Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437730010325040
A. Gregory Stone, Robert F. Russell, Kathleen Patterson, (2004),"Transformational versus servant leadership: a
difference in leader focus", Leadership & Organization Development Journal, Vol. 25 Iss 4 pp. 349-361 http://
dx.doi.org/10.1108/01437730410538671
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by 161304 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit
www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
H
ow can leaders develop workforces that leaders to their followers. Effective delegation requires
not only respond well to change but also that leaders in organisations going through such transitions
promote change in order to stay develop followers to handle greater levels of responsibility
competitive? and uncertainty. To be successful, leaders will have to
operate as change agents, fulfulling the role that has been
recently labelled the transformational leader. That is, a
leader will have to be more than merely a manager; a
leader will need to develop followers, raise their need
levels and energise them, and promote quantum positive
transformational leadership among middle-level managers, role, a manager mustfirstunderstand precisely what goals
first-line supervisors, and project or team leaders. Some are expected of him or her by upper-level leaders within
recent work, however, has focused on leaders at lower the organisation. Goal clarification and goal acceptance are
levels in the organisation, resulting in the discovery of critical. He/she must then be able to specify the work
transformational leadership at supervisory and activities and goals to be accomplished by followers, while
nonsupervisory levels[4]. also gaining their co-operation to ensure that the
appropriate expectations are met. Transactional leaders
Generally, transformational leadership is exhibited to a also have to develop an understanding of the strengths
greater degree at the top end of organisations, particularly and weaknesses of their followers, as well as their
organisations that select leaders based on their ability to follower's individual needs and desires. This requires the
change and improve their work units. However, leader to have some diagnostic abilities. Basic
transformational leadership has also been observed at communication skills are also necessary to determine and
lower organisational levels, including the level of project disseminate information pertaining to responsibilities, goals
leaders, who were not in management positions. Likewise, and needs.
transformational leadership has been shown to cascade
from one organisational level to the next, suggesting that
transformational leaders either select transformational What Have We Learned about Transactional
followers, develop them, and/or do both[5,6]. Leaders?
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)
For instance, high self-confidence is one key ingredient address them. For example, a leader who has a tendency
to being viewed as a transformational leader. Qualities such towards self-indulgence, or being less concerned with
as the leader's self-concept are developed over an other people's opinions, would be unlikely to be evaluated
individual's lifespan on the basis of "life events" or as transformational. More importantly, to the degree that
experiences. Some experiences originate in the leader's information obtained from followers is critical to the
early family life, at school and at work, while other key organisation's success, the less self-indulgence on the
experiences occur later in the leader's development. Being leader's part the better! A key assumption here is that
surrounded by people who provide supportive feedback to transform others the leader must be willing to change
and challenge is essential to the development of an and develop. Being aware of the need for change is one
individual's self-concept and his/her transformational key step in the development of leadership potential. Also,
leadership potential. Likewise, a family or educational feeling that one has some control over change, is another
background which encourages a high need for achievement key ingredient for transformational leadership.
will also foster the development of transformational
leadership capabilities. Providing young leaders with Having now examined some of the early life context factors
opportunities to be successful, supporting them when that can influence a leader's personal development and
failures occur, and helping them understand the reasons subsequent leadership style, we now turn to current work
for failure will all aid to build a stronger sense of self- and nonwork factors. As discussed above, these
confidence (concept) in the leader. In a nutshell, "self- work/nonwork factors can include political, legal, social
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)
development" is a key step towards developing and economic factors that can influence an entire
transformational leadership. In fact, retrospective generation of leaders.
interviews with leaders evaluated by their followers as
being highly transformational, indicated that such leaders
Current Work/Nonwork Factors
strongly support a lifespan model of self-development and
the development of others, they thrive on and seek out In addition to previous life experiences, it is important
challenges throughout life, and they display a much higher to consider what goes on in the leader's day-to-day
level of self-confidence than non-transformational interactions that may enhance or inhibit transformational
leaders [9]. leadership behaviour. At work these include: first, the type
of role modelling that other leaders display in the
organisation; and second, the structure and culture of the
organisation. Concerning role modelling, recent research
indicates that transformational leadership can develop in
Identifying one's weaknesses individuals at lower levels in the organisation if those
individuals have the opportunity to observe the behaviour
is perhaps as important as of successful, appealing, higher-level leaders[5]. Overtime,
the behaviours of the leader that can readily blend into
realising one's strengths an individual's personal style of leadership are adopted.
Consider a first-level supervisor who observes his or her
It is clear from earlier research that the aspiring manager showing concern for another individual's needs
transformational leader must be willing continually to re- and/or unique problems. After observing the leader's
examine his or her strengths and weaknesses as a leader. behaviour, the supervisor begins to show individualised
It is essential for the leader to know his/her strengths concern for his or her respective followers. This is
because from these strengths the leader will derive especially true if the boss seems to be successful using
personal power[ll]. An individual's strengths that build such individualised consideration and rewards it when
personal power include technical expertise, willingness exhibited by his/her employees. Effective styles of
to take intellectual risks, the concern he/she shows for leadership can cascade from one level to the next,
people's needs, his/her ability to communicate clearly and depending on the norms and culture of the organisation
powerfully, particularly when confronting a crisis, and the and the type of leadership behaviour that is rewarded.
leader's record of previous accomplishments. Possession
of such basic characteristics, qualities, and experience are The same type of effect can occur for a leader who
what allows an individual to have a strong transformational continually questions his/her followers' assumptions
influence on followers. regarding the methods they use for solving organisational
problems. To the degree this leader and his/her followers
Identifying one's weaknesses is perhaps as important as are successful in generating new and innovative
realising one's strengths. Some weaknesses may be due ideas/methods, such behaviour will eventually be modelled
simply to the absence of key developmental experiences by other followers.
in the leader's previous lifespan profile. A leader has at
l ast two choices concerning his/her weaknesses — either The structure and culture of the organisation are also
to do nothing and learn how to cope with them, or to factors that help mould leadership behaviour[11]. Highly
LEADING IN THE 1990s: THE FOUR I's OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP 1
the leaders orientation towards followers. The type of people in other departments or units who pose problems
experience the leader has in his/her church and/or for the individual. For example, other managers may desire
community organisation may have a demonstrable impact to redirect or add to the job activities of an employee to
on the individual's leadership capabilities. For example, meet certain pressing demands that they may have at work.
seeing that inspirational leadership works with a group However, the employee's leader would attempt to resist such
of volunteers involved in a fund-raising effort may pressures if the new activities could result in an unreasonable
encourage a leader to use a similar strategy with his/her workload. Transformational leaders attempt to remove
employees at work. Too often, previous authors have unnecessary "roadblocks" in the system that inhibit both
articificially separated the work and nonwork settings in the development of followers and their achieving optimum
which a leader operates when explaining the origin of the performance.
leader's style. In fact, both contexts can help shape the
leader's style of interaction with followers. To account fully Behaviours relating to the practice of individualised consider-
for leadership development, both work and nonwork. ation can be more symbolic in nature, especially at higher
contexts, in the present and past, will need to be taken levels of management. Consider the General Manager or
into consideration. CEO who takes the time to learn as many employee names
as possible so that conversations, as infrequent as they may
be, can be more personal. Also, consider the upper-level
Transformational Leadership: Clarifying the manager who practices ' 'management by walking about'' [12].
Four I's Managers who successfully show such leadership do not
Rather than merely focusing on ways to manage the status primarily look for trouble or exceptions, but rather attempt
quo and day-to-day operations, transformational leaders try to find activities that are worthy of praise and recognition.
to maintain and communicate a vision of where their group,
department, or organisation should be heading. They focus In summary, the behaviours mentioned above demonstrate
themselves on viewing problems as opportunities, and take important symbolic concern for individual employees by
an active interest in the development of individual leaders who are at a much higher level in the organisational
employees. Transformational leaders are keenly interested hierarchy. The same kind of symbolic concern can also be
in broadening their employees' and their own ideas to help shown by a co-worker to another co-worker who merely
move people from concerns for existence and security takes the time out of a busy day to listen or to say a few
towards higher level concerns associated with achievement words of encouragement to help their co-worker past a
and growth. They put effort into raising their employees' difficult problem. A key assumption of individualised
awareness of the needs of the organisation and the consideration is that each employee has different needs and,
employees' own personal needs. The awareness of needs that for a specific employee, those needs will change over
forms the basis for eventually elevating those needs. As time partially based on the influence of the leader. The
such, transformational leaders display four distinct transformational leader must be able to diagnose and evaluate
characteristics that we label the Four I's: the needs of each follower and then elevate them as required
for developing each follower to his/her optimum potential.
Individualised consideration
Intellectual stimulation
Intelledual Stimulation
Inspirational motivation, and To serve in a transformational leadership role, a leader should
Idealised influence. be concerned with providing ways and reasons for people
14 JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 15,4
to change the way they think about technical problems, thoughts and imagination, and a recognition of the beliefs
human relation problems, and even their own personal and values of the leader and his/her followers. Intellectual
attitudes and values that have developed over the stimulation influences follower's conceptualisation,
individual's life span. An intellectually stimulating leader comprehension, and analysis of problems and the solutions
helps people to think about "old" problems in new ways generated.
and to use reasoning and evidence rather than
unsupported opinion to solve such problems. The leader
may also attempt to align individual employee's personal Inspirational Motivation
values that may be at odds with those of the leader or Until recently, management writers treated inspirational
the organisation. Consider the co-worker who does not leadership as something that could not be investigated.
share important information with other co-workers. The feeling conveyed was that inspirational motivation was
Transformational leaders dissuade such behaviours by rooted in the leader's personal charisma. Unfortunately,
attempting to provide reasons why it is in the group's best the dictionary definition of charisma is that it is a "gift"
interest to work as a team to achieve its objectives. and thus, something that one either has or does not have.
In either case, an individual's potential for being
A two-way intellectual stimulation process may be inspirational could not be changed or developed, so the
necessary when work problems and decision making are tendency was to deal with more tangible characteristics
complex and difficult. In some situations, a good leader of leadership, such as participative leadership, while
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)
not only stimulates the thinking of followers, but also is ignoring how leaders inspire followers[4].
open to and stimulated by their reasoning and ideas. This
represents a bottoms-up type influence. Such interactions
are especially helpful when the leader has limited
experience or information concerning a problem.
Intellectual stimulation is also helpful when the leader is
attempting to maintain excitement and a high level of
Inspirational leaders
motivation among an educated workforce that prefers to often set an example
have their opinions at least considered by the leader. of hard work
Unfortunately, there are many organisational leaders who
do not practise intellectual stimulation. A survey of 400
US managers and professionals in technical and highly The current emphasis on transformational leadership will
skilled white-collar jobs revealed that they had little faith suffer to the degree that inspirational motivation is
in their bosses' leadership. They reported that although considered the sole province of CEOs rather than a quality
they were hired for their ideas, little use was being made shared in varying degree by people at all levels of
of them by their firms. Nearly two-thirds said that their organisations. While inspirational motivation may be most
employees failed to use their ideas at least half the time. noticeable at the top of organisations, people at lower levels
And almost half said conformity, not creativity, was may also show a high degree of inspirational motivation
encouraged. They could not apply what they knew, nor in the eyes of their followers and co-workers. Antecedents,
help their companies to become more competitive. such as past personal accomplishments, the development
Actually, 95 per cent of the employees surveyed believed of communication skills, and role modelling of other
they could be more productive on the job but that they inspirational leaders, create the potential to inspire others.
were not being pushed or rewarded for working harder. This potential is realised in part by the interplay with
' 'The brains of companies are saying the people in charge individualised consideration and intellectual stimulation
aren't high quality"[13]. Clearly, intellectual stimulation when the person is in a leadership role. Such behaviour
is not being used as much as it could or should be. strengthens the leader's inspirational appeal because it
makes followers feel valued, self-confident, and assured
Through intellectual stimulation, transformational leaders that their leader can overcome obstacles and help the
help followers to think about nagging problems in new and group to meet new challenges and opportunities.
unique ways. Followers are supported for questioning their
own beliefs, assumptions and values, and those of the A leader's level of inspirational motivation is further
leader, which may be outdated or inappropriate for solving strengthened if a vision or simply specified mission of
the problems confronting an organisation. As a consequence where the group is heading is shared by co-
of being intellectually stimulated by their leaders, followers workers/followers. As other means of generating
develop their own capabilities to recognise, understand, excitement and confidence, inspirational leaders often set
and eventually solve future problems. an example of hard work, give "pep" talks, remain
optimistic in times of crisis, and search to reduce an
An intellectually stimulating leader arouses in followers employees' duties and workloads by using creative work
an awareness of problems, a sensitivity to each follower's methods.
LEADING IN THE 1990s: THE FOUR I's OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LE
influence is, to a large degree, a culmination of the other is an active, time-consuming process in which a substantial
three I's coupled with a strong emotional attachment to amount of time is initially devoted to followers' personal
and identification with the leader. Such leaders are development. However, the payoffs can be significant and
emulated by followers and often labelled charismatic. substantial. Inspirational motivation can often produce
individual effort and performance beyond normal
expectations, even when the leader is absent[4].
Linking the Leader and Follower Ultimately, the leader creates followers fully capable of
The payoff of transformational leadership must be handling challenges on their own.
tempered by an important caveat: Some employees may
not react we to a leader even though most view the leader
in a positive way and as transformational. There are at
least two possibilities why this occurs. First, there may
be some style or personality conflict between leader and Leaders need to be
follower. For example, a leader may have an overly direct
manner of communicating with followers. Although most
aware of how they
followers understand and would not mind the leader's spend their time
communication style, a particular follower could find it to
be offensive. Hence, the leader's attempt at individualised
consideration and/or intellectual stimulation could be Individuals who work with transformational leaders may
misinterpreted or ignored by some, even when the leader "willingly" expand their job descriptions. Innovations and
has the best of intentions. creativity, sparked by intellectual stimulation and
individualised consideration, become the norm rather than
the exception in the leader's work unit and/or
organisational. Followers become self-motivated rather
than only relying on receiving motivation from others (i.e.
Some employees from the leader). Gradually, this means that less rather
than more time has to be spent leading followers. The
may not react well cascading process unfolds with followers becoming more
transformational themselves. The process is best
to a leader characterised as leaders developing leaders.
Perhaps the key payoff of transformational leadership is
A second and perhaps more basic reason for a lack of that followers do not resist self-development and frequently
connection between leader and follower is that the two demonstrate, through personal sacrifice, an enhanced
individuals(leaderand follower) may differ in terms of their commitment to their job, co-workers, and the organisation.
backgrounds. Differences between the leader and follower They are ready and willing to participate in the changes
with respect to previous experiences (both personal and necessary for the organisation to remain competitive and
cohort) may impede the development of mutual trust that to produce the best possible product. Transactional
is critical if a leader is to have a transformational impact. leadership, by itself, will likely foster a "what's in it for
This is not to say that, for example, a younger employee me" attitude among followers. Followers learn exactly
16 JOURNAL OF EUROPEAN INDUSTRIAL TRAINING 15,4
what they must do at work so that their own needs can References
be satisfied. In general, but especially during hard times, 1. Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. Leaders, Harper & Row, New
individuals must be willing to sacrifice some of their self- York, 1985.
interests for the long-term good of the group and/or 2. Tichy, N.M. and Ulrich, D.O., "The Leadership Challenge
organisation. — A Call for the Transformational Leader", Sloan
Management Review, Fall 1984, pp. 59-68.
3. Tichy, N. and Devanna, F., Transformational Leadership,
Wiley, New York, 1986.
4. Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J., Manual for the Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire, Consulting Psychologists Press,
Transformational leadership Palo Alto, CA, 1990.
5. Bass, B.M., Waldman, D.A., Avolio, B.J. and Bebb, M.,
is an integral part "Transformational Leaders, The Falling Dominoes
Effect", Group and Organization Studies, Vol. 12, 1987,
of ensuring a pp. 73-87.
committed workforce 6. Bass, B.M., Bass and Stodgills Handbook of Leadership,
3rd ed., Free Press, New York, 1990.
7. Bass, B.M and Avolio, B.J., "Developing Transformational
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)
Bruce J. Avolio, David A. Waldman and Francis J. Yammarino are based at the Center for Leadership Studies and School
of Management, State University of New York at Binghamton, USA.
This article has been cited by:
1. Anthony Gatling. 2015. A Causal Model for Integrating Workplace Spirituality Into Hospitality Organizational
Transformation. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism 14, 177-194. [CrossRef]
2. Simon C.H. Chan, W.M. Mak. 2014. Transformational leadership, pride in being a follower of the leader and organizational
commitment. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 35:8, 674-690. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
3. Alex Avramenko. 2013. Inspiration at work: is it an oxymoron?. Baltic Journal of Management 9:1, 113-130. [Abstract] [Full
Text] [PDF]
4. Patrick C. Dwyer, Joyce E. Bono, Mark Snyder, Oded Nov, Yair Berson. 2013. Sources of Volunteer Motivation:
Transformational Leadership and Personal Motives Influence Volunteer Outcomes. Nonprofit Management and Leadership
24:10.1002/nml.v24.2, 181-205. [CrossRef]
5. Nihan Yıldırım, Seda Birinci. 2013. Impacts of Organizational Culture and Leadership on Business Performance: A Case
Study on Acquisitions. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 75, 71-82. [CrossRef]
6. Kara A. Arnold, Catherine E. ConnellyTransformational Leadership and Psychological Well-being 175-194. [CrossRef]
7. Ani Casimir, Onah Nkechinyere, Rev.Canon Collins Ugwu, Maudline Okpara. 2013. Philosophical Expositions of Leadership
and Human Values in Catholic Social Teachings: Resolving Nigeria’s Leadership Deficit and Underdevelopment. Open Journal
of Philosophy 03, 391-400. [CrossRef]
8. Tung-Ching Lin, Sheng Wu, Jack Shih-Chieh Hsu, Yi-Ching Chou. 2012. The integration of value-based adoption and
expectation–confirmation models: An example of IPTV continuance intention. Decision Support Systems 54, 63-75. [CrossRef]
9. Denise Linda Parris, Jon Welty Peachey. 2012. Building a legacy of volunteers through servant leadership: A cause-related
sporting event. Nonprofit Management and Leadership 23:10.1002/nml.v23.2, 259-276. [CrossRef]
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)
10. Nigel Martin de Bussy, Ann Paterson. 2012. Crisis leadership styles-Bligh versus Gillard: a content analysis of Twitter posts
on the Queensland floods. Journal of Public Affairs 12, 326-332. [CrossRef]
11. Uma Jogulu, Lesley Ferkins. 2012. Leadership and culture in Asia: the case of Malaysia. Asia Pacific Business Review 18,
531-549. [CrossRef]
12. Leilei Bi, John Ehrich, Lisa C. Ehrich. 2012. Confucius as transformational leader: lessons for ESL leadership. International
Journal of Educational Management 26:4, 391-402. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
13. Michel Dion. 2012. Are ethical theories relevant for ethical leadership?. Leadership & Organization Development Journal 33:1,
4-24. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
14. Karen Drenkard. 2012. The Transformative Power of Personal and Organizational Leadership. Nursing Administration
Quarterly 36, 147-154. [CrossRef]
15. Beverley Lloyd-Walker, Derek Walker. 2011. Authentic leadership for 21st century project delivery. International Journal of
Project Management 29, 383-395. [CrossRef]
16. Choi Sang Long, Lee Yean Thean. 2011. Relationship Between Leadership Style, Job Satisfaction and Employees’ Turnover
Intention: A Literature Review. Research Journal of Business Management 5, 91-100. [CrossRef]
17. Nancy C. Wallis, Francis J. Yammarino, Ann Feyerherm. 2011. Individualized leadership: A qualitative study of senior executive
leaders. The Leadership Quarterly 22, 182-206. [CrossRef]
18. Nicola M. Pless, Thomas Maak. 2011. Responsible Leadership: Pathways to the Future. Journal of Business Ethics 98, 3-13.
[CrossRef]
19. Dirk Lindebaum, Susan Cartwright. 2010. A Critical Examination of the Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and
Transformational Leadership. Journal of Management Studies no-no. [CrossRef]
20. Hao-Yi Chen, Henry Shang-Ren Kao. 2009. Chinese paternalistic leadership and non-Chinese subordinates' psychological
health. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 20, 2533-2546. [CrossRef]
21. Neera Jain, Shoma Mukherji. 2009. Communicating a holistic perspective to the world: Kautilya on leadership. Leadership &
Organization Development Journal 30:5, 435-454. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
22. Richard Reeves-EllingtonEnviroscapes: a multi-level contextual approach to organizational leadership 337-420. [Abstract]
[Full Text] [PDF] [PDF]
23. Wei-Chi Tsai, Hsien-Wen Chen, Jen-Wei Cheng. 2009. Employee positive moods as a mediator linking transformational
leadership and employee work outcomes. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 20, 206-219. [CrossRef]
24. Kerry S. Webb. 2008. Creating Satisfied Employees in Christian Higher Education: Research on Leadership Competencies.
Christian Higher Education 8, 18-31. [CrossRef]
25. Uma D. Jogulu, Glenice J. Wood. 2008. A cross‐cultural study into peer evaluations of women's leadership effectiveness.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal 29:7, 600-616. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
26. Dale Christenson, Derek H.T. Walker. 2008. Using vision as a critical success element in project management. International
Journal of Managing Projects in Business 1:4, 611-622. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
27. Jean Lee. 2008. Effects of leadership and leader‐member exchange on innovativeness. Journal of Managerial Psychology 23:6,
670-687. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
28. Chui‐Ha (Tracy) Ng, Derek H.T. Walker. 2008. A study of project management leadership styles across life cycle stages of an
IT project in Hong Kong. International Journal of Managing Projects in Business 1:3, 404-427. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
29. Tracey Trottier, Montgomery Van Wart, XiaoHu Wang. 2008. Examining the Nature and Significance of Leadership in
Government Organizations. Public Administration Review 68:10.1111/puar.2008.68.issue-2, 319-333. [CrossRef]
30. Bulent Menguc, Seigyoung Auh. 2008. Conflict, leadership, and market orientation. International Journal of Research in
Marketing 25, 34-45. [CrossRef]
31. Kimberly Maslin-Wicks. 2007. Forsaking transformational leadership: Roscoe Conkling, the great Senator from New York.
The Leadership Quarterly 18, 463-476. [CrossRef]
32. Andrew P. Kakabadse, Nada K. Kakabadse, Linda Lee‐Davies. 2007. Three temptations of leaders. Leadership & Organization
Development Journal 28:3, 196-208. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
33. Renae A. Jones, Alannah E. Rafferty, Mark A. Griffin. 2006. The executive coaching trend: towards more flexible executives.
Leadership & Organization Development Journal 27:7, 584-596. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
34. Uma D. Jogulu, Glenice J. Wood. 2006. The role of leadership theory in raising the profile of women in management. Equal
Opportunities International 25:4, 236-250. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
35. 2006. Table of Contents. ASHE Higher Education Report 32:10.1002/aehe.v32:3, 1-113. [CrossRef]
36. John H. Humphreys. 2005. Contextual implications for transformational and servant leadership. Management Decision 43:10,
Downloaded by ECU Libraries At 13:59 19 April 2015 (PT)