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Advanced Marine
Thermodynamics
Course Notes
2017
Table of Contents
Thermodynamic Fundamentals ....................................................................................... 1
First Law of Thermodynamics ....................................................................................... 19
Non-Flow Energy Equation ............................................................................................ 19
Steady Flow Energy Equation ....................................................................................... 21
The Perfect Gas……………………………..…………………………………………………..30
Reciprocating Gas Compressors…………………………………………………………….44
Second Law of Thermodynamics…………………..........................................................55
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine…………………………………..……………73
Gas Turbines…………………………………………………………………………………….83
Properties of Liquid and Vapours…………………...……………………………………….92
Steam Power Cycles…………………………………………………………………………..107
Steam Turbines………………………………………………………………...………………119
Refrigeration……………………………………………………………………………………128
Combustion of Fuels………………………………………………………………………….142
Heat Transfer…………………………………………………………………………………...156
Air Conditioning……………………………………………………………………………….181
Further reading
Rogers and Mayhew, Thermodynamic and Transport Properties of Fluids, 5th Edition,
T.D. Eastop & A. McConkey, Applied Thermodynamics for Engineers and Technologists,4th Edition,
Weddle, Marine Engineering Systems, Heineman 1976.
Thermodynamic Fundamentals
THERMODYNAMICS
Thermodynamics is the science dealing with the relationships between heating, working and
the properties of substances. It involves the study of energy converting processes in
engineering plant such as steam turbines, diesel engines, petrol engines, refrigerators and
heat pumps, compressors, boilers, condensers, heat exchangers, combustion systems, etc.
Energy
Energy is perhaps the single most important concept in all of science.
There are two basic forms of energy:
1) Kinetic Energy. A mass has kinetic energy due to its motion (translation, rotation)
2) Potential Energy. A mass has potential energy depending on its position in a force field
(gravitational field, electric field)
3) Mass Energy. Energy equivalent of matter as defined by Einstein’s equation: E=mc 2 .
First Law of Thermodynamics: The total energy of an isolated system remains constant -
energy is conserved.
Energy may be changed from one form to another without loss.
The absolute value of energy has no physical significance; only changes in energy are
significant.
Only changes in internal energy are important, and in most thermodynamic systems, only
thermal energy, energy associated with phase changes and chemical energy are of
importance. A change in the thermal energy of a substance is associated with a temperature
change. Phase changes and chemical changes can occur at constant temperature.
Heat (Q)
The term heat, when used correctly, describes the process of transfer of internal energy
from one substance to another due to a temperature gradient. Heat is a way in which energy
is transferred. It is not a form of energy.
The misnoma “heat transfer” is commonly used to describe the transfer of internal energy
from one substance to another by the process of heating. Heat is not a form of energy so it
cannot be transferred.
Work (W)
Work is also a process. It is the flow of energy to or from a substance due to the movement
of a force at the boundary of the substance.
eg Piston in cylinder
The boundary, which
System encompasses the working
substance in the cylinder,
moves to accommodate
Surroundings the piston motion.
system boundary
Open systems: There is a transfer of mass across the boundary, and usually the system
volume remains constant. Flow System or Control Volume
eg Turbine
2 fluid out
UNITS
- SI units exclusively
- SI is a coherent system, so that all derived units are formed by the product or quotient
of other units
- 7 physical quantities are assigned unit value, and all other physical quantities are
derived from these:
length (meter, m)
mass (kilogram, kg)
time (second, s)
electric current (ampere, A)
thermodynamic temperature (Kelvin, K)
luminous intensity (candela, cd)
amount of substance (kg-mole, kmol)
system h
manometer
(ii) Temperature
In simple terms, temperature is a measure of the kinetic energy of the molecules comprising
the system.
Thermal Equilibrium
Consider the two gases A and B in the sealed cylinder. If one gas is “hotter” than the other,
energy transfer as heat will take place across the partition from the “hotter” gas to the
“cooler” gas (provided the partition is a conductor).
If no energy transfer by heating occurs, it is said that the two
systems are in thermal equilibrium with each other, and that
A B
they have the same temperature
Measurement of Temperature
The variation in temperature of an easily measurable property of a substance can be used
to provide a temperature-measuring instrument. For example, the length of a column of
mercury will vary with temperature due to the expansion and contraction of the mercury.
The instrument can be calibrated by measuring the length of the column when it is brought
into thermal equilibrium with the vapour of boiling water at atmospheric pressure, and again
when it is in thermal equilibrium with ice at atmospheric pressure. On the Celsius scale, 100
divisions are made between the two fixed points, and the zero is taken as the ice point.
Absolute zero is the theoretical lower limit of temperature. It is approachable but not
attainable practically. The absolute temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale. Its zero is
absolute zero and a temperature change of 1K is equivalent to a temperature change of
1°C. 0K = -273°C.
(iii) Volume
A volume, V has SI units of cubic metres. Specific volume, v, is the volume occupied by unit
mass of fluid. Hence the units of v are m3/kg.
Specific volume (v) is the inverse of density ( ) kg/m3.
(iv) Internal Energy
Internal energy, U, has SI units of joules (J). Specific internal energy, u, is the internal energy
of unit mass of fluid. Hence, the units of u are J/kg.
(v) Enthalpy
Enthalpy, H, has the units of energy (J). Specific enthalpy, h, has units J/kg. Enthalpy is a
derived property, resulting from a convenient grouping of fundamental thermodynamic
properties:
H = U + pV, h = u + pv
A combination of thermodynamic properties is itself a thermodynamic property.
Enthalpy is useful for flow processes and constant pressure non-flow processes.
Exercise: A system has specific internal energy 2774 kJ/kg, pressure 20 bar (20 x 10 2
kPa) and specific volume 0.1255 m3/kg. What is its specific enthalpy?
(3025 kJ/kg)
(vi) Entropy
Entropy, S, has the units J/K. Specific entropy, s, has the units J/kgK. Entropy is the
thermodynamic property associated with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, and can be
thought of as describing the degree of disorder of a system.
(vii) Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity has the units J/kgK. It describes the temperature change of a
substance due to heating. Specific heat capacity of gases is defined for two different heating
processes:
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv, is defined for heating a gas which is constrained
at constant volume.
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp, is defined for heating a gas, which is allowed
to expand as its temperature rises so as to remain at constant pressure.
Specific heat capacity is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a
substance by 1 K by heating.
For a perfect gas, Cp and Cv do not vary with temperature or pressure, and so are constants
for any particular gas.
U
u
m
specific properties are intensive
H
h
m
S
s
m
Thus the pressure, temperature, specific volume, specific internal energy, etc of a system
made up of two identical pieces are the same as those of each piece, while the volume,
energy etc of the combined system is the sum of the volume, energy etc of both pieces.
Only when an intensive property is uniform throughout a system can it be called a property
of the system.
Independence of Properties
Consider a gas held in a container of variable volume (closed system), being heated by
some means. As the internal energy of the system increases due to heating, the pressure
and temperature will tend to rise. It is possible, however, to maintain constant pressure by
allowing the system volume to increase appropriately. The temperature can be set at any
value, regardless of the pressure, by manipulation of the internal energy and volume of the
system. In this case, temperature is independent of pressure.
If a boiling liquid and its vapour were held in the container of variable volume, the
temperature of the system would no longer be independent of the pressure, because the
temperature at which a liquid boils depends on the pressure. So, if the pressure is held
constant by allowing the system volume to increase appropriately, the temperature will also
remain constant as long as there is still liquid left. Any increase in internal energy due to
heating simply results in more vapour formation. In this case, temperature and pressure
are not independent.
Kinematic Properties
A system can have energy due to motion or position in addition to its internal energy. The
1
kinetic energy of a control mass is KE mc 2 (J)
2
where c = the velocity of the centre of mass of the system.
The gravitational potential of the control mass is PE mgz (J)
where g = gravitational constant, 9.81 m/sec2
z = height of centre of mass of the system above the earth’s surface
The kinetic state can be directly superimposed on the thermodynamic state.
Two-Property Rule
“The intensive thermodynamic state of a pure substance in thermodynamic equilibrium is
completely defined if any two independent intensive thermodynamic properties are known.”
The intensive thermodynamic state is the state of the system as described by its intensive
properties. The addition of a size measure (mass) completes the description of the extensive
thermodynamic state.
A pure substance has a chemical composition which is both homogeneous and constant
with time (no chemical reaction). It may have more than one phase.
If the system is allowed bulk motion, then its kinetic state will be described by its kinematic
properties, and to define the complete state of the system will require more than two
properties.
The properties must be independent. For example, a system comprising water and steam
together at boiling temperature is not defined completely by quoting the pressure and
temperature only since these two values are not independent in this case. Thus, another
property such as specific volume or specific internal energy is required in addition to
pressure or temperature.
The system must be in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
Relaxation Time
When a system is disturbed and a process occurs, the ‘slowness’ of the process depends
on the speed at which the system can regain equilibrium within itself. A system undergoes
a relaxation process in response to a sudden impressed change in any property.
Air contained in a cylinder fitted with a moveable piston undergoes an adjustment in
pressure and temperature when a step change in the volume is made by a sudden piston
displacement. The order of magnitude of the relaxation time is the time taken for a sound
wave to travel the length of the cylinder. For air at room temperature in a cylinder 8 cm long,
this is about 2 x 10-4 seconds (the relaxation time is probably longer than this due to
reflection of the pressure pulse).
In contrast, a sudden heating across the boundary of a system will require a much greater
time before uniform temperature is restored within the system.
due to system
pressure
If the resisting force is only infinitesimally less than the force exerted on the piston by the
system due to its pressure, then the process will be slow and the system will not depart
significantly from equilibrium. This is a fully resisted working process. Also, because the
process is slow, the fluid will not develop any significant velocity so there will be no energy
dissipated into fluid motion. This process is reversible because only an infinitesimal increase
in the resistive force is required to reverse the process back along the process path so that
the system and its surroundings are restored to their original state, leaving no trace of the
process in the universe.
Common sources of irreversibility are friction, energy transfer by heating through finite
temperature gradients, free expansion and combustion.
No real process is fully reversible, although some processes approach reversibility, such as
expansion or compression of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a moveable piston (reciprocating
machinery).
A B
Gas in side A is allowed to expand into B unresisted by removing the partition (side B is
initially empty). There is a change in state but no useful work is done. The system cannot
be returned to its original state except by the supply of energy from the surroundings. Thus
the process is irreversible.
system boundary
paddle
The paddle stirs the fluid and all the work done on the system by the paddle is dissipated
by internal fluid friction, which raises the internal energy of the system. This energy cannot
be completely recovered to do useful work (2nd Law of Thermodynamics), so the process
is irreversible.
The process of friction involves the relative motion of matter in contact, and results in
conversion of bulk kinetic energy (external energy) into random molecular motion (internal
energy).
In general, processes in rotary machinery and other devices where the flow rate of the
working fluid is high are irreversible due to considerable friction.
(c) Combustion
When a mixture of fuel and oxidant reacts to form a mixture of products with the consequent
release of energy, the process cannot normally be reversed.
Consider a compressed gas in a cylinder behind a frictionless piston (closed system). The
gas will exert a force on the piston. A resisting force is required to hold the piston against
the gas pressure. The gas is the system.
piston area A
due to system
pressure
system boundary
If the resisting force is only slightly less than force exerted on the piston by the gas, then
the expansion will be slow and controlled and the process will be reversible. The system will
do work on the load, so the energy of the system will decrease.
The force exerted by the gas = pA = F
If the piston moves outwards a distance dx,
Work done by the system = pAdx = Fdx
= p dV
Work done/unit mass = p dv
Generally, p changes as the cylinder volume changes. If the process is reversible, then the
relationship between p and v can be established throughout the process, and the expression
for work can be integrated to give the work done between the final and initial state points.
2
Work done / unit mass pdv
1
Because the system loses internal energy by doing work on its surroundings, this is defined
as negative work done on the system.
2
w rev pdv REVERSIBLE COMPRESSION / EXPANSION WORK
1
Thus, for a reversible process, the work done can be represented by the system properties,
although the work itself is not a property.
if v2 is less than v1 it is a compression process (work + ve)
pressure
1
The compression/expansion work is the area
under the line representing the process on a p-v
diagram.
volume
area=work
2. If the piston in the previous exercise had moved through 10 cm rather than 5 cm,
would W be doubled in both cases (a) and (b)?
(a)yes 785.4J, (b)no 1003J
)
INTRODUCTION TO HEAT TRANSFER ( Q, q, Q
Energy may be transferred to a system by heating or working.
Heating (and cooling) are called “heat transfer”.
There are three ways by which energy is transferred by heating or cooling:
Conduction
Convection
Thermal radiation
Each of these requires a temperature difference (temperature gradient). Heat is energy in
transition due to a temperature gradient.
(a) Conduction - transfer of energy through matter on a molecular scale, without
detectable mass motion.
e.g. “heat transfer” along a metal bar heated at one end.
The rate of energy transfer depends on the temperature gradient in the matter
(dT/dx), the thermal conductivity of the matter (k), and the cross-sectional area.
. dT
i.e. Q kA
dx
(-ve sign as heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature).
If the temperature gradient is linear,
.
Q
kA
tHOT tCOLD
x
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Gases have low thermal conductivity. Thermal
insulators have low thermal conductivity.
For convection
.
Q hA t w t (tw = wall temperature, t = temperature of moving fluid)
where h depends on the properties of the fluid (thermal conductivity, specific heat
capacity) and on the form of the fluid motion.
Heat transfer from a soldering iron is mainly by conduction, although convection and
radiation are present. A hair dryer is a forced convection device. The sun is the best example
of a system which transmits energy by radiation.
INTERNAL ENERGY
Following is an extract from Reynolds "Thermodynamics"
"We can view each piece of matter as being composed of many fundamental particles, each
whizzing about in accordance with the laws of mechanics. We know from physics that each
particle can have energy in several forms, and it will be helpful to review these forms now.
We shall call them “microscopic energy modes”.
Molecules possess energy by virtue of their translation through space. This kinetic energy
is termed translational energy. For polyatomic molecules rotational kinetic energy is also
important. If the atoms of the molecule are vibrating back and forth about their common
centre of mass we say that the molecule also has vibrational energy. The energy of gas
molecules at low temperatures is largely associated with the translational and rotational
modes, while at higher temperatures the vibrational modes begin to contribute significantly
to the total energy.
Electrons whirling about their nucleus have kinetic energy, the amount of which depends on
their orbit. Usually the electrons tend to be in the inner low-energy orbits; atoms with
electrons in more distant orbits are said to be in excited states and have more energy than
normal atoms of that species. It is also necessary to think of electrons as spinning and
thereby possessing some spin energy. Many of the other fundamental particles also seem
to have spin energy.
Molecules are held together by molecular binding forces, including coulomb and
gravitational forces. All these forces seem to be conservative, and thus we think of potential
energy in association with these intermolecular forces. Forces between the electrons and
the nucleus are responsible for keeping the electrons in orbit, and there is potential energy
associated with these forces. The nucleus is held together by forces much stronger than
molecular binding forces, and consequently the nuclear binding energy is considerably
larger than the binding energy of a molecule.
The orbiting electrons constitute tiny electric currents, producing little magnetic dipoles. \In
the presence of an external magnetic field these dipoles can be twisted, and there is energy
associated with these dipole moments. An electrically neutral atom does not have all its
charges in the same place, and consequently constitutes an electric-dipole moment, which
can have energy in the presence of an external electric field. These dipole-moment energies
are important in dielectrics and paramagnetic substances.
Ionised molecules and free electrons have forces exerted on them by external electric and
magnetic fields, and consequently can have associated energies. All particles with mass
possess potential energy in gravitational fields.
Collections of particles have additional energy associated with the forces between
molecules. In liquids and solids these energies are especially important, but in low-density
gases the amount of energy due to intermolecular potentials is quite small. Evaporation is
a process requiring enough energy to free molecules from these strong bonds.
In relativistic mechanics it becomes necessary to include the energy equivalence of matter;
we think of a particle having rest mass Mo as possessing rest mass energy Moc2. This
energy constitutes a large percentage of the energy of a molecule, but in non-nuclear
reactions the change in rest mass is so small that changes in rest-mass energy are
negligible compared to changes in the other forms of energy.
These various microscopic energy modes are not very much in evidence when we look at
a piece of metal on a table, or at gas in a bottle. If we pick up the metal and hurl it away it
clearly acquires kinetic energy. It is easy to measure the velocity of the metal piece and
thereby to determine the kinetic energy of the object as a whole. This is called the “bulk”
kinetic energy of the piece. It is not really the kinetic energy of all the molecules, because in
addition to the easily observed bulk motion the molecules are executing very small scale
motions that also contribute to their kinetic energy. There are other “bulk” energy modes
that are easy to measure macroscopically. For example, the metal piece would have a
potential energy in a gravitational field, and this energy could be computed from simple
macroscopic data. It is usually convenient to separate the “bulk” or macroscopically
measurable mechanical energy from the energy of the “hidden microscopic modes”. We do
this by saying that the total system energy E, is the sum of the bulk kinetic and potential
energies KE and PE, and the internal energy, customarily denoted by U. This split of the
total energy is expressible as
E KE PE U
The internal energy U therefore represents all the energy associated with the microscopic
modes, that is, the energy not accounted for in the bulk mechanical energy terms. Since U
cannot be measured directly, it must somehow be determined by inference. Evaluation of
the internal energy U as a function of the “state” or “condition” of the system is one of the
central problems in thermodynamics.
The internal energy is “randomly oriented”, that is, “disorganized” (this is what “hides” it from
a macroscopic view), and hence is not readily useful. One job of the engineer is to devise
means for converting disordered molecular motions into organised motions capable of being
used macroscopically."
The Non Flow Energy Equation can also be written in terms of specific quantities (energy
per unit mass):
q w u Non-Floe energy equation based on specific quantities
where each term has the units Joules/kg
u u2 u1
where u1 refers to the initial state
u2 refers to the final state
However, work can only be expressed in terms of system properties for a reversible work
process.
2
( w pdv for compression - expansion work (“p-v” work))
1
Sign Convention for Heating and Working
It has already been implied in the formulation of the equations that any process which
increases the stored energy of a system is positive.
Thus, work done on a system is negative
work done by a system is positive
heating a system is positive
cooling a system is negative
Example: In the cylinder of an air compressor the air has an internal energy of 200 kJ/kg
at the beginning of compression and 420 kJ/kg at the end of the compression. Calculate
the energy transfer by heating or cooling, when the work done on the air is 300 kJ/kg.
q w u
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic means no energy transfer by heating. This would be achieved by perfect thermal
insulation.
1. In the compression stroke of a gas engine the work done on the gas by the piston is
70 kJ/kg, and the energy rejected by heating to the cooling water is 42 kJ/kg. Find
the change in internal energy, stating whether it is a gain or a loss.
(28 kJ/kg gain)
2. While one kilogram of air expands from some thermodynamic state, state 1, to
another, state 2, it does 20 kJ of work on a device, while at the same time it receives
15 kJ of energy by heating during the process.
A second kind of expansion between the same states 1 and 2 involves an energy
input by heating of 10 kJ.
(a) What is the change in internal energy during the first expansion?
(-5 kJ)
(b) What is the change in internal energy during the second expansion?
(-5 kJ)
3. Briefly point out why each of the following statements is contradictory, and therefore
either wrong or meaningless.
(i) A control mass undergoes a process in which it is heated adiabatically.
(ii) The state of a fluid system is changed during an adiabatic working process, but
the properties of the fluid do not alter.
(iii) A system consists of a thermally isolated container enclosing a gas. The
system is isolated from its surroundings. The energy of the gas is then reduced
by cooling.
(iv) Two systems at different temperatures are brought into physical contact and
exchange no energy by heating.
z1 .
m
2
q z2
The various forms of energy, which the moving fluid can have, are:
(a) Potential energy gz (m/s2.m = J /kg)
c2 C2
(b) Kinetic energy (m2/s2= J/ kg) or kJ/kg
2 2000
(c) Internal energy u (J/ kg)
The various processes by which the system can exchange energy with its surroundings are:
(a) Heating q (J/kg)
2
(b) Mechanical work w (J/kg) (shaft work, pdv not applicable)
1
(c) Flow work pv (J/kg)
This pv term is necessary in flow systems to account for the work done by the moving fluid
in crossing the system boundaries:
Consider an element of fluid, length l, at the inlet to the system (cross-sectional area A).
length, l
p
1
system boundary
The work that this small element must do to push its way into the system is
work = force x distance
= p1Al
= p1 x volume of the element
Thus, for 1 kg of fluid to enter, the work done on the system is p1v1.
Similarly, at the exit, the work done by the system to push 1 kg of fluid out into the
surroundings is p2v2.
(In a moving fluid, due to its pressure and motion, each element of fluid is continuously doing
work on the element upstream of itself.)
Because the system is at steady state, net energy input = net energy output.
c2 c2
q - w + (p1v1 + u1) + 1 + gz, = (p v + u + 2 + gz
2 2 2) 2
2 2
For convenience, the u and pv terms are combined to form the thermodynamic property
enthalpy (h= u + pv)
Also, the energy balance is conveniently rearranged so the process parameters are on one
side and the system properties on the other:
c 22 c12
q - w = h2 h1 + { - } + (gz2 - gz1 ) all terms are in J/kg
2 2
- Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
The steady flow energy equation is true whether the processes between 1 and 2 are
reversible or irreversible.
In most engineering systems, the changes in gravitational potential energy are negligible
and can be ignored (an exception is the hydro-electric system).
At any point in the system, of cross-sectional area A, where the fluid velocity is c, the mass
flow rate is
= cA/v
m and v = cA
m v=specific volume
c1 A1 c A
=
The mass flow rate is constant throughout, so m = 2 2
v1 v2
- Equation Of Mass Continuity
The specific energy terms of the SFEE, when multiplied by mass flow rate, become power
terms:
= m
W w J/kg x kg /s
= m
Q q = J /s
= Watts
c 22 c12
Q - W = m(h2 - h1 + - + gz2 - gz1 ) Beware: all terms are in J/kg,
2 2
C22 g z
Q W m h when Δh is (as usual) expressed in kJ/kg.
2000 1000
2 fluid out
= 17 kg/s
m
= -14,000 kW
W (negative as energy is leaving the system)
h1 = 1200 kJ/kg
h2 = 360 kJ/kg
3
v1 = 0.5 m /kg
c1 = 60 m/s
c2 = 150 m/s
c 22 c 12
SFEE: q-w = (h2 - h1) + { - } (neglecting gravitational potential energy changes
2 2
gx Z 0 )
c 12 60 2
= = 1,800 J/kg = 1.8 kJ/kg
2 2
c 22 150 2
= = 11,250 J/kg = 11.25 kJ/kg
2 2
W
= 14,000 kW,
W w= = 14,000/17 = 823.5 kJ/kg
m
c 22 c 12
Substituting in SFEE: q+w = (h2 - h1)+{ - }
2 2
q - 823.5 = 360 - 1200 + 11.25 - 1.8
q = -7.02 kJ/kg (energy rejected)
= mq
Q = - 7.02 x 17 = - 119.3 kW
c12 c2
(note that and 2 are very small here compared with the other terms)
2 2
cA
mv
=
m A=
v c
17 x 0.5 2
A1 = = 0.142 m
60
The energy transfer by heating is small compared with the work done. This is generally the
case in turbines where the flow rate is high so there is little time for energy transfer by
heating. Turbines are very compact machines, producing a great deal of power from a
relatively small device.
(b) NOZZLE
A nozzle is a duct of varying cross sectional area so designed that a drop in pressure
between inlet and outlet accelerates the flow.
system boundary
.
m m
.
1 2
c1<c2, p1 > p2
The flow rate is generally sufficiently high that little energy is lost from the system by heating.
q=0 (adiabatic)
Also, no work is done on or by the system.
The SFEE becomes:
c 22 c12 c 22 c12
0 = h2 - h1 + i.e. = h1 – h2 (all units are in J/kg)
2 2 2 2
However, when c1 is very low compared to c2, c1 is not considered and the formula simplifies
C 22
to: h when enthalpy h is in J/kg.
2
(c) THROTTLING
A flow of fluid is said to be throttled when some restriction is placed in the flow. The duct
area after the throttle is usually similar to that before. A partially closed valve in a pipeline
is an example.
Throttles are used to control mass flow rate.
The term throttling is usually applied to relatively low speed flows, so that the kinetic energy
terms can be ignored.
Energy transfer by heating can be neglected since the process occurs over such a short
length of pipe that the surface area for heating is small.
system boundary
.
m
.
m
1 2
p2 < p1
The sudden restriction of the flow induces turbulence, which results in a loss of pressure
due to friction within the turbulent flow. The initial increase in velocity at the throat is
dissipated by viscous friction.
Kinetic energy in a turbulent flow is transferred from the large-scale fluid motion to smaller
and smaller eddies down a chain of ever decreasing size. Eventually the energy is
transferred at the molecular level to increase the thermal energy of the molecules.
The system boundary is far enough downstream so that the velocity distribution has become
ordered again.
c2 c12
= m(h
Q 2 - h1 + 2
- + gz2 - gz1)
2 2
1. A steam turbine receives a steam flow of 1.35 kg/s and delivers 500 kW. The
heat loss from the casing is negligible.
(a) find the change of enthalpy across the turbine when the velocities at
entrance and exit and the difference in elevation at entrance and exit are
negligible.
(b) Find the change of enthalpy across the turbine when the velocity at
entrance is 60 m/s, the velocity at exit is 360 m/s, and the inlet pipe is 3m
above the exhaust pipe.
(-370 kJ/kg; -433 kJ/kg)
2. A steady flow of steam enters a condenser with an enthalpy of 2300 kJ/kg and a
velocity of 350 m/s. The condensate leaves the condenser with an enthalpy of
160 kJ/kg and a velocity of 70 m/s. Find the heat transfer to the cooling fluid per
kg of steam condensed.
(-2199 kJ/kg)
3. A turbine operating under steady flow conditions receives steam at the following
3
state: pressure 13.8 bar; specific volume 0.143 m /kg, internal energy 2630
kJ/kg, velocity 90 m/s. The state of the steam leaving the turbine is: pressure
3
0.34 bar, specific volume 4.65 m /kg, internal energy 2472 kJ/kg, velocity 150
m/s. Heat is lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.25 kJ/s. If the rate of steam
flow is 0.38 kg/s, what is the power developed by the turbine?
(71.97 kW)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 30
Perfect Gas
4. Cp, Cv and R
It can be shown mathematically that:
Cp C v R
Marine Thermodynamics 2 31
Perfect Gas
Thus, if the temperature of a perfect gas increases by T , its specific internal energy
increases by u , regardless of the process. Internal energy is a function of temperature
alone for a perfect gas.
Also,
q-w=U non-flow energy equation
u Cv T internal energy change of a perfect gas
q w Cv T non-flow energy equation for a perfect gas
(attempt exercises 4, 5, and 6)
or p1v1 p 2 v 2
Cp
Cv
= 1.4 for diatomic gases (CO, H2, N2, O2, Air)
= 1.6 for monatomic gases (A, He)
= 1.3 for triatomic gases (CO2, SO2)
(attempt exercise 7)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 32
Perfect Gas
2
Now, w pdv for p-v work
1
p1 v1n p2 vn2
also, p
vn vn
Thus, for a polytropic process
2 p1 vn
1 p1v1n v12n p1v1n v11n
w dv
1 v
n 1 n
p v p1v1 p - v WORK IN A
w 2 2
n1 POLYTROPIC PROCESS
Marine Thermodynamics 2 33
Perfect Gas
T2 T1
Now, w R (p-v work for a polytropic process for a perfect gas)
n1
Also, q w u2 u1
q Cv T 2 T1 R
T2 T1 for a perfect gas
n1
R R R
T 2 T1 T 2 T1 as C v
1 n 1 1
n R
q T T
1 n-1 2 1
n
q w
1
Now, is a property of the gas, so “n” indicates the amount of energy transferred by heating
(n = index of expansion or compression).
n= , q = 0 i.e. adiabatic
(attempt exercise 13)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 34
Perfect Gas
p v p v RT
or p 1 1 2 2
v v v
2 2
dv
Also, w pdv (p-v work) w RT ,
v
1 1
Marine Thermodynamics 2 35
Perfect Gas
p
1
1
* isothermal compression u 0, q w
pv constant
w p1v1 ln v1 / v2
Marine Thermodynamics 2 36
Perfect Gas
q u2 u1 p v 2 v1
It is convenient to group the u and pv terms into a new thermodynamic property, enthalpy
(h):
h = u + pv (J/kg)
(H = U + PV) (J)
h1 u1 p1v1
h2 u2 p2v2 (p1 = p2 = p) in this case
Marine Thermodynamics 2 37
Perfect Gas
Marine Thermodynamics 2 38
Perfect Gas
mi
p n V also, R Ri ,
Generally, i i i m
p n V
where, R=gas constant of the mixture
Ri=gas constant of each component
mi=mass of each component
m=total mass
Molar (universal) gas constant R0=8.3144 kJ/k mol K
The kg-mole of a substance is a mass of that substance numerically equal to its molucular
weight. The kg-mole may be simply abbreviated to mol.
Avogadro’s law: under equal conditions of temperatures and pressure, equal volumes of
all gases contain the same number of molecules.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 39
Perfect Gas
Example:
Two gases A and B of masses 5.52 kg and 18.48 kg respectively are contained in a vessel
of 20m3 capacity. If the specific gas constants are 0.26 kJ/kgK and 0.297 kJ/kgK,
calculate:
(a) partial pressures of the gases at 20oC
(b) temperature when the total pressure is 0.4 bar
mA=5.52 kg
mB=18.48 kg m = 5.52+18.48 = 24.00 kg
V=20 m3
RA=0.26 kJ/kgK
RB=0.297 kJ/kgK
t=20oC, T=293K use pV=mRT or p=mRT/V
(a)
5.52 0.26 293
pA 210257
. kPa
20
18.48 0.297 293
pB 80.4074kPa
20
p=21.0257+80.4074=101.433 kPa (Dalton)
PA + PB
(b)
p=40kPa
mi 5.52 18.48
R Ri 0.26 0.297 0.28849kJ / kgK
m 24 24
pV 40 20
T 115.544K
mR 24 0.28849
T2 p2 293 40
or T2 115.544K
T1 p1 101433
.
(attempt exercise 18)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 40
Perfect Gas
1. Oxygen, O2, at 200 bar is stored in a steel vessel at 20oC. The capacity of the vessel
is 0.04 m3. Assuming that O2 is a perfect gas, calculate the mass of oxygen that can
be stored in the vessel. The vessel is protected against excessive pressure by a
fusible plug, which will melt if the temperature rises too high. At what temperature
must the plug melt to limit the pressure in the vessel to 240 bar?
(10.5 kg; 78.6oC)
2. A vessel of volume 0.65 m3 contains air at 27.6 bar and 18oC. Calculate the final
pressure after 3.5 kg of air is added if the final temperature is 20.5 oC.
(32.373 bar)
4. When a certain gas is heated at constant pressure from 15 oC to 95oC, the heat
required is 1136 kJ/kg. When the same gas is heated at constant volume between the
same temperatures the heat required is 808 kJ/kg. Calculate CP, CV and R.
(14.2 kJ/kgK; 10.1 kJ/kgK; 4.1 kJ/kgK)
5. 1 kg of air enclosed in a rigid container is initially at 4.8 bar and 150 oC. The container
is heated until the temperature is 200oC. Calculate the pressure of the air finally and
the energy supplied by heating during the process.
(5.37 bar; 35.9 kJ)
6. In an air compressor the pressures at inlet and outlet are 1 bar and 5 bar respectively.
The temperature of the air at inlet is 15oC and the volume at the beginning of
compression is three times that at the end of compression. Calculate the temperature
of the air at outlet and the increase of internal energy per kg of air.
(207°C; 138 kJ/kg)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 41
Perfect Gas
n
8. Gas is expanded in an engine cylinder, following the law pv = constant, where n=1.3.
The initial pressure is 2550 kPa and the final pressure is 210 kPa. If the volume at the
end of expansion is 0.75 m3, calculate the volume at the beginning of expansion.
(0.1099 m3)
10. 0.014 m3 of air at 66oC, 10 bar is expanded adiabatically in an insulated cylinder. The
temperature at the end of expansion is 2oC. Calculate the volume at the end of
expansion and the work done.
(0.02362 m3; -6.61kJ)
11. 1kg of air at 1 bar, 15oC is compressed adiabatically to a pressure of 4 bar. Calculate
the final temperature and the work done on the air.
(155OC; 100.5 kJ)
12. Nitrogen expands in a perfectly thermally insulated cylinder from 3.5 bar, 200 oC to a
volume of 0.09m3. If the initial volume occupied was 0. 03m3, calculate the work done
during the expansion.
(-9.31 kJ)
13. 1 kg of air at 1.02 bar, 20oC is compressed reversibly according to a law pv1.3 =
constant, to a pressure of 5.5 bar. Calculate the work done on the air and the heat
flow to or from the cylinder walls during the compression.
(133.5 kJ; - 33.38 kJ)
14. 0.05m3 of a perfect gas at 6.3 bar undergoes an isothermal process to a pressure of
1.05 bar. Calculate the heat flow to or from the gas.
(56.4 kJ)
15. 1 kg of air is compressed isothermally from 1 bar and 30oC to 5 bar. Calculate the work
done on the air and the heat flow to or from the air.
(140 kJ; -140 kJ)
16. 0.05 kg of carbon dioxide, occupying a volume of 0.03m3 at 1.025 bar, is compressed
reversibly until the pressure is 6.15 bar. Calculate the final temperature, the work done
on the CO2, and the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls,
Marine Thermodynamics 2 42
Perfect Gas
17. Oxygen expands in a cylinder behind a piston at a constant pressure of 3 bar. The
volume initially is 0.01m3 and finally is 0.03m3; the initial temperature is 17°C.
Calculate the work done by the oxygen and the heat flow to or from the cylinder walls
during the expansion.
(6 kJ; 21.16 kJ)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 43
Compressors
The valves are usually spring loaded and operate automatically by the pressure difference
across them.
p
V1 = swept volume
V3 = clearance volume
3 delivery
2
p2
n
pV =constant
n
pV =constant
p1
4 1
intake
V
effective swept volume (V1-V4)
= actual volume induced
4 to 1 The inlet valve is open, and a volume of gas (V1 - V4) at p1 and T1 enters
the cylinder and mixes with the gas, which was trapped in the clearance volume and has
expanded back to p1 and T1.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 44
Compressors
2 to 3 The delivery valve opens at 2 when the cylinder pressure matches the
receiver pressure.
3 to 4 The gas trapped in the clearance volume expands from p 2, T2 to p1, T1,
polytropically. (Both valves closed)
For an idealised machine, all the processes are reversible, the state of the fluid at inlet and
outlet remains constant with time, and the kinetic energy at inlet and outlet is negligible.
Volumetric Efficiency
Clearance between the piston and the cylinder head at top dead centre (TDC) is necessary
to ensure mechanical freedom and to allow valves to open.
The gas trapped at TDC in the clearance volume at the end of delivery is at pressure p 2.
This gas expands according to the law pvn = constant as the piston descends, and the inlet
valve does not open until p1, is reached. Thus the actual volume induced is less than the
swept volume.
(In reality, volumetric efficiency is also reduced by pressure losses through the inlet and
heating of the incoming gas by the hot cylinder walls. Both these factors reduce the density
of the induced gas, and thus reduce the volume induced at intake conditions.)
Flow Rate
p V V 4 p 2 V 2 V 3
mass induced/cy cle = mass delivered/ cycle = 1 1
RT 1 RT 2
p p
m mass delivered / sec N 2 V 2 V3 N 1 V1 V 4 , N = cycles / sec .
RT 2 RT1
In a real machine, the flow rate is reduced by such factors as leakage past the piston
rings, pressure drop through the suction valve and heating of the suction gas as it enters
the cylinder by the warm cylinder walls.
The mass flow rate into the compressor is equal to the mass flow rate out of the compressor
for mass conservation (apart from leakage). Volume flow rate depends on the density of the
gas and so is different at inlet and outlet. Free Air Delivery is defined as the volume of air
delivered per second if that air was delivered at the intake conditions.
N(V V ) m RT1
Free Air Delivery V1 1 4
p1
Marine Thermodynamics 2 45
Compressors
n1
p n
Delivery Temperature T 2 T1 2
p1
Example:
A single stage reciprocating air compressor takes in air at 1.01 bar and 15 0C and delivers
it at 8 bar. The clearance volume is 6% of the swept volume. The stroke and bore are
100 and 60 mm respectively. The index of compression is 1.35. Find:
(a) the swept volume;
(b) the volume at which delivery commences (V2);
(c) the volume at which intake commences, (V4);
(d) the volumetric efficiency;
(e) the mass of air delivered per cycle;
(f) the delivery temperature.
first calculate V1
Marine Thermodynamics 2 46
Compressors
V V4
vol 1
Vswept
299.708 78.5775 221.131
0.78209
282.743 282.743
p V V4
m 1 1
RT1
1.0 105 299.708 10 6 78.5775 10 6
2.67531 10 4 kg
287 288
(note: Be careful to convert everything to base units in the equation of state. Thus, the
volumes in cm3 have been converted to m3 by multiplying by 10-6)
mass delivered per cycle = 2.67531x10-4 kg
Marine Thermodynamics 2 47
Compressors
n m
W R T2 T1
n 1
n1
p n
further, using T 2 2 ,
T1 p1
n 1
n
p2
n
W RT1
m 1
n 1
p1
.
, R, T1, p2 and p1, decreasing n decreases W )
(for constant m
Np1V1 V 4
n 1
n Np1 V1 V4 RT p2
n
also, using m , W
1
1
RT1 n 1 RT1 p1
n 1
p
N p1V1 V 4 2
n n
W 1
n 1 p1
mechanical efficiency MECH W
shaft power
p
Isothermal Power m
RT1 In 2
p 1
Isothermal Power
Isothermal Efficiency )
ISO
W
Example: A single stage reciprocating air compressor takes in 1m3 of air per minute at 1.013
bar and 15oC and delivers it at 7bar. Assuming that the law of compression is
pv1.35=constant, and Rair = 287 J/kgK, calculate the compressor power.
pV 1. 013x105 x1
1 1
mass delivered per second m 0. 0204kg / s
RT1 287x288x60
n 1 1.35 1
p n 7 1.35
delivery temperature T2 T1 2 288 475.2K (202.2 ºC)
p1 1.013
Marine Thermodynamics 2 48
Compressors
W n m R (T2 T1 )
n 1
1.35
Compressor power x 0.0204x 287(475.2 288)
1.35 1
4.23x10 3 W 4.23kW
V
Vc
Vs
Marine Thermodynamics 2 49
Compressors
To obtain the same flow at higher delivery pressure, it is more economical to split the
compression into two or more stages rather than simply increase the size of the cylinder. In
a multi stage machine, after being compressed to an intermediate pressure in the first stage,
the gas is passed into a smaller cylinder in which it is compressed to the final pressure. The
second cylinder is smaller than the first as the gas is denser after the initial compression.
For the same stroke and clearance height, the clearance volume is smaller.
Multi-stage compression is equivalent to reducing the clearance volume of the single stage
machine
p2
pi
p1
clearance V
volume
2nd stage
clearance volume
1st stage
Marine Thermodynamics 2 50
Compressors
Intercooling
Multi stage compression allows the use of an intercooler between the two stages, which
reduces the driving power for the second stage, which will be of smaller volume.
p2
pi
p1
In the limit, as the number of stages is increased with intercooling, the work input
approaches the isothermal work input, which is the theoretical condition for minimum work.
Complete Intercooling is where the gas enters the second stage at the same temperature
at which it entered the first stage (T1)
p2 .
p and W1 W 2
i
p1
The Ideal Intermediate Pressure for minimum work is where the pressure ratio is the same
for both stages.
(i) The higher pressures are confined to small cylinders, so the low pressure part
does not have to be as strong.
(ii) The multi cylinder arrangement is less difficult to balance and requires a
smaller flywheel.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 51
Compressors
A ir P re ssu re
R e lei f G auge
v /v S ot p
A irF i let r C oo el r C oo el r V a vl e
1 2 3 4
W a et r
R e lei f C oo lni g
v /v D ra ni W a et r
Out
C oo lni g
W a et r
nI LP C oo lni g S pa ces HP
P si ot n & P si ot n &
C y lni de r C y lni de r
1 & 3 : S u c toi n V a vl e
2 & 4 : D si cha rge V a vl e
1. A single acting reciprocating air compressor has a swept volume of 1600 cm 3 and a
clearance volume of 50cm3. The intake and delivery pressures are 1 bar and 6 bar
respectively and the index of compression and expansion is 1.25. Calculate:
2. Air is to be compressed in a single stage reciprocating compressor from 1.013 bar and
15°C to 7 bar. Calculate the indicated power required for an air intake of
0.3 m3/min at inlet conditions when the compression process is:
(a) Isentropic (reversible adiabatic process, P1 V1 C )
Marine Thermodynamics 2 52
Compressors
(i) the power to drive the machine if the mechanical efficiency is 80%;,
(ii) the required swept volume at 500 rev/min if the volumetric efficiency is 85%
4. A single stage, single acting, reciprocating air compressor has a bore and stroke of
150mm. The clearance volume is 6% of the swept volume and the speed is 8 rev/s.
Intake pressure is 100 kN/m2 and the delivery pressure is 550 kN/m2. The polytropic
index is 1.32 throughout. Determine:
5. Explain why the volumetric efficiency of a reciprocating compressor is always less than
100%. Illustrate your answer with a p-V diagram.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 53
Second Law
SECOND LAW is concerned with energy quality (eg. how much of the energy supplied to a
device by heating can be converted into useful work) and the direction of processes.
1. Kelvin-Planck Statement
"It is impossible to convert all the energy supplied by heating from a single source into
useful work in a continuous manner" (energy quality)
2. Clausius Statement
"Energy transfer by heating will not occur naturally from a low temperature to a high
temperature" (direction of processes)
These two statements result from observation of actual phenomena. They represent the
practical consequences of an underlying natural tendency for matter and energy to become
more disorganised. (The complementary natural tendency is for matter to move to lower
energy states).
Marine Thermodynamics 2 54
Second Law
Source of Internal
Energy At T
A
q
supplied
System boundary
- contains the working fluid.
q
rejected
Sink of Internal
Energy at T
B
qsupplied represents the amount of the energy transferred by heating from the high
temperature source to the working fluid.
qrejected represents the amount of the energy transfer by heating from the working fluid to
the low temperature sink.
wout represents the magnitude of the useful work done by the system on its surroundings.
qrejected>0 according to the Kelvin-Planck Statement of the Second Law.
By the First Law, q - w = u. However, the working fluid undergoes a complete cycle, so
there is no net change in internal energy of the system.
Thus, q - w = 0 or q = w
where q represents the net energy supply to the system by heating.
w represents the net work done on the system
Marine Thermodynamics 2 55
Second Law
qsupplied - qrejected
but wout = qsupplied - qrejected TH
qsupplied
w out
TH
qsupplied
Thermal Efficiency of Any Heat Engine.
qrejected
1
qsupplied
BOILER
CONDENSER
ENERGY REJECTED
Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engine: The system changes from air or fuel/air mixture
to combustion products during the cycle. Energy is supplied by release of the chemical
potential energy of the fuel air mixture during combustion, resulting in hot, high-pressure
combustion products. Work is developed in the expansion stroke as the high temperature,
high-pressure combustion products push the piston outwards. (Some of the work is
developed in the expansion stroke is used in the compression stroke). Energy not converted
to work is rejected to the atmosphere in the exhaust gases and via the engine cooling
system. The atmosphere can be envisaged as the link between exhaust and intake to
complete the cycle.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 56
Second Law
Isothermal
Source of Internal
Energy At T
A
q
supplied
System boundary
T
A
Reversible
Heat Engine wout
Cycle
TB
q
rejected
Isothermal
Sink of Internal
Energy at T
B
qrejected
TH 1 for any heat engine cycle.
qsupplied
TB
TH 1
max TA
* The higher the temperature at which energy is supplied by heating to the heat engine
cycle, the greater the proportion of this energy, which can be converted into useful work.
* The lower the temperature at which the unconverted energy is rejected from the heat
engine cycle, the greater the proportion of supplied energy, which can be converted into
useful work.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 57
Second Law
ENTROPY
As the energy of a system becomes more disorganised, the system's entropy increases.
The entropy of any closed system, which is thermally isolated from its surroundings, either
increases or, if the process is reversible, remains constant.
Isentropic Process
For adiabatic processes, there is no energy transfer by heating so there is no entropy
transfer.
For reversible processes, there is no entropy created.
For reversible adiabatic processes, there is no change in the entropy of the system
Marine Thermodynamics 2 58
Second Law
2. A closed system of gas is subject to a heat engine cycle consisting of four non-flow
processes.
Apply the First Law of thermodynamics to each process and complete the table.
Hence find the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
3. What is the maximum possible efficiency for a heat engine operating cyclically between
a constant temperature source at 1000 K and a constant temperature sink at 300 K?
(70%)
4. Describe two ways in which the entropy of a system may increase.
(b) Unrestrained expansion (or explosion) and uncontrolled electron exchange (chemical
reaction) are highly irreversible and so generate entropy. Likewise, unrestrained opening
of the mouth to scatter angry words is highly irreversible, generates entropy and can
cause considerable damage. A person who gets up in anger is bound to sit down at a loss.
(c) Students who make the effort to file new information properly by relating it to their
existing knowledge base and creating a solid information network in their minds are low
entropy (organised) learners.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 59
Ideal Cycles
The many processes involved in real heat engines are complex. To allow an understanding
of the basic processes involved within the cycles, and as a basis of comparison for real
cycles, "air standard cycles" have been formulated.
AIR STANDARD CYCLES: The working substance is assumed to be air throughout, all
processes are assumed to be reversible, and the source and sink for energy supply and
rejection by heating are assumed to be external to the working substance.
T3=maximum temperature
2 3 p2=p3
p1=p4
1 4
The energy supply and rejection by heating occur at constant pressure. The expansion and
compression processes are adiabatic and reversible.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 60
Ideal Cycles
TH 1 T 4 T1
T3 T 2
1 1
1
p p
T
note 2 2
T1 p1
3
p4
T
3 rp
T4
p2 p3
Where rp = pressure ratio =
p1 p4
also
T1 T 4 1
TH 1 1
T 4 T1 r p( 1)/ r p( 1)/
Marine Thermodynamics 2 61
Ideal Cycles
Example:
In a gas turbine unit, air is drawn in at 1.02 bar and 15°C and is compressed to
6.12 bar. Calculate the thermal efficiency and the net work output of the
corresponding air standard cycle, when the maximum temperature is limited to
800°C. Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and = 1.4
air
now,
T1 = 273 + 15 = 288K,
1 0.4
p2 6.12 14
.
T2 T1 288
p1 1.02
T3 1073
T4 643.08K
16685
. 16685
.
T1 643.08 288
1 T4 1 = 0.401 (40.1%)
TH
T3 T2 1073 480.53
1
or th 1 ηth= 1
1
1.4 1 = 0.40006 (40.1%)
rp
1
6.12 1.4
1.02
= 0.401 (40.1%)
Net work output = CP T3 T 2 CP T 4 T1
= 1.005 (1073 - 480.53 + 288 - 643.08)
= 238.6 kJ/kg
Marine Thermodynamics 2 62
Ideal Cycles
T3=maximum temperature
V1=V4
V2=V3 4
Marine Thermodynamics 2 63
Ideal Cycles
and TH
w out Cv T3 T2 Cv T4 T1
qsup plied Cv T3 T2
TH 1 T 4 T1
T3 T 2
1 1
T2 v1 v 1
3 r v
T
note 4
T1 v 2 v3 T4
where,
also
1 1
T 3
T r
4 v
, T2 T1 r v
T1 T 4 1 1
TH 1 1 however, th 1 also.
T 4 T1 r v 1 r v 1 1
rp
Marine Thermodynamics 2 64
Ideal Cycles
Example:
Calculate the ideal air standard thermal efficiency based on the Otto cycle for an
engine with a cylinder diameter of 50mm, a stroke of 75mm and a clearance
volume of 21.3cm3. Calculate the net work per cycle if the energy supplied by
heating per cycle is 930 kJ/ kg
Swept volume: = x 502 x75 x 10-3
4
= 147.2cm3
168.5
rv 7.92
213
.
1
TH 1
r v 1
1
TH 1 0.563 56.3%
7.920.4
Net work = TH
x q supplied
Marine Thermodynamics 2 65
Ideal Cycles
𝑄2
𝜂 =1−
𝑄1
At constant pressure per kg of air,
𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Also at constant volume per kg of air,
𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑐 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )
There is no heat flow in processes 1 to 2 and 3 to 4 since these processes are isentropic.
Hence by substituting for Q1 and Q2 in the expression for thermal efficiency the following
equation may be derived:
(𝛽 𝛾 − 1)
𝜂 =1−
(𝛽 − 1)𝑟 𝛾−1 𝛾
𝑣
(where 𝛽 = 𝑣3 = 𝑐𝑢𝑡 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)
2
The equation shows that the termal efficiency depends not only on the compression ratio
𝑣
but also on the heat supplied between 2 and 3, which fixes the ratio 𝑣3. The equation is
2
derived by expressing each temperature in terms of 𝑇1 and 𝑟𝑣 or 𝛽. The derivation is not
given here, because it is believed that the best method of working out the thermal
efficiency is to calculate each temperature individually round the cycle, and then apply
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1−
𝑄1
This is shown in the following example.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 66
Ideal Cycles
Example:
A diesel engine has an inlet temperature and pressure of 15°C and 1 bar
respectively.
The compression ratio is 12/1 and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100°C.
Calculate the air standard thermal efficiency based on the diesel cycle.
𝑇2 𝑣 𝛾−1
𝛾−1
=(𝑣1 ) = 𝑟𝑣 = 120.4 = 2.7
𝑇1 2
∴ 𝑇2 = 2.7 × 288 = 778𝐾
𝑇3 𝑣 𝛾−1
Thus using equation = (𝑣4 ) = 6.80.4 = 2.153
𝑇4 3
1373
∴ 𝑇4 = 2.153=638K
Most oil engines have their fuel injected by a camshaft driven fuel pump and a spring-
loaded injector. The ideal cycle used as a basis for comparison is called the dual
combustion cycle or the mixed cycle and is shown on the 𝑝 − 𝑣 diagram below.
The above equation is much too cumbersome to use, and the best method of calculating
thermal efficiency is to evaluate each temperature round the cycle and then use the well-
known efficiency equation:
𝑄2
𝜂 = 1−
𝑄1
The heat supplied is found by 𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )+𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ) as heat is added at constant
volume and constant pressure respectively.
The heat rejected 𝑄2 , is given by 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 )
Marine Thermodynamics 2 68
Ideal Cycles
Example:
A diesel engine takes in air at 1.01 bar, 20°C (293K) and the maximum cycle
pressure is 69 bar. The compression ratio is 18⁄1. Calculate the air standard
thermal efficiency based on the dual combustion cycle. Assume that the heat
added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure.
𝑇2 𝑣1 𝛾−1
=( ) = 180.4 = 3.18
𝑇1 𝑣2
𝑇2 = 3.18 × 𝑇1
𝑇2 =3.18× 293 = 931𝐾
𝑝 𝑇
From 2 to 3 the process is at constant volume, hence, 𝑝3 = 𝑇3
2 2
𝑝3 𝑣3 𝑝2 𝑣2
(since = , and 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 )
𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑝3 69 × 931
𝑇3 = × 𝑇2 =
𝑝2 𝑝2
𝑝 𝑣 𝛾
To find 𝑝2 use equation 𝑝2 = (𝑣1 ) = 181.4 = 57.2
1 2
𝑝2 = 57.2 × 1.01 = 57.8 bar
Then substituting,
69 × 931
𝑇3 =
= 1112𝐾
57.8
Now the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at constant pressure in
this example, therefore
𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )
∴ 0.718(1112 − 931) = 1.005(𝑇4 − 1112)
0.718 × 181
𝑇4 = + 1112
1.005
𝑇4 = 1241𝐾
𝑣
To find 𝑇5 it is necessary to know the value of the volume ratio, 𝑣5 . At constant pressure
4
from 3 to 4,
𝑣4 𝑇4 1241.4
= = = 1.116
𝑣3 𝑇3 1112
Therefore,
𝑣5 𝑣1 𝑣1 𝑣3 1
= = = 18 × = 16.14
𝑣4 𝑣4 𝑣2 𝑣4 1.116
Marine Thermodynamics 2 69
Ideal Cycles
𝑇4 𝑣 𝛾−1
To find T5 we use = (𝑣5 ) = 16.140.4 = 3.04
𝑇5 4
1241.4
𝑇5 = = 408𝐾
3.04
The heat supplied is given by: 𝑄1 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )+𝑐𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 ) or 𝑄1 = 2𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
(since in this example the heat added at constant volume is equal to the heat added at
constant pressure).
∴ 𝑄1 = 2 × 0.718 × (1112 − 9310) = 260 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
The heat rejected is given by: 𝑄2 = 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇5 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.718(408 − 293) = 82.6 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑄 82.6
The thermaleffficiency is now: 𝜂 = 1 − 𝑄2 = 1 − 260 = 1 − 0.318 = 0.682 or 68.2%
1
It should be mentioned that the modern high-speed diesel engine operates on a cycle for
which the Otto cycle is a better basis of comparison. Also, since the Otto cycle calculation
for thermal efficiency is much simpler than that of the dual combustion cycle, then this is
another reason for using the Otto cycle as a standard of comparison.
Note: It should be realised that the thermal efficiencies of the theoretical processes and
that of the actual processes will differ considerably. E.g. the theoretical efficiency of the
Otto-process with a compression ratio 𝑟𝑣 = 7.92 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 1.4 is 56.3%; the acual efficiency
is only about 22%.
One of the reasons is: for calculation purposes a gas (air) with simple properties has been
used. However, due to dissociation that takes place at temperatures above 1400℃ (when
molecules disintegrate) a lot of heat is bound which results in a lower final temperature,
whilst 𝑐𝑝 and 𝑐𝑝 are also dependent on the temperature. On the other hand, the
compression and expansion curves don’t resemble the actual ones. During compression
heat is absorbed by the gas as long as the the temperature of it is lower than that of the
cylinder walls. However, heat will be dissipated when the gas temperature is higher than
the cylinder walls.
In petrol engines 𝑛 = 1.3 during compression and 𝑛 = 1.5 during expansion. However, the
processes occur more adiabatically if the number of revolutions increases. Furthermore,
the actual diagram is smaller because both the combustion and the discharge of the gases
take some time so that the sharp corners of the diagram are rounded-off. The effective
work of a four-stroke engine should also be reduced with the work necessary for the
suction and discharge stroke.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 70
Ideal Cycles
1. A closed cycle gas turbine unit operating with maximum and minimum temperatures of
760°C and 20°C has a pressure ratio of 7/1 Calculate the ideal thermal efficiency and
the net work per cycle.
2. In an air standard Otto cycle the maximum and minimum temperature are 1400°C and
15°C. The heat supplied per kg of air is 800 kJ. Calculate the compression ratio and
the thermal efficiency. Calculate also the ratio of maximum to minimum pressures in
the cycle.
4. What lessons can be learned from ideal cycles about real cycles?
5. The compression ratio in a diesel engine is 13 to 1 and the ratio of expansion is 6.5 to
1. At the beginning of compression the temperature is 32°C. Assuming adiabatic
compression and expansion, calculate the temperatures at the three remaining
cardinal points of the cycle, and the ideal thermal efficiency, taking 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾
and 𝑐𝑣 = 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 respectively.
(577.9°C, 1428.8°C, 531.8°C, 58.04%)
6. The compression ratio of a diesel engine working on the dual-combustion cycle is 10.7.
The pressure and temperature of the air at the beginning of compression is 1 bar and
32°C. The maximum pressure and temperature during the cycle is 41 bar and 1593°C.
Assuming adiabatic compression and expansion, calculate the pressures and
temperatures at the remaining cardinal points of the cycle and the ideal thermal
efficiency. Take 𝑐𝑝 = 1.005𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 and 𝑐𝑣 = 0.718 𝑘𝐽/𝑘𝑔𝐾 respectively.
(𝑝2 = 27.62 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇2 = 514.2℃, 𝑇3 = 896℃; 𝑝5 = 2.858 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇5 = 598.6℃; 58.25%)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 71
Engine Performance
Indicator Diagram
(supercharged 4 stroke)
expansion (power)
compression
injection begins
exhaust
intake
V
TDC BDC
Marine Thermodynamics 2 72
Engine Performance
Typical Four-Stroke
Medium Speed Diesel
Engine
Marine Thermodynamics 2 73
Engine Performance
2. Two-Stroke Cycle
A good example is the low speed marine diesel engine with uniflow scavenging. Refer to
the engine diagram and the timing diagram.
As the piston nears the end of the power stroke (expansion stroke), the exhaust valve opens,
allowing the pressure in the cylinder to fall rapidly as the combustion products escape. This
enables scavenge air (charge air) under pressure to enter the cylinder when the scavenge
ports are uncovered by the descending piston. The scavenge air flows up the cylinder forcing
the remaining exhaust gas out past the exhaust valve.
The piston rises, covering the scavenge ports. The exhaust valve closes, and the
compression begins.
The piston rises further, compressing the air to a high temperature and pressure. Fuel is
injected and combustion commences near TDC and proceeds part way into the expansion
stroke. The cycle is repeated.
Unlike the four-stroke cycle, the two-stroke cycle does not have the exhaust and induction
strokes to perform the gas exchange process. Thus, pressurised charge air must be
supplied from another source, usually a turbocharger (turbo blower)
Turbo charging
The waste energy in the exhaust gases can be partially utilised in a small turbine, which
drives a rotary air compressor. Thus pressurised charge air can be produced without any
additional fuel expenditure.
In both four stroke and two stroke engines, the use of compressed charge air results in a
higher trapped mass which allows a greater amount of fuel to be burnt per cycle, improving
efficiency and reducing engine size.
exhaust valve
opens
compression
injection begins
V
scavenge ports BDC
TDC open and close
Marine Thermodynamics 2 74
Engine Performance
Uni-flow scavenge
process
Typical slow-speed
crosshead diesel engine
Marine Thermodynamics 2 75
Engine Performance
3. Performance Criteria
IMEP = a constant pressure acting on the piston over one stroke which would do the same
work as the actual pressure over the whole cycle.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 76
Engine Performance
The difference between BP and IP is the friction power, which is the power required to
overcome the frictional resistance of the engine parts, and to drive auxiliaries. Friction power
is a strong function of engine speed.
FP = IP - BP
BP
MECH = , usually 80% to 90%
IP
BP
i.e. TH =
fuel x LCV
or TH =
3600
B m B BSFC x LCV
fuel = fuel mass flow rate (kg/s)
where m
LCV = Lower Calorific Value of the fuel (J/kg)
The calorific value is the quantity of energy released by the fuel in combustion, (as measured
in a calorimeter).
Marine Thermodynamics 2 77
Engine Performance
fuel
m
BSFC = (kg/kWh)
BP
fuel is the fuel flow rate in kg/h.
where m
(different from that used in TH )
B
and BP has the units kWatts (not Watts).
It can be seen that:
1
BSFC
TH
B α= proportional
Similarly Indicated Thermal Efficiency and Indicated Specific Fuel Consumption are taken
relative to Indicated Power.
BP
BMEP =
VswN n
BMEP T
where T = brake torque
Marine Thermodynamics 2 78
Engine Performance
Example:
A four cylinder four-stroke internal combustion engine of bore 80mm and stroke 110mm
develops an indicated power of 47.85 kW when running at 74 rev/s. The fuel consumption
is 13.75 kg/h and the lower calorific value of the fuel is 42MJ/kg.
Calculate:
(i) the indicated mean effective pressure
(ii) the indicated thermal efficiency
n=4
4 stroke
IP=47.85kW
N=74 rev/sec N’=74/2 cycles/sec
f 13.75 kg / h
m
LCV=42 MJ/kg
stroke=110 mm = 0.10 m
bore=80 mm = 0.080 m
Vsw 4 bore 2 stroke 5.5292 10 4 m 3
IP 47.85 10 3
IMEP 584.755 10 3 Pa 5.85 bar
4 74
Vsw N' n 5.529 10 4
2
IP 47.85 103
TH 0.298 29.8%
I m f LCV 13.75 6
42 10
3600
Marine Thermodynamics 2 79
Engine Performance
At part loads, only a small portion of the air induced is used in combustion, so the overall air
fuel ratio is very much higher than chemically correct air fuel ratio.
At high loads, the overall air fuel ratio is greater than chemically correct, but the limitations
imposed by the mixing process may result in regions of low air fuel ratio and incomplete
combustion, with smoke in the exhaust.
At very low loads, the combustion process may be inhibited by the quenching effect of the
large quantity of excess air.
Thermal Efficiency
At very high loads, thermal efficiency may decrease, as the large mass of fuel injected per
cycle cannot be burned completely due to mixing limitations.
At low loads, thermal efficiency is small because friction power is a greater proportion of
the total.
At high speeds, thermal efficiency decreases because friction power is large.
At low speeds, more time is available for heat transfer from the combustion gases, so a
larger proportion of the fuel energy is lost to the cooling water, resulting in a lower thermal
efficiency.
Mechanical Efficiency
Mechanical efficiency decreases as speed increases (at constant load) because friction
power increases with speed.
FP is very nearly constant at a given engine speed, and if the load is decreased giving lower
values of BP at constant speed, then the variation of MECH with BP at constant speed is:
MECH
BP
At zero BP, the engine is producing just enough power to overcome the frictional resistance,
so MECH= 0 and IP = FP.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 80
Engine Performance
1. The BMEP of a single cylinder four-stroke petrol engine is 0.8 MN/m2, and the specific
fuel consumption based on the brake power is 0.34 kg/kWh. The LCV of the fuel used
is 43 MJ/kg. The swept volume of the engine is 880 cm3. Find:
(a) the BP developed at a speed of 2500 rev/min,
(b) the brake thermal efficiency.
[14.67 kW; 24.62%]
2. A four cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine has a bore of 212mm and stroke 292mm. At
full load, at 720 rev/min, the BMEP is 5.93 bar and the brake specific fuel consumption
is 0.226 kg/kW h. Calculate the brake power and the brake thermal efficiency of the
engine. The calorific value of the fuel is 44,200 kJ/kg.
[146.7 kW; 36%]
3. A six cylinder, four-stroke, single acting diesel engine of 610mm bore and 990mm stroke
was run on test and the following data collected. Duration of test 2 h, average speed
128 rev/min, brake torque 73.4 kNm, IMEP 6.76 bar, fuel consumption 462 kg, calorific
value of fuel 44,500 kJ/kg. From this information determine:
(i) the indicated power developed
(ii) indicated thermal efficiency,
(iii) brake thermal efficiency,
(iv) the mechanical efficiency.
[(i) 1.25 MW, (ii) 43.25% (iii) 33.9% (iv) 78.4%]
4. A nine cylinder, two-stroke engine is required to develop an indicated power of 9.32 MW
at a speed of 115 rev/min with an indicated thermal efficiency of 40%. The calorific value
of the fuel is 41,800 kJ/kg and its specific gravity 0.868 kg/dm3 (or 868 kg/m3) Determine
the fuel consumption in tonne/h and the volume of fuel delivered per injection.
[2 tonne/h, 37 cm3]
5. A six cylinder 2-stroke diesel engine running at 120 rev/min has a bore of 900mm and a
stroke of 1300mm. The brake torque is 700 kNm, mechanical efficiency 94% and
specific fuel consumption on a brake power basis 0.24 kg/kW h. Determine:
(i) the brake power developed,
(ii) the indicated thermal efficiency,
(iii) the IMEP.
The calorific value of the fuel used is 42 MJ/kg.
[ (i) 8796 kW, (ii) 38%, (iii) 9.44 bar]
Marine Thermodynamics 2 81
Gas Turbines
GAS TURBINES
2 3
Compressor Turbine
4
1
Air Exhaust
Ideally, the compression in the rotary compressor and the expansion in the turbine are
adiabatic and frictionless i.e. ISENTROPIC.
qSUPPLIED wT
isobar p3=p2
2 4
qREJECTED
wC isobar p4=p1
s (entropy)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 82
Gas Turbines
The gas turbine is a steady flow device, and the Steady Flow Energy Equation can be
applied to individual processes within the cycle:
The flow rate through the compressor and turbine is high, and the surface area for energy
transfer by heating is small compared with the work term and can generally be ignored
wC = h2 - h1 = Cp (T2 - T1)
wT = h4 - h3 = Cp (T4 - T3)
p3 p2 p3 p2
Pressure ratio rp
p4 p1 p1 p4
1
T2 T3
T1 T 4
rp
(pv = constant, pv = RT)
Thermal Efficiency
ηth=
C T T C T T
p gas 3 4 pair 2 1
C T T p gas 3 2
The Cp term is not cancelled as Cp changes in the combustion process due to the change
in the composition of the working fluid.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 83
Gas Turbines
Isentropic Efficiency:
In reality, the expansion and compression are not frictionless, due to turbulence and fluid
friction resulting from the high flow rates. These irreversible processes produce entropy.
Thus for a real expansion in a turbine, or compression in a rotary compressor, the entropy
increases. Entropy production is always associated with a loss of useful work. The amount
of entropy increase is a measure of the frictional losses.
4
/
2 4
2/
In the turbine, friction means that less of the enthalpy will be converted into work.
In the compressor, friction means that more work has to be done to produce the same
pressure rise and the enthalpy increase will be greater.
The isentropic efficiency compares the temperature change for the real process with the
temperature change for the ideal frictionless process:
T3 T4 T1
TURB COMP T 2
/
T3 T4/ T 2 T1
Marine Thermodynamics 2 84
Gas Turbines
Example:
Calculate the thermal efficiency and work output per kg of working fluid of a simple gas
turbine plant, given the following conditions:
The maximum and minimum temperatures of the cycle are 1000K and 288K respectively,
the pressure ratio is 6, and the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.85
and 0.90 respectively. Take the working fluid as air throughout.
First, calculate the isentropic temperature changes in the turbine and compressor:
0.4 /1.4
T 2 / 288 x 6 = 288 x 1.6685 = 481K
1000
T4/ 599K
1.6685
Thus, actual temperatures
T 2 / T1 481 288
T2 T1 288 515K
COMP 0.85
T 4 T 3 TURB T 3 T 4 / 1000 0.901000 599 639K
thus,
Marine Thermodynamics 2 85
Gas Turbines
A heat exchanger, which preheats the working fluid before the combustion chamber (but
after the compressor), will increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle by recovering waste
energy from the exhaust, thus reducing the fuel required.
Compressor Turbine
2
5
3
1
5
3
5’
2
2’ 6
Marine Thermodynamics 2 86
Gas Turbines
There must be some temperature difference for finite heating rates, so T 3 is less than T5.
T2 is less than T6
The performance of the heat exchanger can be described:
T3 T2
Thermal ratio =
T5 T2
1
T2 / T
4 rp
T1 T5 /
net work output Cp g T 4 T 5 Cp a T 2 T1 ,
Cp g T 4 T 5 Cp a T 2 T1
TH
Cp g T 4 T 3
T4 T5 T1
TURB COMP T 2
/
T4 T5 / T 2 T1
1
calculate T 2 / and T 5 / using T 2/ T 4
rp
T1 T5/
(T4 is usually given as it is limited by metallurgical considerations at turbine inlet)
T1 T4 T5
COMP T 2 and TURB
/
calculate T2 and T5 using
T 2 T1 T4 T5 /
T3 T2
calculate T3 using Thermal ratio = (Heat Exchanger)
T5 T2
m
calculate power or mass flow rate using W w
Marine Thermodynamics 2 87
Gas Turbines
Rolls Royce recently published details of a 25 MW high efficiency and low emissions
marine gas turbine (WR21) and (LM2500).
The exhaust gas heat exchanger, intercooler and variable area nozzles on the turbine
have radically increased the efficiency compared to a simple cycle.
The exhaust gas heat exchanger is a type called a recuperator. The variable area nozzles
close progressively as the power reduces, reducing the mass flow rate. This keeps the
part load exhaust temperature high enough to maintain the recuperator temperature
differential for effective heat transfer.
The two-stage compression with intercooling reduces compressor work. The first two
stages of the turbine drive the two compressor stages. A separate power turbine drives the
propeller.
Marine Thermodynamics 2 88
Gas Turbines
1. In a gas turbine plant working on the ideal cycle the inlet temperatures to the
compressor and turbine are 15°C and 650°C respectively. If the pressure ratios are
both 4:1 determine the heat supplied per kg of working fluid during combustion, the
temperature at outlet from the turbine and the thermal efficiency of the plant. Assume
is 1.4 and Cp=1.005 kJ/kg K.
2. A simple gas turbine plant consists of a compressor and turbine, both having a
pressure ratio of 4:1. The inlet to the compressor is at 15°C and the compressor
isentropic efficiency is 0.8. The air passes from the compressor into a combustion
chamber where fuel of calorific value 43.5 MJ/kg is burnt. The outlet from the
combustion chamber and inlet to the turbine are at 650°C. Calculate:
Assume = 1.4 and Cp for both air and combustion products to be 1000 J/kg K.
3. A gas turbine unit has a pressure ratio of 6:1 and a maximum cycle temperature of
600°C. The isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine are 0.82 and 0.85
respectively. Calculate the power output of an electric generator geared to the turbine
when the air enters the compressor at 15°C with a mass flow rate of 15 kg/s.
4. A simple gas turbine consists of a compressor, turbine and generator on the same
shaft. The air leaving the compressor is heated in an exhaust heat exchanger prior to
entering the combustion chamber, which it leaves at 600°C. The pressure ratio of both
compressor and turbine is 4:1 and they each have an isentropic efficiency of 80%. Air
enters the compressor at 15°C. The heat exchanger has a thermal ratio of 75%.
Assuming the working fluid to be air, which may be treated as a perfect gas, calculate
the efficiency of the cycle.
[0.195]
Marine Thermodynamics 2 89
Gas Turbines
5. A simple gas turbine plant takes in air at 18°C, has a pressure ratio of 5 and an
isentropic efficiency of 84% for both compression and expansion. The temperature of
the gases entering the turbine is 670°C. Determine the theoretical percentage
improvement in thermal efficiency caused by the addition of an exhaust heat
exchanger having a thermal ratio of 75%. Assume = 1.4 throughout.
[35.6%]
6. (i) Explain how an exhaust gas heat exchanger improves the efficiency of a gas
turbine.
(ii) A gas turbine unit uses a heat exchanger for recovery of waste energy in the
exhaust. The thermal ratio of the heat exchanger is 0.75. The pressure ratio for both
turbine and compressor is 6:1. The turbine isentropic efficiency is 0.85. The
compressor isentropic efficiency is 0.81. The air temperature at inlet to the compressor
is 25°C and the temperature of the combustion gases at inlet to the turbine is 720°C.
The power output is 8.7MW. Calculate:
(a) mass flow rate of air
(b) thermal efficiency
for air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, =1.4
for combustion gases, Cp=1.17 kJ/kgK, =1.33
Sketch the plant layout and sketch the cycle on a T-s diagram.
(81.12kg/s, 27.01%)
Marine Thermodynamics 2 90
Properties of Liquids and Vapours
weighted piston
Constant pressure
heating device
system
Q
The temperature of a fixed mass of liquid, which is maintained at a constant pressure,
increases as its internal energy is increased. This continues until the onset of boiling.
When a liquid at boiling point (saturated liquid) is heated further, the additional energy
supply changes the phase from liquid to vapour. During this change of phase, liquid and
vapour exist together (mixed phases) and the temperature remains constant if the pressure
is held constant. This temperature is called the saturation temperature and it is a function of
pressure.
The vapour that is produced by the boiling process is called saturated vapour. The mixture
of saturated liquid and saturated vapour is called wet vapour. When the liquid has just
evaporated completely, the vapour is called dry saturated vapour
When dry saturated vapour is further heated its temperature rises above the saturation
temperature and it becomes superheated vapour.
As yet more energy is added, the temperature of the vapour departs further and further from
its saturation temperature, and its behaviour approaches that of a perfect gas.
T
all saturated liquid
u
liquid internal energy
region of evaporation
saturated vapour
saturated liquid
In the simple case of boiling water at constant pressure, the system is composed of two
well-separated phases - saturated liquid and saturated vapour. In real cases, the physical
distribution of the liquid and vapour in the mixture may not be so well defined. For instance
in the late stages of a steam turbine, the steam may become wet and small liquid droplets
will form.
Whatever the case, wet vapour can be considered to be a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapour in the proportions indicated by the dryness fraction.
Latent Energy of Evaporation
The energy supplied to convert unit mass of a saturated liquid into saturated vapour at
constant pressure is the latent energy of evaporation
But q h for a constant pressure non-flow process so the latent energy of evaporation is
given by the enthalpy difference between saturated vapour and saturated liquid at the given
pressure. Latent energy of evaporation is also known as enthalpy of evaporation.
Latent energy of evaporation varies with pressure.
(Note that the enthalpy of evaporation is greater than the internal energy of evaporation
because part of the supplied energy is used to do the work of expansion)
Remember: h=u+pv h2-h1=(u2-u1)+(p2v2-p1v1)
Δh=Δu+Δpv
Property Diagrams
The constant pressure heating experiment can be repeated for a range of values of
pressure, and the changes of the thermodynamic properties plotted on convenient
diagrams.
Pressure - volume:
SATURATED LIQUID
LINE
v
lines of constant temperature are horizontal
in the wet vapour region
A line, which joins the points at which the liquid begins to boil, is the saturated liquid line.
A line which joins the points at which the liquid is just all evaporated is the saturated vapour
line.
The point where the saturated liquid line and the saturated vapour line meet is called the
critical point.
Pressure - enthalpy:
p
SATURATED LIQUID LINE
isotherm
(constant temperature)
note:
-Lines of constant temperature (isotherms) are nearly vertical in the liquid region so
the enthalpy of liquids is nearly independent of pressure - depends only on
temperature (like the perfect gas)
-lines of constant temperature are horizontal in the wet vapour (mixed phase) region.
A p-h diagram for Refrigerant 134a is reproduced on the following page. It contains lines of
constant temperature, constant entropy, constant density and constant dryness fraction.
Solid Water
The behaviour of solids is only of passing interest in this subject. The specific volume of
solids is so small that they would not be detectable on a scaled p-v or T-v diagram.
H 2O isobar
liquid Evaporation
Evaporation
Fusion
normal substance isobar
liquid
solid
v
Water behaves differently from other substances in that it contracts on melting and also
contracts before it expands as its temperature is raised above the melting point.
Triple Point
At 273.16K, 0.006112 bar, ice, water and steam can coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium
in a closed vessel. This is the triple point, and is used as an easily reproducible point at
which to assign an arbitrary zero for the internal energy and enthalpy of water and for zero
on the Celsius scale.
- plot of boiling, melting and sublimation temperatures against pressure for water
𝜗 𝑚3⁄
𝑘𝑔
Saturated Water and Steam: (page 2)
The fluid properties on the saturation envelope are tabulated against temperature from 0°C
to 100°C.
Saturated Water and Steam (pages 3-5)
The fluid properties on the saturation envelope are tabulated against pressure. Each value
of pressure has one corresponding value of saturation temperature.
Latent energy of evaporation is maximum for lowest pressure and zero at the critical
pressure (221.2 bar)
Properties of Wet Vapour
Wet vapour is a mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapour. Whenever a liquid is in
equilibrium contact with its vapour, the vapour and liquid will be saturated.
The physical form of the mixture varies. The boundary between the saturated liquid and the
saturated vapour may be clearly defined in some cases. Or, initially superheated vapour
may become wet vapour during the expansion in a turbine, in which case the liquid will be
finely dispersed particles throughout the vapour. During the boiling process in a water tube
boiler, the physical form of the liquid/vapour mixture will be different again.
Regardless of the physical form of the wet vapour, its equilibrium properties are determined
by its dryness fraction
mass of saturated vapour mg
Dryness Fraction, x x
mass of saturated vapour and saturated liquid m f mg
saturated vapour
mg, vg, ug, hg
saturated liquid
mf, vf, uf, hf
Total internal energy of the system:
U = mf uf + mg ug
Specific internal energy of the system:
U mf mg
u uf ug
m m m
where m = mf + mg = total mass.
mg
but x dryness fraction
mf mg
uf x ug uf
similarly
h = hf + x (hg - hf) = hf + x hfg
and
v = vf + x (vg -vf)
but vf << vg
in summary
u uf x ug uf
h hf x hfg
PROPERTIES OF WET VAPOUR
s s f x s fg
v x vg
Example: Find the dryness fraction, specific volume and specific internal energy of steam
at 7 bar with enthalpy 2600 kJ/kg
At 7bar, hg = 2764kJ/kg, hf = 697kJ/kg
the steam is wet vapour.
u uf x ug uf
= 696 + 0.921 (2573 - 696) = 2424kJ/kg
t=350°C isotherm
110 bar
t - ts = 350-318
= 32K
ts =318°C
v
Also, at 110 bar, 350°C, h = 2889 kJ/kg
and u = h-pv = 2889 - 110x102 x 0.0196 x 10-3 = 2673.4 kJ/kg
interpolated value = start of interval + fraction of interval x (end of interval - start of interval)
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙−𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
NV=first +fraction(last – first) 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡−𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
Example: Find the temperature, specific volume, internal energy and enthalpy of
saturated steam at 9.8bar.
Interpolate between the values at 9 bar and the values at 10 bar, linearly.
9 bar 10 bar
ts 175.4 179.9
vg 0.2149 0.1944
ug 2581 2584
hg 2774 2778
9.8 9
t s 175.4 (179.9 175.4)
10 9
=175.4 + 0.8 x 4.5 = 179°C
hg = 2774 + 0.8 (2778 - 2774) = 2777.2 kJ/kg
ug = 2581 + 0.8 (2584 - 2581) = 2583.4 kJ/kg
vg = 0.2149 + 0.8 (0.1944 - 0.2149) = 0.1985 m3/kg
Example: Find the enthalpy of steam at 55 bar 320°C.
In this case, a double interpolation is required.
300°C 350°C
50 bar 2927 3070
60 bar 2887 3045
First, interpolate for pressure
at 300°C, 55 bar
55 50
h 2927 (2887 2927) 2907kJ / kg
60 50
at 350°C, 55bar
55 50
h 3070 (3045 3070) 3057.5kJ / kg
60 50
Second, interpolate for temperature
at 320°C, 55 bar
320 300
h 2907 (3057.5 2907) 2967.2kJ / kg
350 300
Advancd Marine Thermodynamics 101
Properties of Liquids and Vapours
Air in Condensers
The condenser pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of the air and the partial pressure
of the steam. Assume that the steam is saturated vapour at the condenser temperature.
Example:
A regenerative condenser, having a steam space of 5m 3 operates under the conditions
shown in column (i) of the following table. Some weeks later, during which there has been
a change in seawater temperature, the conditions shown in column (ii) of the table are
recorded. (1 hPa = 100 Pa = 1 millibar = 0.1 kPa)
(i) (ii)
Condenser Vacuum (hPa) 970 920
Steam temperature (OC) 29 35
Barometer (hPa) 1020 990
Determine the loss of vacuum due to increased air in the condenser and the mass of air in
the condenser under each set of conditions.
(i) absolute pressure = 1020-970 = 50 hPa =0.05 bar
vapour pressure of steam at 29OC = 0.04004 bar
partial pressure of air = 0.05 - 0.04004 = 0.00996 bar
(ii) absolute pressure = 990-920 = 70 hPa =0.07 bar
vapour pressure of steam at 35OC = 0.05629 bar
partial pressure of air = 0.07 - 0.05629 = 0.01371 bar
loss of vacuum = 0.01371- 0.00996 = 0.00375 bar = 3.75 hPa
pV=mRT
pV 0.996(kPa) 5(m3 )
mass of air in (i) = 0.0574kg
RT 0.2871(kJ / kgK) 302(K)
pV . (kPa) 5(m3 )
1371
mass of air in (ii) = 0.0775kg
RT 0.2871(kJ / kgK) 308(K)
1. Complete the following table using steam tables. Insert a dash for irrelevant items, and
interpolate where necessary.
p bar t °C v m3/kg x degree of h kJ/kg u kJ/kg
superheat
1 90 2.364
2 20 2799
3 5 0.3565
4 188 2400
5 34 0.9
6 81.3 0.85
7 3 200
8 15 0.152
9 130 3335
10 250 1.601
11 38.2 0.8
12 297 0.95
13 2.3 300
14 44 420
2. Sketch a pressure-volume diagram for steam and mark on it the following points, labelling
clearly the pressure, specific volume and temperature of each point. For each point in
the superheat region, sketch the isotherm on which it lies.
(a) p = 20 bar, t = 250°C
(b) t = 212.4°C, v = 0.09957 m3/kg
(c) p = 10 bar, h = 2650 kJ/kg
(d) p = 6 bar, h = 3166 kJ/kg
3. Calculate the internal energy for each of the four states given in exercise 2.
(2681, 2600, 2470, 2881, kJ/kg)
4. A vessel of volume 0.03 m3 contains saturated steam at 17 bar. Calculate the mass of
steam in the vessel and the enthalpy of this mass.
(0.257 kg, 718 kJ)
(i) (ii)
Condenser Vacuum (hPa) 965 925
Steam temperature (°C) 31 36
Barometer (hPa) 1020 1000
(0.00552bar, 0.05782kg, 0.08801kg)
7. The vacuum in a large regenerative marine condenser is recorded as 980 hPa at a time
when the exhaust steam temperature entering the condenser is 29°C and the barometer
reading is 1030 hPa. Determine the vacuum in the condenser at a later date when the
exhaust steam temperature is 32°C and the barometer is 980 hPa, assuming the mass
of air in the condenser is the same on both occasions. Determine also the mass of air
present per cubic meter of condenser volume.
(922.4 hPa, 0.01149 kg/m3)
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 1
SOLUTION TO EXERCISE 2
superheater
6
5 1
boiler turbine
2
4
3
feed condenser
pump
1
superheat
evaporation
5
6 expansion in turbine
4
feed pump
2
3 condensation 2’
s2’ = s1
s
Feed pump work is usually negligible, so h4 h3 and net work = turbine work.
3600
also, SSC = kg/kWh.
w turbine
Isentropic Efficiency
In the turbine, friction means that less of the enthalpy will be converted into work. Friction is
an irreversible process and results in entropy production. For adiabatic reversible expansion
in the turbine, s2 = s1. For adiabatic irreversible expansion in the turbine,
s2 > s1.
note:
wturbine = w12 = turbine (h2' - h1)
Tmin
note : max imum efficiency of any heat engine = 1 -
Tmax
This illustrates that the thermal efficiency of a cycle can be increased by increasing the
temperature of the working fluid during the heating part of the cycle and by decreasing the
temperature of the working fluid during the cooling part of the cycle
(a) Superheating
Superheating increases the mean temperature of the working fluid during the heating part
of the cycle and thus the thermal efficiency. An added advantage is that the steam is less
wet when in the low-pressure end of the turbine. Superheat increases the enthalpy of the
steam and so allows greater work output for the same steam flow. The maximum superheat
temperature is fixed by metallurgical considerations at about 600°C.
REHEAT
To increase the dryness fraction of the steam on exit from the turbine, the expansion in the
turbine can be split into more than one stage and the steam passed back through the boiler
between stages.
A steam plant operates with a boiler pressure of 42 bar and condenser pressure 0.035 bar.
The steam is superheated to 500°C. Calculate the Rankine thermal efficiency and specific
steam consumption. Neglect feed pump work. Assume isentropic expansion in the turbine.
at 0.035 bar
s sf 2 7.066 0.391
x2 2 0.821
sfg2 8.130
h2 = hf2 + x2 hfg2 hf2 = 112 kJ/kg hfg2 = 2438 kJ/kg at 0.035 bar
NET WORK h h
TH 1 2
Thermal efficiency, ENERGY SUPPLIED BY HEATING h1 h3
1329. 6
0. 399 (39.9%)
3330. 6
3600 3600
Specific steam consumption = 2.71 kg / kWh
NET WORK 1329.6
A steam turbine is supplied with steam at 50 bar and 350°C. The exhaust pressure is 0.5
bar, and the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.8. The steam consumption is 0.45 kg/s.
Calculate the power output.
T
50 bar
1
0.5 bar
2’ 2
s2’ = s1
s
T-S diagram
5 bar
h 350 OC
1
0.5 bar
2 saturation line
/
2
Mollier diagram
chart:
h1 = 3065 kJ/kg h2’ = 2269 kJ/kg
h h
turbine 2 1 h2 h1 turbine h2' h1
h2' h1
= 2428.2 kJ/kg
. .
W turbine m h2 h1 0.45 x 636.8 286.56 kw
h1 3070 kJ / kg
tables 350 C, 50 bar
s1 6.451 kJ / kgk
s - s f 6. 451 1. 091
x = 0. 8244
s fg 6. 502
.
W turbine 0. 45 x - 663. 88 298. 74 kw
2. REGENERATIVE CYCLE
The efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased further by arranging for the feed water
to be delivered to the boiler at a temperature as close as possible to the saturation
temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure. This raises the average temperature of
heat addition in the cycle.
In the ideal case, the heating of the feedwater would be complete and achieved reversibly,
resulting in the Regenerative cycle. This is not quite possible in reality.
1 kg
condenser
1
boiler
turbine
3
2
4
bled steam y kg 1-y kg
7
6 5
7 2
6
4 3
The amount of steam bled to the heater (y kg) is arranged to heat the incoming feedwater
up to the saturation temperature corresponding to the bled steam pressure.
y kg at h2
(1-y) kg at h4
1 kg at h6
h h
y= 6 4
h2 h4
and h6 = hf at the bled pressure.
It is desirable to increase the number of feed heaters so the feedwater enters the boiler as
close as possible to the saturation temperature corresponding to the boiler pressure, but
the mechanical complexity of the plant restricts the number of feed heaters in a marine plant
to a maximum of about 5.
N.B. The bleed pressures are chosen to make the saturation temperature intervals between
boiler and condenser approximately equal.
NetWork h h 2 (1 y)( h 2 h 3 )
TH 1
Heat Supplied h1 h 7
With open feed heater, the number of feed pumps required is always one more than the
number of heaters, because the feedwater must be brought to the bleed pressure before it
can mix with the bled steam in each heater. This can be avoided by using closed feed
heaters, where the bleed steam and the feedwater are separated physically.
NB Open feed heaters have been used to remove air from the steam. Modern practice
involves removing air from the steam in the condenser.
Boiler steam is often used to drive the feed pumps, and the return steam from the pump
turbines then used for feed heating.
Steam at 40 bar and 400°C is supplied to a turbine, which exhausts at 0.035 bar and 0.9
dryness fraction. To improve the thermal efficiency of the plant, regenerative feed heating
is employed. Steam is bled from the turbine at 3 bar, where it is just dry saturated, and
mixed in an open feed heater with the condensate, which has been pumped to 3 bar. The
resulting mixture is saturated liquid. Calculate:
p1 = 40 bar
t1 = 400°C
p2 = 3 bar, saturated
p3 = 0.035 bar
x3 = 0.9
h h
y 6 5
561 112
0.1718
h2 h5 2725 112
0.1718 kg bled per kg of steam supplied.
1. A Rankine cycle has steam supplied to the turbine at 15 bar, 162°C of superheat. The
steam exhausts from the turbine at 0.07 bar and 0.85 dryness fraction. Calculate the
thermal efficiency.
[32%]
2. Steam at 15 bar and 300°C is supplied to the turbine in a Rankine cycle. If the steam
is exhausted from the turbine at 0.07 bar, find
(i) the condition (i.e. dryness fraction) of the steam after isentropic expansion;
(ii) the Rankine efficiency;
(iii) the specific steam consumption (kg/kWh).
4. A steam turbine is supplied with steam at 50 bar and 350°C. The exhaust pressure is
0.5 bar, and the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 0.8. If the power output is 300
kW, determine the mass flow rate of steam.
(0.451 kg/s)
5. Steam at 15 bar and 300°C is supplied to a turbine, which exhausts at 0.07 bar and
0.83 dryness fraction. For feed heating steam is bled off at 1.7 bar and 0.963 dryness
fraction, raising the feed water temperature to the saturation temperature of the bled
steam. Calculate the thermal efficiency with and without the heater.
6. A steam turbine works between the limits of 20 bar and 400°C, and 0.35 bar.
For each of the following schemes, calculate the cycle efficiency and the specific steam
consumption.
(b) A regenerative cycle, with one bleed point (open feed heater) at 2 bar. Assume
the feedwater leaving the feed heater is at the saturation temperature
corresponding to the bleed pressure.
Assume isentropic expansion in the turbine stages, and neglect feed pump work.
7. List advantages and disadvantages (if any) for the steam power cycle of the following:
(a) Increasing superheat temperature
(b) Increasing boiler pressure
(c) Decreasing condenser pressure
(d) Feed heating
(e) Reheat
8. Explain how superheat increases the thermal efficiency of the steam power cycle.
Illustrate your answer with a T-s diagram.
9 Explain how feed heating increases the thermal efficiency of the steam power cycle.
STEAM TURBINES
1. IMPULSE TYPE
High-pressure steam is passed through nozzles where it accelerates while
decreasing in pressure. This high velocity steam is directed on to moving curved
blades where its velocity is decreased in magnitude and changed in direction,
thus producing a force on the blades. The pressure of the steam remains constant
as it moves across the turbine blades, the whole of the pressure drop having
taken place in the nozzles.
The velocity of the steam as it leaves the nozzle is called the absolute velocity at
inlet, Cai.
The mean blade speed, Cb is taken at the mean height of the blades.
The velocity of the steam at inlet relative to the blades, Cri, is found by combining
Cai and Cb. Cri will be inclined to the blade velocity at angle i. If the steam is to
enter the blades without shock, then it must enter tangentially, so i must be the
inlet angle of the blades.
Similarly, at exit, the steam will leave the blade with an exit relative velocity C re
at an angle e to the blade velocity, which is the exit angle of the blade.
The inlet and exit velocity triangles can be combined about the common vector
Cb
(Note that in the diagrams, the subscript only is shown for the velocities.)
AE = Cai cos i - Cb
( Cricosi + Crecose)
Driving force on wheel = m
2C b ( C ri cos i C re cos e )
Blade Efficiency =
2
C ai
Note:
The component of Cai parallel to the blade velocity, Cwi, is called the velocity of
whirl at inlet. It so happens that AE +AD = Cwi +Cwe
The component of Cai along the axis of rotation, Cfi, is called the velocity of flow
at inlet. A change in the velocity of flow across the moving blades produces an
end thrust on the rotor, due to the momentum change in the axial direction.
Example:
The following data apply to a stage in an impulse turbine:
Nozzle outlet angle = 28.4o
Nozzle outlet steam velocity = 1000m/s
Steam Mass flow rate = 12kg/s
Mean blade diameter = 2m
Turbine speed = 4200 rpm
Turbine blades are symmetrical
There is a 10% loss of steam velocity in the blades due to friction
Determine the blade inlet angle for shockless entry of the steam, the power
developed and the blade efficiency.
4200 2
Cb 439.82 m/s
60
BE 475.64
i = tan 1 tan 1 47.24 o
AE 439.83
( Cricosi + Crecose)
driving force on wheel = m
= 12(439.83 + 583.05cos47.24) = 12 x 835.68 = 10028N
2. REACTION TYPE
Generally, the reaction type consists of alternate rows of fixed and moving blades,
with the same shape steam passage in both the fixed and moving blades. The
fixed blade channels are of nozzle shape and there is a drop in enthalpy (and
pressure) accompanied by an increase in velocity. The steam then passes over
the moving blades and, as in the impulse turbine, a force is exerted on the blades
by the steam. In the reaction type, however, there is a further drop in enthalpy
(and pressure) as the steam passes through the moving blades, since the moving
blade channels are also of nozzle shape, and therefore there is an increase in
the steam velocity relative to the blades.
The steam velocity in a reaction turbine is not very high and hence the speed of
the turbine is relatively low. Reaction turbines are commonly used as the final
stages in large turbine units.
Generally, half the enthalpy drop is in the fixed blades and half in the moving
blades (50% reaction - Parsons type)
For a 50% reaction turbine, with the same shape steam passage in both the fixed
and moving blades, the moving blade exit angle is same as the fixed blade exit
angle, and likewise for inlet angles. The steam leaving the moving blade must be
travelling in such a direction that it enters the fixed blades at the fixed blade inlet
angle, so that Cae must be inclined to the blade velocity at the same angle as Cri
(e = i).
If, in addition, the turbine is designed so that there is no axial thrust due to velocity
changes (no change in velocity of flow across the moving blades) then the
combined velocity triangle will be symmetrical.
Due to acceleration in the moving blades, Cre>Cri.
Velocities are lower than in impulse turbines, so the effect of friction is not so
significant.
Thus,
(2Caicosi Cb )
driving force on wheel = m
and
Cb (2Caicosi Cb )
power output = m
1. A single stage impulse rotor has a mean blade ring diameter of 0.7m and it
rotates at 8000rpm. The nozzles are inclined at 20°to the direction of motion
and the steam velocity leaving the nozzles is 1000m/s. Determine the blade
inlet angle so that the steam will enter the blades without shock, and the power
developed for a steam flow of 3600kg/h. Assume a blade friction coefficient of
0.86 and that the blades are symmetrical.
(27.87º, 352.58 kW)
(Cb = 293.22m/s, Cri = 731.36 m/s)
2. A stage of an impulse turbine has a nozzle angle of 22 O and the blades are
symmetrical. The mean blade speed is 330m/s and the steam leaves the
nozzles at 500m/s. If 12% of the relative velocity at inlet is lost in friction,
determine the blade angles and the power developed for a steam flow of
720kg/h.
(54.4º, 16.6kW)
3. An impulse turbine has nozzles inclined at 20º to the blade wheel and the
steam leaves the nozzle at 900m/s. If the blade inlet angle is 32º, determine
the mean blade speed. During its passage through the blades the steam loses
10% of its relative velocity due to friction. If the blade outlet angle is 37º,
determine the velocity and direction of the steam leaving the blade.
(353m/s, 321m/s at 78.42ºto blade velocity)
BE = Cai sin I
BE
Cri Cre kCri
sin i
AE AB2 BE2
OE Cai cos i
Cb OE AE 353.12 m / s
DC Cre sin e 314.64 m / s
DA Cre
2
DC2
DO DA Cb
C ae OC DC 2 DO 2 321.17 m / s
DC
e sin 1 78.42 0
C ae
4. Sketch the inlet velocity triangle, the outlet velocity triangle and the combined
velocity triangle for an impulse turbine.
5. At one stage of a reaction turbine the velocity of the steam leaving the fixed
blades is 100m/s and the exit angle is 20º. The velocity of the moving blades
is 65m/s and the steam flow is 1800kg/h. Assuming fixed and moving blades
to be identical section calculate the blade entrance angle, the force on the
blades and the stage power.
(49.73º, 61.5N, 4kW)
REFRIGERATION
energy rejected
to surroundings
condenser
throttle
valve compressor
evaporator
(in cold space) heat leakage
through insulation
condenser isobar
2
T
condensation compressor
3
throttle evaporator isobar
evaporation
4 1
ideally s2 = s1
s (entropy)
3
2
condenser pressure
undercooling
increases the
refrigerating effect
evaporator pressure
1
4
h
refrigerating effect compressor
(energy absorbed by work
heating)
w = h2 - h1
q = h 3 - h2
3 to 4 Throttling
h4 = h 3
(throttling is a constant enthalpy process, q = 0, W = 0)
h3 = h at t3 (this is at the intersection of the vertical line 3 – 4, and the
saturated liquid curve)
q = h1 - h4 = Refrigerating Effect
Coefficient Of Performance
heat input h1 h 4
COPREFRIG
work input h2 h1
heat output h2 h3
COPHEAT PUMP
work input h2 h1
As a refrigerator, the vapour compression cycle removes energy from a heating
source at a temperature below that of its surroundings, and rejects this energy
plus the compressor work to the surroundings.
As a heat pump, the vapour compression cycle takes low-grade heat from the
surroundings and supplies this energy plus the compressor work to a load at a
temperature above that of the surroundings.
Heat Output = Heat Input + Compressor Work
h2-h3=(h1-h4)+(h2-h1)=(-h4+h2) However, h3=h4 (throttling) thus (h2-h3)=(h2-h4)
e.g. A heat pump working at a COP = 3 will deliver 3 kW as heating to a room
when supplied with only 1 kW of electrical power to drive the compressor.
Refrigerating Effect
Refrigerating effect = h1 - h4
Refrigerating effect (and COP) can be improved by reducing the enthalpy of the
refrigerant leaving the condenser. This is achieved by maintaining a good flow
rate of the cooling fluid in the condenser and by keeping the cooling surfaces
clean. The lower the temperature of the cooling fluid the better.
The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia refrigerator is 1.902 bar, and the
pressure in the condenser is 12.37 bar. Calculate the refrigerating effect per kg
of refrigerant and the COP REFRIG when dry saturated vapour is delivered to the
compressor, the liquid after condensation is undercooled by 10K and the
compression is isentropic (s1=s2).
T
2
1
4
h1 = hg 1420 kJ/kg
s2 = s1 = 5.623 kJ/kgK
s 5.397 kJ / kgK
at 12.37 bar, 50K superheat,
h = 1613.0 kJ / kg
s 5.731 kJ / kg K
at 12.37 bar, 100K superheat,
h = 1739.3 kJ / kg
5.623 - 5.397
h2 1613 + x 1739.3 - 1613.0 = 1698.5 kJ/kg
5.731- 5.397
t3 = ta - 10 ta = ts at 12.37 bar
= 32°C
h h 1135. 4
COP REFRIG 1 4 4. 08
h2 h1 1698. 5 1420
Cooling rate kW
m kg / s
Refrigerat ing effect kJ/kg
mw
W
mq
Q
h 2 h1
m kW
,
Compressor power kW
.
V1
i.e. vol
N V SWEPT
also, V 1 m
v1
Flooded Evaporator:
Alternatively, the superheated vapour from the first compression stage may be
bubbled through the liquid in the flash chamber before continuing to the second
stage of compression. In this case the vapour will enter the second stage as
saturated vapour.
Refrigerants:
Refrigerant types:
CFC
- only carbon, chlorine and fluorine atoms
- atmospheric lifetimes 60 to 540 years
- ozone depleting
- includes R11 and R12
- phased out on January 1st 1996
HCFC
- hydrogen, carbon, chlorine and fluorine atoms
- atmospheric lifetimes 2 to 22 years
- low ozone depletion
- includes R22
- phase out by 2030
HFC
- contains only hydrogen, carbon and fluorine atoms (no chlorine)
- no ozone depletion
- includes R134a
Inorganic
- includes ammonia (NH3, R717), water, CO2 and air
- no ozone depletion
Refrigerant usage:
In 1994 about 80% of new refrigerated containers used R134a, the remainder
using R22. The new R134a units have at least comparable refrigeration
capacity to the previous R12 units, and are typically capable of holding a cargo
temperature of -28ºC in a 38ºC ambient temperature. The majority of R12
systems have been retrofitted with R134a, although this was not a simple "drop
in". R134a has some limitations for very low temperature applications due to its
relatively high boiling temperature. Ammonia (R717) is being used in some new
systems with appropriate safety measures. The ammonia plant must be
completely isolated and a secondary refrigerant used to cool the cargo space.
Refrigerant properties:
Refs:
Institute of Marine Engineers Marine Refrigeration 1995
Wang, Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration 1993
Screw Compressors
These processes can be pictured diagrammatically with a side view of the screws.
(In this diagram the threads
move to the right as the
rotors turn.) The suction
vapour enters the top of the
rotors and as the rotors turn
a cavity appears at 1. Cavity
2 is continuing to fill and
cavity 3 is completely filled.
Cavity 4 has now trapped
vapour between its threads
and the housing. Cavity 5 is
in the compression process
with the volume shrinking as
the cavity bears against the
end of the housing. When
the thread of the rotor
reaches the discharge port, the compressed gas flows into the discharge line.
Because the screw compressor completes its expulsion of gas with virtually no
volume remaining, there is no clearance volume to re-expand in contrast to the
reciprocating compressor. Thus, the volumetric efficiency and refrigerating
capacity will drop off less with a screw compressor compared with a reciprocating
compressor as the pressure ratio increases.
EXERCISES: REFRIGERATION
Determine:
7. A cold storage plant is used to cool 9000 litres of milk per hour from 27°C
to 4°C, and the heat leakage into the plant is estimated at 3600 kJ/min. The
refrigerant is to be ammonia and the temperature required in the evaporator
is -6°C. The compressor delivery pressure is 10.34 bar and the condenser
liquid is undercooled to 24°C before throttling. Determine, assuming that
the vapour is dry saturated on leaving the evaporator and that the
compression process is isentropic:
(i) the power input required in kW taking the mechanical efficiency of the
compressor as 90%
10. It is proposed to use water instead of R134a as the working fluid in air-
conditioning applications where the minimum temperature never falls
below freezing point. Would you support this proposal? Why?
COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Introduction
Combustion is a chemical reaction between fuel and oxygen. It is the rapid
oxidation (combination with oxygen) of a fuel resulting in the release of useable
energy and the production of a visible flame.
If air and fuel are mixed together and introduced to a suitable ignition source,
combustion will occur. The ignition source is initially necessary to initiate the
combustion process. However, once the combustion starts, enough energy is
released due to the combustion to keep the process going.
When a fuel burns, energy is released. The combustion products are hot and
supply energy to the working fluid.
There are also undesirable side effects due to combustion. These include:
creation of pollutants and greenhouse gases affecting the atmosphere; and
generation of waste heat due to combustion, which can result in unwanted
explosions and fires.
Constituents of Fuel and Air
Air:
Fuel oxidises. This means that fuel reacts with oxygen. The most convenient
source of oxygen is the atmosphere, i.e., air.
Air is a mixture of 76.8% (by mass) nitrogen and 23.2% (by mass) oxygen with a
small amount of carbon dioxide and other gases. Since the components of air
that are not nitrogen or oxygen are relatively small, they are normally considered
to be part of the nitrogen content. These elements exist as molecules within the
air mixture.
The proportions of nitrogen and oxygen by volume and mass in air are:
by Volume:
Oxygen 20.9% Nitrogen 79.1%
by Mass:
Oxygen 23.2% Nitrogen 76.8%
Fuel:
There are many different types of substances used as fuels. The main fuels are
those obtained from crude oils, such as petrol, gas oil, diesel oil, and heavy oil.
All fuel oils are made up from mixtures of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are
compounds that consist of a mixture of carbon and hydrogen atoms.
Although fuels mainly consist of carbon and hydrogen atoms, there are other
elements in the fuel molecule. From a combustion aspect, sulphur is one of the
most important additional elements.
The most important elements for combustion in fuel oils are carbon, hydrogen
and sulphur. In addition, fuel may also have elements such as: vanadium, silicon,
aluminium, and water.
Air/Fuel Ratio
For complete combustion to occur between fuel and air, they have to mix at a
given ratio. This ratio is called the air/fuel ratio. The exact proportion of air to
fuel necessary to give complete combustion is called the stoichiometric air/fuel
ratio.
If excess air (and therefore excess oxygen) is supplied, the mixture is said to be
lean and that the flame is referred to as oxidising. The excess oxygen plays no
part in the combustion process. However, it is an energy loss, since the excess
oxygen absorbs some of the energy released.
If excess fuel (insufficient air) is supplied, the mixture is said to be rich and the
flame is referred to as reducing. This leads to incomplete combustion. This will
give:
some fuel having incomplete combustion with oxygen;
some fuel remaining unburnt.
In the first case, the fuel will combine with oxygen. However, the oxygen is
insufficient to burn the fuel completely.
For example, consider the production of carbon dioxide (CO2), by the combustion
of carbon (C) and oxygen (O2).
C + O2 CO2 + energy released
If there is insufficient oxygen, then the combustion will not be complete. Thus,
the carbon and oxygen will combine, but at a lesser ratio, (not at the ratio of one
carbon to two oxygen as in the above equation). Thus,
C + O CO + energy released
In this reaction, one atom of carbon reacts with one atom of oxygen (instead of
two atoms of oxygen). This produces carbon monoxide (CO). Unfortunately, this
reaction releases 70% less energy than when carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced.
In addition, some fuel molecules may not combine at all with oxygen. Some of
the fuel, which has not mixed with oxygen, may be broken down by the heat from
the combustion process. This gives soot, which is mainly unburnt carbon that
results in a black colour exhaust gas from the combustion process. As well as
being an energy loss, soot can collect in the uptakes of the engine or boiler and
can be the fuel source for an uptake fire.
In practice, complete combustion can only be achieved by supplying an amount
of air in excess of the stoichiometric amount. This amount of air is naturally called
excess air. The energy loss of the air is accepted in favour of ensuring that
complete combustion will occur. The amount of excess air can be calculated
from the formula:
actual air/fuel ratio stoichiome tric air/fuel ratio
excess air (%) x 100
stoichiome tric air/fuel ratio
A steam boiler plant may require 5% to 30% excess air, while a CI engine will
often require around 100% excess air.
Combustion Products
The products of combustion are summarised in the following table:
Product Cause of Product
carbon dioxide reaction between carbon and oxygen
In exhaust gas from an engine or boiler, the water exists as steam due to the high
temperatures. Therefore, the energy released during the process will be the
Lower Calorific Value of the fuel. Thus, all calculations should be carried out with
the Lower Calorific Value. If the water in the exhaust does condense, it will occur
after the combustion gases have heated the working fluid. Thus the latent energy
of evaporation will not be available to the working fluid.
Bomb Calorimeter:
The calorific value of liquids and solids can be obtained experimentally by the use
of an apparatus called the Bomb Calorimeter. Briefly, the apparatus consists of a
closed container surrounded by a known quantity of water. A known mass of fuel
is burnt completely in the calorimeter and the increase in temperature of the
surrounding water is recorded.
The energy released by the fuel is absorbed by the calorimeter and the water.
Since the mass of the water and the increase in temperature is known, it is
possible to calculate the energy absorbed by it, and hence the energy released
by the fuel.
The value given is the Higher Calorific Value for the fuel, since the water in the
products condenses inside the calorimeter. This has to be then adjusted to give
the more useful Lower Calorific Value.
Combustion Calculations
We have seen that fuels contain combustible elements, which readily combine
with oxygen, and the energy released during this combustion is known as the
calorific value of the fuel. The chief combustible elements in fuels are carbon,
hydrogen and sometimes a small amount of sulphur.
In order to calculate the mass of air required for complete combustion of the fuel
it is necessary to know the composition of the fuel and the molar masses of its
constituents.
The constituents of fuel will change according to the type of fuel used. Typical
percentage by mass for petroleum oils are given below:
Combustion Equations:
Summary
Substance O2 Required Product of Combustion in kg
per kg
C 8/3 11/3
H 8 9
S 1 2
Combustion Air:
Air is a mixture of many gases but for practical purposes is assumed to consist
of oxygen and nitrogen in the following proportions:
% by mass % by volume
02 23.2 21
N2 76.8 79
During combustion the fuel reacts with oxygen to liberate energy. The inert gas
N2 slows down the rate of combustion, reduces the flame temperature and
absorbs a quantity of the heat liberated, the greater portion of which may be
carried away to waste with the exhaust gases. Generally, combustion of a fuel/air
mixture will only take place within certain limits:
Too little air: carbon left deficient of O2.
CO in the exhaust gases and reduced CO2.
Too much air: Complete combustion of all products, excess of free oxygen and a
preponderance of nitrogen in the exhaust gases.
Theoretical Air Supply:
The minimum amount of air theoretically required to ensure complete
combustion, i.e. stoichiometric requirement
i.e. All carbon converted to CO2
All hydrogen converted to H2O
All Sulphur converted to SO2
Excess Air Supply: Generally excess air is supplied rather than the theoretical
or stoichiometric required for complete combustion. This is to cover deficiencies
in fuel/air mixing and in some instances to give a measure of control over heat
release rates.
This excess is usually in the region of 30-10% depending on the velocities and
combustion chamber design involved. In recent downfired watertube boilers, high
flame temperatures and longer periods for flame propagation allow a close
approach to stoichiometric combustion (i.e. 3% excess air).
actual air supply - theoretica l air supply
% excess air x 100
theoretical air supply
BOILER EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a boiler is the ratio between the energy transferred by heating
to the feed water in producing the required steam condition and the heat released
by the fuel used.
.
msteam hsteam hfeed
i.e. boiler = .
x 100%
mfuel x LCV
Solution:
(ii)
actual air supply - theoretica l air supply
% excess air x 100
theoretical air supply
20
actual air supply = x 13.520 + 13.520 (20% excess air)= 16.224 kg/kg
100
of fuel (or air(actual)=1.2×13.520=16.224 kg/kg of fuel)
N2 associated with this air = 16.224 x 0.768 = 12.460 kg/kg fuel
N2 in exhaust = 12.460 + 0.03 = 12.490 kg/kg fuel
O2 in exhaust = 20% of O2 required (20% excess air supplied)
= 0.2 x 3.136
= 0.627 kg/kg fuel
3. 01
C02 3.007 17.46% = 0.068 12.71%
44
0. 63
02 0.627 3.64% = 0.0197 3.68%
32
0. 02
S02 0.02 0.12% = 0.000315 0.059%
64
---- ------------
17.224 kg/kg fuel 0.535 moles/kg fuel
1. A fuel consists of 88% carbon and 12% hydrogen, by mass. Calculate the
theoretical quantity of air required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of
this fuel.
(14.25 kg)
2. The analysis of a fuel used in a boiler trial was as follows: 88% carbon,
3.6% hydrogen, 4.8% oxygen and 0.5% sulphur, by mass, the remainder
being ash. Determine the stoichiometric quantity of air required to effect
combustion.
3. The analysis by mass of a fuel is 80% carbon, 13.5% hydrogen and 3.1%
oxygen, the remainder being incombustible material. If 18.5kg of air is
supplied/kg of fuel used, determine:
4. Determine the volume of air, at 15°C and 100 kN/m2, which is required for
the combustion of 1 kg of fuel having the following gravimetric analysis:-
carbon = 85%, hydrogen = 8%, oxygen = 3%. Assume 50% excess air is
supplied. Take R for air as 287 J/kg K.
(15.373 m3)
5. During a boiler trial, a sample of coal gave the following analysis by mass:
carbon 89%, hydrogen 4%, oxygen 3%, sulphur 1%, the remainder being
incombustible.
6. A boiler generates 900 kg of steam/h, 0.96 dry at 1.4 MN/m2 from feed water
at 52°C, the boiler efficiency being 71% and the calorific value of the coal
27,300 kJ/kg. The coal has a composition by mass: carbon 83%; hydrogen
5%; oxygen 3%; ash 9%, and the air supply is 22% in excess of that
theoretically required for perfect combustion. Calculate:
Molar masses: carbon 12; oxygen (O2) 32; hydrogen (H2) 2; nitrogen (N2)
28.
Calculate:
HEAT TRANSFER
Overview
Energy transfer by heating is called “heat transfer”.
There are three ways by which energy is transferred by heating:
Conduction, convection and thermal radiation.
Each of these requires a temperature difference (temperature gradient). Heat is
energy in transition due to a temperature gradient.
(a) Conduction - transfer of energy through matter on a molecular scale,
without detectable mass motion.
e.g. “heat transfer” along a metal bar heated at one end.
The rate of energy transfer depends on the temperature gradient in the
matter (dT/dx), the thermal conductivity of the matter (k), and the cross-
sectional area.
. dT
i.e. Q kA
dx
(-ve sign as heat transfer occurs in the direction of decreasing
temperature).
If the temperature gradient is linear,
.
Q
kA
tHOT tCOLD
x
Metals have high thermal conductivity. Gases have low thermal
conductivity. Thermal insulators have low thermal conductivity.
For convection
.
Q hA t w t
where h depends on the properties of the fluid (thermal conductivity,
specific heat capacity) and on the form of the fluid motion.
Conduction
Aluminium 206
Asbestos, slab 0.052
Brass 104
Brick, common 1.15
Concrete 0.85
Copper 378
Cork, ground 0.043
Diatomaceous earth 0.086
Felt 0.038
Glass 1.04
Glass, fibre 0.04
Iron, cast 52
Magnesia 0.65
Plastic cellular 0.04
Steel 45
Vermiculite 0.065
Wood 1.7
Wallboard, paper 0.076
Still air at 27oC 0.026
Consider a flat plate, or wall, thickness x and transfer area A. Let the temperature
of its faces be t1 and t2 respectively.
kA t1 t2
Q
x
where,
Qx
k
A t1 t 2
Wm W
2
m K mK
Consider the composite wall. In this case there are shown three layers.
Watts are passing through this wall then Q Watts are passing through each
If Q
layer of this wall.
k1 A t1 t2
Q (1)
x1
k 2 A t2 t3
(2)
x2
k 3 A t3 t 4
(3)
x3
As it stands none of these equations are soluble since the interface temperatures
t2 and t3 are, as yet, unknown.
.
Q x1
t1 t2 (4)
k1 A
.
Q x2
t2 t3 (5)
k2 A
.
Q x3
t3 t4 (6)
k3 A
.
Q x1 x2 x3
t1 t4 attention: x = thickness in metres (7)
A k1 k 2 k 3
Thus, the quantity of heat passing per second can be calculated. When this is
known, by substituting back into equations (1), (2) and (3), the interface
temperatures can be calculated.
EXAMPLE
A brick wall 250mm thick is faced with concrete 50mm thick. The brick has a
coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.69 W/m K while that of the concrete is 0.93
W/m K. If the temperature of the exposed brick face is 30°C and that of the
concrete is 5°C, determine the heat loss/h through a wall 10m long and 5m high.
Determine, also, the interface temperature.
. A t1 t 3 10 x 5x30 5
Q
x1 / k1 x 2 / k 2 0.25 / 0.69 0.05 / 0.93
50 x 25 1250
3000W 3000J / s
0.362 + 0.054 0.416
= 3kJ / s
Heat lost / h = 3 x 3600 = 10800kJ
There is no hard and fast rule on what constitutes a thin cylinder and what
constitutes a thick cylinder. A thin cylinder may be considered as a cylinder
whose internal surface area is very nearly the same as its external surface area.
From a heat transfer point of view, if this is the case, then the area through which
the heat is passing is always very nearly the same.
For a thin cylinder of radius r (either internal or external or mean, since they are
all very nearly the same) and thickness x, then for a length of cylinder L, the area
of heat transfer = 2rL
Hence,
2rLk t1 t2
Q
x
In the thick cylinder, the internal surface area is considerably smaller than the
external surface area and hence the thick cylinder does not allow the simple
treatment in the case of the thin cylinder. However, part of the solution follows
the thin cylinder solution.
In the thick cylinder shown of internal radius r1 and external radius r2. The cylinder
length is L and its internal surface temperature is t1, while its external surface
temperature is t2.
Assume that heat transfer is from inside to outside, in which case t1 > t2.
.
Let the heat transfer/s = Q
Consider an elemental cylinder within the cylinder of radius r and thickness r.
. t
Q k 2rL (1)
r
The negative sign is because t/r is negative since there is a temperature fall
across the cylinder.
.
Q r
t
k 2L r
k 2Lt1 t 2
Q (2)
lnr 2 / r 1
EXAMPLE
A steam pipe is 75mm external diameter and is 30m long. It conveys 1000kg of
steam/h at a pressure of 2MN/m2. The steam enters the pipe with a dryness
fraction of 0.98 and is to leave the other end of the pipe with a minimum dryness
fraction of 0.96. This is to be accomplished by suitably lagging the pipe, the
coefficient of thermal conductivity of the lagging being 0.19 W/mK. Assuming
that the temperature drop across the steam pipe is negligible, determine the
minimum thickness of the lagging required to meet the necessary conditions.
Take the temperature of the outside surface of the lagging as 27°C.
. 1000
Q x 37.77 = 10.5kJ /s
3600
Now for a thick cylinder,
. k 2Lt1 t 2
Q
ln r 2 / r 1
From this,
k2L t1 t 2
ln r 2 / r1 .
Q
From this,
r2/r1 = 1.883
Hence,
r2 = 1.883r1
75
1883
. x
2
=70.6mm
The solution to this arrangement is similar to that used on the composite wall.
. .
If Q heat units/s pass through the composite thick cylinder, then Q heat units/h
pass through each separate thick cylinder.
. k1 2L t1 t2
Q (1)
lnr 2 / r1
k2 2L t2 t3
(2)
lnr 3 / r 2
Again, neither of these equations is soluble due to the lack of knowledge of the
interface temperature t2.
.
lnr / r
Q
t1 t 2
2 1
(3)
k12L
.
lnr / r
Q
t2 t3
3 2
(4)
k 2 2L
Q
t t
2L k1
1 3
k 2
from which,
The solution to a composite thick layer cylinder with more than two thicknesses
follows the same procedure.
2L t1 t 4
ln r 2 / r1 ln r3 / r 2 ln r4 / r3
Q
k1 k2 k3
EXAMPLE
. 2L t1 t3
Q
lnr 2 / r1
(a)
ln r 3 / r 2
k1 k2
100
r1 50mm
2
r 2 50 40 90mm
r 3 90 25 115mm
. 2 x 20 x 234.3 - 24
Q
ln90 / 50 ln115 / 90
0.07 0.1
2 x 20 x 210.3 2 x 20 x 210.3
ln1.8 ln128
. 0.587 0.246
0.07 0.1 0.07 0.1
2 x 20 x 210.3 2 x 20 x 210.3
8.4 + 2.46 10.86
2440 W
2440 x 3600
3 = 8780kJ
10
2 k1L t1 t2
b Q
.
ln r 2 / r1
.
.
Q lnr 2 / r 1
t2 t1
2 k1L
2440 ln 90 / 50
234.3
2 x 0.07 x 20
2440 x 0.587
234.3
20.07 x 20
= 234.3 - 163
Alternatively, the solution could have been determined using the equation,
. 2 k 2 L t2 t3
Q
ln r 3 / r 2
(attempt exercises 4 & 5)
When the heat transfer is from a solid through the medium of a fluid that has
motion relative to the solid, then the method of transfer is called convection. In
free convection the transfer is caused through motion due to the density gradients
in the fluid. In forced convection the motion is caused by the pumping action of
a fan or compressor.
The film coefficient, hc includes the small effect of direct conduction through the
fluid.
.
As before, heat transfer Q passes through each layer of the wall.
Let,
ta1 = ambient temperature on the inlet side of the wall.
t1 = inlet face temperature
t2 = interface temperature
t3 = exit face temperature
ta2 = ambient temperature on the exit side of the wall.
Now, ta1 > t1 and t3 > ta2, because there must be a temperature difference in order
that heat transfer can take place.
.
Q = hc1 A (ta1 - t1) (1)
.
Q = hc2 A (t3 - ta2) (2)
Again consider the composite wall shown. Two thicknesses are shown but the
solution is similar for a single or any multi-thickness wall.
k1A t1 t 2
Q (5)
x1
k 2 At 2 t 3
Q (6)
x2
From this,
.
t t QA
a1 1
(7)
h c1
.
Q
t1 t2 xA1 (8)
k1
.
Q
t2 t3 xA2 (9)
k2
.
t t QA
3 a2
(10)
h c2
From which,
A ta1 ta2
Q (12)
1 x1 x2 1
hc1 k1 k 2 hc 2
where,
1
U
1 x1 x2 1
hc1 k1 k 2 hc 2
The overall transfer coefficient can be determined directly for known systems by
experiment.
EXAMPLE
2
The surface transfer coefficient of the inside wall is 2.5 W/m K while that of the
outside wall is 3.1 W/m2 K.
Determine the overall transfer coefficient for the wall and, using the coefficient,
determine the heat lost/h through such a wall 6m high and 10m long. Take the
internal ambient temperature at 27°C and the external ambient temperatures as
10°C.
1
U
1 x1 x 2 x 3 1
hc1 k1 k 2 k 3 hc 2
1
1 0.025 0.075 0.110 1
2.5 0.06 0.04 115
. 3.1
1
0.4 0.417 188
. 0.0957 0.322
1
3.1147
= 0.321 W/m2K
.
Q = UA (ta1 - ta2)
= 327W
327 x 3600
Heat lost / h = 3
1178kJ
10
(Attempt exercise 6)
EXAMPLE
A steam pipe, which is 150mm external diameter, carries wet steam at 3.6 MN/m2.
It is covered with two layers of lagging each 40mm thick. The coefficients of
thermal conductivity for the two layers are 0.07 W/m K for the inner layer and 0.1
W/mK for the outer layer. The surface transfer coefficient for the outer surface is
3.0 W/m2 K. Calculate the heat loss/h for a 50m length of the lagged pipe. The
ambient temperature is 27°C. What would be the surface temperature of the
lagging? Neglect the thickness of the steam pipe and assume that its
temperature is constant throughout and, together with the inside surface of the
inner layer of lagging, is at the same temperature as the wet steam.
. k1 2L t1 t2
Q (first layer of lagging) (1)
ln r 2 / r1
k 2L t 2 t 3
2 (second layer of lagging) (2)
ln r 3 / r 2
From this,
.
ln r 2 / r1
t1 t2 2Q
L k 2
(4)
.
ln /
t2 t3 Q r 3 r 2 (5)
2L k 2
.
1
t3 ta 2Q
L hc r 3
(6)
ln r 2 / r1 ln r 3 / r 2
Q 1
t1 ta
2L k1 k2 hc r 3
Hence,
.
2Lt1 t a
1
Q (7)
ln r 2 / r 1 ln r 3 / r 2 1
k1 k2 hc r 3
1
x 2 x 50 x 244.2 - 27
.
Q
ln115 / 75 ln155 / 115 1
0.07 0.1 3 x 0.155
1
x 100217.2
ln1535
. ln 135
. 1
0.07 0.1 3 x 0.155
100 x 217.2
0.427 0.3 1
0.07 0.1 0.465
6069.8 x 3600
Heat loss/ h = 3
21851kJ
10
From equation (3),
Q hc 2 r 3 L t3 ta
.
t3 t a
Q 27
6060
= 27 + 41.5
h 2 r
c 3
L 3 x 2 x 0.155 x 50
All bodies radiate energy. Radiant energy is transferred at the speed of light.
Two similar bodies isolated together in a vacuum radiate energy mutually to each
other, but the colder would receive more energy than the hot body and thus
become heated.
A body, which absorbs all the radiant heat, is called a black body. A black body
will also be the best radiator.
Most radiating surfaces are grey and have an emissivity factor, (epsilon), less
than unity, where:
It can be shown that the emissivity or ability to radiate energy is equal to the
absorptivity or ability to absorb radiant energy and justify the statement that good
absorbers are good radiators.
A brightly polished surface will have a low absorptivity and low emissivity,
remaining cool in the hot sun, or retaining energy if containing a hot liquid, e.g.
aluminium or chromium-plated thermos flasks.
.
Q r = AT
4
.
where Q r = heat radiated in watts
A = surface area radiating heat in m2
T = temperature of the surface in K;
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
In most practical cases a relatively small body, say of surface area A 1, radiates
energy into a large room or space,
4
T1 T24
hr ,
T1 T 2
Combined Surface Heat Transfer Coefficient. For the total heat flow through
the boundary layer separating a fluid and a solid the two film coefficients for
convection and radiation are usually added together:
hs = hc + hr
T1=273+54.4=327.4K, T2=273+32.2=305.2K
327.4 4 305.2 4
5.67 0.945
100 100
hr 327.4 305.2
Heat Exchangers
Introduction. These are devices where one fluid heats another, usually through
a thin metal wall. Common examples are:
(a) Steam condenser, transferring energy from steam to the circulating water.
(b) The radiator of a car, transferring energy from the hot engine coolant to the
atmosphere.
In heat exchangers the temperature of the fluids along the walls of the tubes used
will not be uniform except for steam condensers.
The overall heat transfer coefficient, U, between the two fluids can be calculated.
U will be a function of the temperature of the fluids, but will be assumed constant
here.
= UATm
Q
T2 T1
Tm (ΔTm is called the LMTD)
T2
ln
T1
This is called the Log Mean Temperature Difference and applies to both the
parallel flow heat exchanger and the contra-flow heat exchanger
In an oil cooler of the contra-flow type, 1.26 kg/s of oil of specific heat capacity
2.4 kJ/kgK are cooled from 39.1ºC to 23.7ºC by means of 1.51 kg/s of water,
which enters at 13.7ºC. Find the required cooling surface area of the
exchanger if the overall heat transfer coefficient between the two fluids is 908
W/m2K and Cwater = 4.2 kJ/kg
UAT =908(A)13.64=1.26(2.4x103)(39.1-23.7)=46.57x103 W
Q m
so, A=3.76m2
2. A wall is made up of two layers of bricks each 155mm thick with a 40mm air
space between them. The coefficients of thermal conductivity are as
follows:
The wall is 6.15m long and 5.5m high. Determine the heat loss/h through
the wall if the inside face temperature is 24°C and the outside face
temperature is 7°C. Determine, also, the interface temperatures.
(2000kJ, 20.3°C, 9.45°C)
3. A refrigerator room has a wall 6.0m long and 3.0m high. The wall is built of
120mm thick brick, insulated on the inside with an 80mm layer of cork faced
with a thin metal sheet. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of the brick
is 1.15 W/mK while that of the cork is 0.043 W/mK. The exterior brick
surface temperature of the wall is 21°C and that of the interior metal faced
surface is -4°C. The temperature of the metal sheet can be considered as
being at -4°C throughout. Estimate the heat leakage through the wall in 24h
and also the temperature of the interface between the cork and brick.
(19,788kJ, 19.7°C)
2
7. Wet steam at 2 MN/m flows through a pipe 20m long. The pipe has an
external diameter of 80mm. The pipe is covered with lagging 35mm thick,
which has a coefficient of thermal conductivity of 0.065 W/mK. The outer
surface transfer coefficient is 4.5 W/m2K and ambient temperature is 15°C.
The steam flow rate is 300 kg/h and it enters the pipe with a dryness
fraction of 0.97. Assuming that there is no temperature drop across the
pipe and that the pipe temperature is the same as the steam temperature,
determine:
(a) the rate of heat transfer(kW) from the steam to the surroundings,
(b) the temperature of the outer surface of the inner layer of insulation.
(1.451kW, 98.82°C)
9. In an oil cooler of the contra-flow type, 0.25 kg/s of oil of specific heat
capacity 2.3 kJ/kgK are cooled from 65.9ºC to 15.9ºC by means of 0.125
kg/s of water, which enters at 7.6ºC. Find the required cooling surface area
of the exchanger if the overall heat transfer coefficient between the two
fluids is 908 W/m2K
(5.67m2)
Consider atmospheric air at 1.013 bar and 15°. The saturation pressure of water
vapour at 15°C is 0.01704 bar. Unless liquid water is in contact with the air, the
water vapour will be at a partial pressure less than 0.01704 bar.
p = pa + pv
mv
w=
ma
where mv = mass of water vapour
ma = mass of dry air
w = specific humidity
now, pv V = mv Rv T, pa V = ma Ra T
Ra p v
w=
R v pa
8.3144
Ra = 0.2871 kJ/kgK, Rv = = 0.4615 kJ/kgK
18.015
pv
w = 0.622
pa
pa = p - pv
pv
w = 0.622 Specific Humidity
p pv
Relative Humidity:
pv
Relative Humidity =
ps
where pv = partial pressure of the water vapour
ps = saturation pressure of water vapour at the mixture
temperature.
The ease with which the atmosphere takes up moisture from any surface
depends on how far the air is short of being saturated () rather than upon the
absolute vapour content (w)
Dew Point:
The dew point temperature (td) is the temperature to which the air must be cooled
(at constant pressure) for water to condense on the cooling surface. It is the
saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of the water vapour.
Numerical Examples:
pv
= 0.6 (60%)
ps
pv
w = 0.622
p pv
0.622 x 0.011616
0.007213
w = 1.01325 - 0.011616 kg/kg dry air
Dew point temp (td) is the saturation temperature corresponding to 0.011616 bar.
- interpolate the steam tables.
(0.011616 0.01147)
td = 9 + (10 - 9)
(0.01227 0.01147)
td = 9.18°C
2. If air at 1.01325 bar, 17°C, 60% relative humidity, is passed at the rate of
0.5 m3/s over a cooling coil, which is at 6°C, calculate the amount of vapour,
which will be condensed. Assume that the air leaving the coil is saturated
and at the temperature of the cooling coil.
Cooling
coil
2 1
o
6C 3
100% 0.5 m /s
o
relative 17 C
60% relative
humidity
humidity
a=
pa V
m , pa p p v
Ra T
mv1 v1
m
w1 =
ma ma
pv2
w2 = 0.622
p pv2
0.009346
w2 = 0.622 x = 0.00579 kg/kg dry air
1.01325 0.009346
v
m 2
w2 =
ma
v m
Mass of condensate = m v
1 2
= 0.004340 - 0.003483
= 0.0008562 kg/s
= 3.082 kg/h
EXERCISES: PSYCHROMETRY
1. Air at 32°C is saturated with water vapour and the barometric pressure is
1.013 bar. Determine the partial pressure of the vapour and of the dry air.
What volume of the mixture would contain 1kg of vapour? Calculate also
the mass of air associated with this amount of vapour and the specific and
relative humidity of the mixture.
(0.04754 bar, 0.9655 bar, 29.6m3, 32.6 kg, 0.031, 1)
3. A mixture of air and water vapour at 1.013 bar and 16°C has a dew point of
5°C. Determine the relative and specific humidity.
(48%, 0.0054 kg/kg dry air)
What mass of water vapour per kg of dry air in the room must be removed
from the mixture in order to prevent condensation on the windows when
their temperature drops to 4°C, Calculate the initial relative humidity to
satisfy this condition if the temperature remains at 21°C. The barometric
pressure remains constant.
(0.00876; 11.62°C; 0.0036 kg; 32.7%)
Psychrometric Chart
ha is fixed solely by the dry bulb temperature t (perfect gas) & the zero for h a is
taken at 0°C.
pv
w = 0.622 , so that if w and p are known, pv is fixed. If in addition, t is
p pv
known, hv is fixed (steam tables)
The psychrometric chart is drawn for a fixed value of pressure, p, so w and t are
the only independent variables. Thus lines of constant H are plotted against w
and t.
Now,
pv pv
= , w = 0.622
ps p pv
ps is a function of t
pv is a function of w
Note that the wet bulb temperature at any state along the saturation line ( =
100%) is equal to the dry-bulb temperature, and also the dew point, at that state.
The lines of constant wet bulb temperature follow the lines of constant enthalpy
very closely.
* Lines of constant specific volume of the dry air in the mixture, va, are usually
included.
Ra T
va = i.e. function of t and pv for fixed p
p pv
Typical Air
Conditioning
System
(from Rogers and
Mayhew)
Heating Cooling
coil coil
3 2 1
20oC
35oC
=55%
3 =90%
30m /min
= pv/ps,
V
m
a 3 = 30 = 35.71 kg/min
v3 0.84
Q 23 = m a (H3 - H2)
= m
Q 12
a (H2 - H1) + m
w 4 hw4 - W
hw4 = hf at t2
= ma w1 w2
= 0.896 kg/min
Q 12 = 35.71 (31.0 - 120.0) + 0.896 x 44.9 - 1.1 x 60= - 3203.9 kJ/min
2. An air conditioning plant takes in outside air at 30oC and 90% relative
humidity and delivers it at 22oC and 50% relative humidity. The plant uses a
cooler to dehumidify the air followed by a heater to return it to the required
temperature. An axial flow fan situated before the cooler absorbs 1.5 kW. If
the plant is to deliver 35 m3/min, calculate the temperature to which the air
must be cooled by the cooling coils and the heat transfer rates required in
the cooler and heater. Use the psychrometric chart.
3. 1000 kg/min of turbine condenser cooling water are sprayed into a natural
draught cooling tower at a temperature of 26oC, and the water returns to the
condenser at 12oC. Air is drawn into the tower at 15oC, with a relative
humidity of 55% and leaves the tower saturated at 24 oC. Calculate the mass
flow rate of moist air into the tower and the rate of loss of cooling water by
evaporation. It may be assumed that the total pressure throughout the tower
is 1 atm. Use the psychrometric chart.
11.
U internal energy J
u specific internal energy J/kg
V volume m3
v specific volume m3/kg
V volume flow rate m3/s
W work J
w work J/kg
W work per time (power) W
z height m
ratio of specific heats
density kg/m3
viscosity kg/ms
MECH mechanical efficiency
TH thermal efficiency
TURB turbine isentropic efficiency
COMP compressor isentropic efficiency
VOL volumetric efficiency