Motivation

Word motivation is comes from the Latin word movere, means "to
move." So the term motivation can be defined as the force to move the
staff towards the success. In the process of motivating the employees
the management has to direct, arise and encourage achieving the
goals. There are different types of motivation such as extrinsic,
intrinsic, achievements and philological. Motivation can also be
positive and negative types. There are different theories of motivation
through which is easy to understand how the staff is activated and
encouraged.

http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/rabideau.html

HISTORY
The motivation is always the part of the business industry since
beginning of life but the term is explained and focused by the
researchers from the late 19th and early 20th century. Different theories
and explanations about the leaderships and motivations are come
under the discussions. Then there is a long period of study under the
motivation. With the passage of time motivation is divided in to two
broad types of theories

 Content theories of motivation

 Process theories of motivation

CONTENT THEORIES of motivation

Content or need theories of motivation are based on the factors of
individual internal and behavior. These theories include the internal
energy of the staff which make them move ahead and their response
and behavior.

Main content theories of motivation include:

  Maslow's hierarchy of needs,

 Alderfer's ERG theory

 Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory

 McClelland's learned needs or three-needs theory

MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

This theory was given by the Abraham Maslow in which he developed
the need hierarchy. In this theory he described that the need of
employees are in hierarchy of security, physiological, self recognition
and esteem. Physiological needs include food and other necessities of
survival. Security needs involve the personal security, job security,
work freedom and stability. Self recognition and esteem includes the
respect in an environment and appreciation and ease to do creative
work.

ALDERFER'S ERG THEORY

This theory of Alderfer is basically an extension of Maslow's theory.
According to Alderfer the needs can be divided into three categories.
These 3 types of needs are

Existence:

Existence is somehow same to physiological and safety need of

Maslow theory.

Relatedness

Relatedness is about the relationships and respect.

Growth

Growth needs includes the recognition and attaining the potential.

Whether the two theories are quite similar but the ERG theory
suggests that all the three needs should be equally fulfilled whereas in
the hierarchy of needs there is stated that that the lower-level needs
should first completely satisfied before motivating for the upper-level
needs.

MOTIVATOR-HYGIENE THEORY
This motivator-hygiene theory was proposed by the Frederick
Herzberg. There is a close resemblance between this theory and
Maslow's hierarchy of needs but this theory is more focused on the
ways to motivate people in the workplace. According to Motivator
hygiene theory the low level need fulfilling will not motivate the staff
but make them satisfied to work, but in order to take extra effort from
them, upper level needs should be met.

Low level needs can be met by enhancing the pays, giving them
rewards and benefits and feel them more stable, safe and secure at
the work place. This satisfaction will retain the employees but for their
motivation for better performance their work should be recognized and
encouraged and by developing their skills and knowledge.

MCCLELLAND'S LEARNED NEEDS THEORY

According to this theory McClelland suggests that people may learn
their needs from the culture of the organization. There are 3 primary
needs in this theory

 Affiliation (establishing of relationship in a business culture)

 Power (controls the workplace and influence staff)

 Achievement (more responsible, goal oriented and taking

feedback)

PROCESS THEORIES
These theories of motivation focus how motivation can be done. In these
theories there is an explanation of how a person can be directed, energized
and maintained to gain the objectives. Actually these process theories are the
modified form of cognitive theories of motivation. Following the few process
theories:
 Expectancy theory

 Equity theory

 Goal-setting theory

 Reinforcement theory

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Expectancy theory is about the level of motivation required to

want and get something. The main framework is provided by the
Victor Vroom in early 1960. According to the Vroom motivation
and the efforts done results in performance for better results.

There are three conditions in this theory that can show the
motivation

o Efforts that can be done to give better performance must be

higher than the zero value.
o Secondly the performance leading to the better results must also
be greater than zero
o The sum of the valances exhibiting the desired outcome must be
more than zero.

But in the late 1960s, Porter and Lawler extended the Vroom
expectancy model, called the Porter-Lawler expectancy model. The
basic guidelines are the same but in the Porter-Lawler model it is
stated that more efforts not automatically lead to better performance
and outcomes. There is a need of necessary abilities, direction and
development with the extra efforts to gain results and performance.

EQUITY THEORY
Equity theory was given by the J. Stacy Adams in which he suggests the
individual working in the organization do comparison of their efforts
and provided rewards with others working in the same capacity. This
comparison about the efforts and hard work they done for the
organization and the pays and rewards given to them affects their
motivation level. If there is equity between them they become more
motivated and more positivity is established in the employees
otherwise they take it negatively and become demotivated. There are
commonly two types of inequity one is under-reward and the second is
over-reward. For example, if a worker is working hard for longer hours
than normal but paid same wage like others cause under reward
inequity. There are number of ways to counter it by stop perceiving
the system or by comparing it with others. The managers should
establish the fair reward system for maintain equity in the system.

GOAL-SETTING THEORY
The goal-setting theory is developed by the Edwin Locke and Gary
Latham.

This theory suggests that managements and the organizational heads must
set new challenging goals for the staff and the staff should be motivated in
achieving the goals by giving more purges and rewards on the completion of
the goals. This approach of motivation is highly appreciated among others.
Some specific and challenging goals for individuals become an encouraging
factor and raise the level of satisfaction. There are two main factors involving
in the goal setting theory including the goal commitment and self-efficacy.
REINFORCEMENT THEORY
This motivational theory is presented by B.F. Skinner and considered
as a learning theory. According to this theory the motivation and this
behavior is due to reinforcers. There is no study of needs or cognation
but the behavior is the key. This is the behavior that is rewarded and
encourage or some time punished. Managers should work on the
behavior of the staff to bring motivation.

Motivation and Performance in Organizations

The efforts and the performance of the employees in an organization is

influenced by the motivation, capability of the staff, and the atmosphere of
work place. For the better outcomes the deficiencies should be eliminated
from the system, some of which can be eradicated by providing proper
training or changing the working environment, but the motivation related
issues are not easy to handle. There must be incorporation of appropriate
technique and theory for the motivation of the staff for effective and fruitful
performance. Motivation is essential for any organization because of its
importance as a key of performance and intangible nature.

FURTHER READING:
Adams, J. Stacy. "Toward an Understanding of Equity." Journal of
Abnormal and Social Psychology, November 1963, 422–436.
Alderfer, Clayton P. Existence, Relatedness, and Growth: Human Needs
in Organizational Settings. New York: Free Press, 1972.
Gordon, Judith R. Organizational Behavior: A Diagnostic Approach. 7th
ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Herzberg, Frederick, B. Mausner, and B. Snyderman. The Motivation to
Work. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959.
Jones, Gareth R., Jennifer M. George, and Charles W.L.
Hill. Contemporary Management. 2nd ed. Boston: Irwin/McGraw-Hill,
2000.

Locke, Edwin A. "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and

Incentives." Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, May
1968, 157–189.

Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper &

Row, 1954.

McClelland, David C. "Business Drive and National

Achievement." Harvard Business Review, July-August 1962, 99–112.

Mitchell, Terence R. "Matching Motivational Strategies with

Organizational Contexts." Research in Organizational Behavior 19
(1997): 57–149.

Porter, Lyman W., Gregory Bigley, and Richard M. Steers. Motivation

and Work Behavior. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2002.
Robbins, Stephen P., and Mary Coulter. Management. 8th ed. Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004.

Steers, Richard M., Lyman W. Porter, and Gregory A. Bigley. Motivation

and Leadership at Work. 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1996.
Vroom, Victor H. Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley & Sons,
1964.

Read more: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Mar-

No/Motivation-and-Motivation-Theory.html#ixzz52wCI14bg

E - MOTIVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
INTRODUCTION.

Knowing how and why to motivate employees is an important managerial skill.

THE NATURE OF MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS.

Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to choose certain behaviors
from among the many alternatives open to them.

Motivation And Performance In Organizations.

An employee's performance typically is influenced by motivation,

ability, and the work environment. Some deficiencies can be
addressed by providing training or altering the environment,
motivation problems are not as easily addressed.

Motivation is important because of its significance as a

determinant of performance and its intangible nature.

HISTORICAL VIEWS OF MOTIVATION.

Evolution can be traced from scientific management, through the

human relations movement, to the human resource approach.

o Scientific management:

The assumptions of scientific management were that

work is inherently unpleasant for most people and the
money they earn is more important to employees than
is the nature of the job they are performing.

o Human relations movement:

This school of thought emphasized the role of social

processes in organizations and assumed that the
need for belongingness and the need to feel useful
are more important than money in motivating
employees.

o Human resource approach:

 This view assumes that people want to contribute to
organizational effectiveness and are able to make
genuine contributions. The organization's
responsibility is to create a work environment that
makes full use of available human resources.

The human resource approach guides most thinking

about motivation today, but three integrative
approaches conceptualize motivation more
completely: need-based, process-based, and
reinforcement-based approaches.

NEED-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION.

Need-based approaches to motivation focus on what motivates employees to

choose certain behaviors as shown on the following diagram.

Two need-based approaches are need hierarchies and the dual-structure

approach.

Need Hierarchies

Two of the most popular need hierarchies are Abraham Maslow's

hierarchy and Clayton Alderfer's ERG theory of motivation.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs assumes that people are motivated

to satisfy five levels of needs:

o physiological,
o security,
o belongingness,
o esteem, and
o self-actualisation.

The hierarchical arrangement suggests that the five levels of

needs are arranged in order of increasing importance, starting
with physiological needs. According to the theory, when needs at
one level are satisfied, they are no longer motivators and the
individual "moves up" the hierarchy to satisfy needs at the next
level. Maslow's view of motivation provides a logical framework for
categorizing needs, but it does not supply a complete picture.

Alderfer developed the ERG theory of motivation in response to

criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy.

o ERG stands for existence, relatedness, and growth needs ERG

theory. Existence needs are satisfied by food and water pay fringe
benefits and working conditions. Relatedness needs are satisfied
by relationships with co workers, superiors family and friends.
Growth needs cover the need to advance and develop.
o As with Maslow's theory, assumes that motivated behavior follows
a hierarchy, but it has two important differences:
 ERG theory suggests that more than one level of needs can
cause motivation at the same time;
 ERG theory has a frustration-regression element that
suggests that if needs remain unsatisfied at some high
level, the individual will become frustrated, regress to a
lower level, and begin to pursue lower-level needs again.
 The Dual-Structure Approach To Motivation.

The dual-structure approach was developed by Frederick

Herzberg and is often referred to as the two-factor theory.

Herzberg's studies of accountants and engineers led him to

suggest that entirely different sets of factors are associated with
satisfaction and with dissatisfaction.

Motivation factors, relating to the job itself, result in feelings

ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

Hygiene factors, relating to the work environment, result in

feelings ranging from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

Acquired Needs.

Other need-based perspectives on motivation focus on acquired

needs: the needs for achievement, affiliation, and power. This
 approach is concerned not about the ordering of needs but rather
about the needs themselves. David McCleland first identified the
need for achievement, which reflects an individual's desire to do
something more effectively than in the past. The need for power is
the desire to be influential in a group and to control one's
environment.

PROCESS-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION.

These approaches to motivation are concerned with how motivation takes

place. They focus on why people choose certain behavioral options to fulfil
their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained
their goals. Two useful process-based approaches are expectancy theory and
equity theory.

Expectancy Theory.

Expectancy theory suggests that motivation is based on how

much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it.

The formal framework of expectancy theory was developed by

Victor Vroom. This framework states basically that motivation plus
effort leads to performance, which then leads to outcomes.

According to this theory, three conditions must be met for

individuals to exhibit motivated behavior:

o effort-to-performance expectancy must be greater than zero;

o performance-to-outcome expectancy must also be greater than
zero; and
o the sum of the valances for all relevant outcomes must be greater
than zero.

Effort-to-performance expectancy is the individual's perception of

the probability that effort will lead to high performance. This
expectancy ranges from 0 to 1, with 1 being a strong belief that
effort will lead to high performance.

Performance-to-outcome expectancy is the individual's perception

that performance will lead to a specific outcome. This expectancy
ranges from 0 to 1. A high performance-to-outcome expectancy
would be 1 or close to it.

Outcomes are consequences of behavior. An individual may

experience a variety of outcomes in an organizational setting.
Each outcome has an associated valance, which is an index of
how much an individual desires a particular outcome. An outcome
that an individual wants has a positive valance. An outcome that
the individual does not want has a negative valance. When the
individual is indifferent to the outcome, the valance is zero.

Porter and Lawler extended the basic expectancy model by

suggesting that high performance may cause high satisfaction.
When performance results in various extrinsic and intrinsic
rewards, the individual evaluates the equity of these various
rewards relative to the effort expended and the level of
performance attained. The individual is satisfied if the rewards
relative to the effort expended and the level of performance
attained. The individual is satisfied if the rewards are felt to be fair.
 Implications for managers:

Nadler and Lawler suggest how managers can apply

the basic ideas of expectancy theory. Managers
should first determine the outcomes each employee is
likely to want. Then they should decide what kinds
and levels of performance are needed to meet
organizational goals, making sure that the desired
levels of performance are attainable. Managers then
need to ensure that desired outcomes and desired
performance are linked. Finally, the rewards need to
be large enough, and the total system needs to be
equitable.

Equity Theory.

Equity theory, developed by J. Stacy Adams, suggests that once

an individual has chosen an action that is expected to satisfy his
or her needs, the individual assesses the equity or fairness of the
outcome. Equity is an individual's beliefs that he or she is being
treated fairly relative to the treatment of others.

Three attitudes are possible: an individual may feel equitably

rewarded, underrewarded, or overrewarded. When individuals feel
underrewarded or overrewarded, they will do something to reduce
the inequity. The single most important thing to remember about
equity theory is that if rewards are to motivate employees, they
must be perceived as being equitable and fair.

REINFORCEMENT-BASED APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION.

These approaches to motivation explain the role of rewards as they cause

behavior to change or remain the same. Behavior that results in rewarding
consequences is likely to be repeated. Expectancy theory and reinforcement
theory are similar in that both consider the processes by which an individual
chooses behaviors in a particular situation. However, expectancy theory
focuses more on behavior choices, and reinforcement theory focuses more on
the consequences of those choices.
 Reinforcement Contingencies.

Reinforcement contingencies are the possible outcomes that an

individual may experience as a result of his or her choice of
behavior. There are four of these : positive reinforcement,
avoidance, punishment, and extinction.

o Positive reinforcement is a reward or a positive outcome after a

desired behavior is performed; it serves to strengthen behavior.
o Avoidance occurs when the individual chooses a behavior to
avoid unpleasant consequences; it can strengthen desired
behavior.
o Punishment is unpleasant consequences used to weaken
undesired behavior.
o Extinction is ending undesired behavior by ignoring and not
reinforcing it.

Providing Reinforcement

There are four approaches to providing reinforcement.

o A fixed-interval schedule provides reinforcement at fixed intervals

of time, regardless of behavior.
o A variable-interval schedule provides reinforcement at varying
time intervals.
o A fixed-ration schedule gives reinforcement after a fixed number
of behaviors, regardless of the time that has elapsed between
behaviors.
o A variable-ration schedule varies the number of behaviors needed
for each reinforcement and is the most powerful schedule for
maintaining desired behaviors.

OTHER APPROACHES TO MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS.

Goal Setting Theory.

 This approach suggests that managers and subordinates should
set goals for the individual on a regular basis and that rewards
should be tied to the accomplishment of goals. Research support
for goal-setting theory is more consistently favorable than any
other single approach to employee motivation.

The Japanese Approach To Motivation.

The Japanese approach is not a theory or model but a philosophy

of management. The basic tenet is that managers and workers
should come together as partners - as one group.

ENHANCING MOTIVATION IN ORGANISATIONS.

Managers may influence motivation through the organization's reward

systems, or they may adopt specific interventions derived from one or more
theories.

Organizational Reward Systems.

The organization's reward system is the basic structural

mechanism that an organization uses to motivate workers. The
reward system includes the formal and informal mechanisms by
which employee performance is defined, evaluated, and
rewarded. An organization's primary purpose in giving rewards is
to influence employee behavior.

Effects of organizational rewards:

Organizational rewards can affect individual attitudes,

behaviors, and motivation. Edward Lawler describes
four major generalizations about employee attitudes
toward rewards.

o Employee satisfaction is affected by comparison of

the rewards they receive with those received by
others.
o Employees often misperceive the rewards received by
others.
 o The system recognizes that different people have
different needs and choose different ways to satisfy
those needs.
o Performance-based systems:

Organizational reward systems have traditionally

either a fixed salary or hourly rate system or an
incentive system. Fixed rewards can be tied directly to
performance through merit pay systems, whereby
people get different pay raises at the end of the year,
depending on their overall job performance. Many
organizations are experimenting with various kinds of
incentive systems, which attempt to reward
employees in proportion to their accomplishments.
Four popular incentive systems include profit sharing,
gain sharing, lump-sum bonuses, and pay for
knowledge.

interventions for enhancing motivation.

Three motivational interventions are behavior modification, the

modified workweek, and work redesign.

o Behavior modification is a technique for applying the concepts of

reinforcement theory in organizational settings.
o A modified workweek can be any work schedule that does not
conform to a traditional eight-hours-a-day, five-days-a-week
design. Some alternatives include the compressed workweek,
flexible work schedule, working at home and job sharing.
o Changing the nature of people's jobs in being used as a
motivational technique. Any of the alternatives to job
specialization - job rotation, job enlargement, job enrichment, the
job characteristics approach, autonomous work groups-could be
used as part of a motivational program
What can Sports Direct teach us
about fairness and corporate
culture?

'As an individual, would you tolerate that? Is that fair?' Challenges to some
dubious employment practices such as docking pay by 15 minutes for 1
minute’s lateness. This question, and implied demand for fairness, didn’t come
from a leading human rights campaigner, church leader or management guru.
It comes from Mike Ashley, Executive Deputy Chairman of Sports Direct (and
its major shareholder). Ashley elaborates further, commenting on some of
Sports Direct’s employment practices with reference to his children – if they
went to work in an environment where some of these policies were prevalent,
he wouldn’t be OK with that. It would be “unreasonable” and “unfair.”

The concept of fairness at work is something we’re very interested in at the

CIPD and have researched extensively. It has multiple definitions or
interpretations. One person’s fair – distribute rewards to those most deserving
because of their talents – is another person’s dystopia. It risks leaving the
most needy or frail vulnerable and insecure. For some, fairness is about
process; show that you’ve considered all angles and exercised good
judgement. For others that sounds like a bureaucratic nightmare - the
outcome’s what matters.

I like Mr Ashley’s definition of fairness – it respects us all as individuals and

speaks to the golden rule, do as you would be done by. Ashley wanted fair
treatment during Tuesday’s Select Committee hearing. Whether playing the
starry-eye-ingénue-(‘it’s all very complicated, my business is very big, I can’t
be everywhere’) or the bombastic-entrepreneur (‘I have a helicopter’), Ashley
wanted to be understood. He was looking for the golden rule to be enacted in
his favour - ‘put yourselves in my shoes, it’s a tough job.’ He wanted this rule
invoked in his favour way more, it seems, than he’s prepared to have it
enacted in favour of others, his workforce for example.

In its 2015 Corporate Social Responsibility Report, Sports Direct says “our
people are what makes the Sports Direct Group such a success.” In fact,
during the hearing, Ashley made the remark “I didn’t make Sports Direct, it
made me.” Both statements imply symmetry and mutuality. But the repeated
plea for understanding at the hearing – what it’s like to run a large business
that has gone from a dinghy to a supertanker, that operates across the world –
is not reflected in Mr Ashley’s relationship to his staff. These are people who,
allegedly, operate on a “six strike” policy. Six strikes and you’re out. A strike
seems to be given with a high degree of managerial discretion – too long in
the loo, “horseplay” or receiving a phone call for example. Mr Ashley hasn’t
engaged with Unite since Sports Direct’s last AGM and how he remains in
touch with his people and their concerns isn’t through formal feedback
mechanisms or surveys, but by “walking around.” If he did a survey, he claims,
people wouldn’t fill it in. That this might be because of a complete and utter
lack of faith in a leader who seems to treat his staff almost without any respect
for their basic humanity, much less the fairness that he refers to, doesn’t seem
to occur to him. His position is that all his people “want Sports Direct to do
better” but perhaps only for his gain, not theirs.

I don’t think it’s fair to expect Mike Ashley, or any other leader, to be in every
meeting, making every decision or every plan. But neither is it fair of Mr
Ashley to pretend that he thinks that’s his job. I think it’s fair for Sports Direct
staff to expect their CEO to set a leadership tone and develop and govern a
strong and healthy culture from the top. One that respects individuals’ legal
rights, their well-being – financial, physical and emotional – and their real role
in Sports Direct’s success. Mr Ashley, if you didn’t make Sports Direct, if it
really made you, fairness would say that you are significantly in debt to your
workforce. Paying in line with the legal minimum is the very least part of this
debt. But the real debt would be repaid by honouring their humanity and
creating a workplace where you’d be proud for your children to work and
thrive.

If you’re interested in workplace cultures and finding out more about how the
tone can be set from the top, look out for our submission to the Financial
Reporting Council’s Culture Coalition Report later this month, which will
explore the relationship between corporate culture and value creation, and
tackle important questions including: who is responsible for corporate culture?
How important is ‘tone from the top’ for driving behaviour and culture? How
can you embed values and behaviour across all levels of the organisation?