has many electrons, the effect of the inner electrons on the outer ones is quite
significant. If there is one outer valence electron, atom likely to have some ‘hydrogen like properties’

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How do we count identical particles

If particles are the same do you count them as the same when considering number of configura-
tions.

In classical statistical mechanics the first picture with 2 identical items in the same section counts as
one configuration but if we put one particle in a separate section do we now have one configuration
or two? If they were labelled A and B could have AB and BA, but if no experiment could detect the
label are they different? Usually assume this is one configuration

Large number of Particles N - assume if we interchange 2 particles it doesn’t change the configura-
tion

In Quantum Mechanics - definitely can interchange two identical particles without altering the
configuration

Consider an electron wave function where x is position

single electron ψ(x) = < x | ψ >

For two electrons we have a function of 2 variables ψ(x1 ,x2 ) = < x1 , x2 | ψ >

Try swapping electrons

ψ(x1 ,x2 ) -> ψ(x2 ,x1 ) generally not the same thing

Invent Swap operator

S | x 1 , x2 > = | x 2 , x1 >

if the particles had names maybe this would mean something but

S2 | x1 , x2 > = | x1 , x2 > regardless as is just swapping them twice

S2 = I

All transformations on the space of states are unitary so S is unitary and doesn’t change probabili-
ties or dot products

Eigenvalues of operators where operator squared = I are ±1

To be continued in Lecture 5

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