Chapter 1- Introduction

Manganese enjoys a high strategic importance for an industrialized nation

since no quality steel can be produced without the addition of small quantity of
manganese. Manganese is the fourth most used metal in terms of tonnage after
iron, aluminium and copper and hence it is aptly called Achilles heel of the Iron
and steel industry on the fabric of which the economy of the Nation rests.
Because of its sulphur fixing, deoxidizing and alloying properties, the principal
use of manganese is in iron and steel industry. Relatively small amounts of
manganese and different manganese compounds are utilized in the manufacture
of other metal alloys, animal feed, soil conditioners, dyes and paints,
pharmaceuticals, dry-cell batteries, and as a colouring material in pottery, tile
and brick.

Manganese (Mn) is a brittle, hard gray white to silvery metal that looks much
like iron. As an essential ingredient of steel, manganese is the 12th most
abundant element widely distributed in the earth’s crust and the 4th most used
metal in terms of tonnage, ranked after iron, aluminium and copper.
Nevertheless it is only rarely found in concentrations high enough to form a
manganese ore deposit. Among some 300 minerals containing manganese, only
a dozen are of mining significance. Mn never occurs as the native metal in
nature, but exists in the form of oxides, carbonates and silicates in the earth’s
crust. Approximately 95% of total production of Mn ore is consumed in
steelmaking because of its sulphur fixing, deoxidizing, and alloying properties,
to form ferromanganese-alloys (Acharya et al., 2004). Without manganese,
steel would not be able to achieve the tensile strength, toughness, stiffness,
wear resistance and hardness that make it such a useful engineering material.
Moreover use of manganese in inadequate quantities in the steelmaking process
would result in cracks during hot rolling or forging. In addition to its use as an
alloy in steel and cast iron, manganese is also employed as an alloy (in very
much lesser quantities) with aluminium, copper, nickel, titanium and zinc. It is
also used in minor quantities for electronic applications, along with either,
bismuth, gold and silver.

One of the most important non metallurgical applications of manganese is in

the form of manganese dioxide, which is used as a depolarizer in dry cell
batteries. Globally, consumption of dry cell batteries exceeds 20 billion units a
year. Rising fuel costs have triggered a host of innovations in the automobile
industry. The demand for alternative technology in the form of batteries to
power automobiles is perceived to be very high.

Apart from the above mentioned applications there are numerous chemical
applications of manganese oxide and salts. Potassium permanganate is one of
the best known manganese products. It is a powerful oxidizing agent with
bactericidal and algicidal properties, which enable it to be used in purifying
drinking water and treating waste water (Banerjee 1950). It is also used for
odor control, including deodorization of discharges from paint factories, fish
processing plants etc. Permanganate has a variety of other applications as an
oxidant. An important application for manganese is Maneb (manganese
ethylene bisdithiocarbamate), an organo chemical compound sold in the form
of a yellow powder, which is an agricultural fungicide and is widely used for
controlling crop and cereal diseases (Rhodes 1977). An organic manganese
compound known as MMT (methylcyclo pentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl) is
used on a small scale as an octane booster or anti knock agent in gasoline
(Hamadi 2010). MMT can dramatically improve oil combustion, reducing
boiler clogging and soot levels. This application is important from an
environmental point of view as it allows lead to be replaced, but it has not yet
been fully developed (Strikkers 2002). Manganese dioxide is used as a catalyst
in the production of artificial flavours like vanilla. It is also used as an
oxidizing agent in treating uranium ore to produce the oxide concentrate known
as “yellow cake” (Zhang Jianguo et. Al 2004). Other applications include the
colouring of bricks and tiles, paint driers and as a pigment for paints, etc.
Manganese sulphate is widely used as an end product in fertilizers and animal
feed, and as an intermediate product in the chemical industry. Manganese
phosphatation is used to produce surface films which, when sealed with oil or
wax, can protect steels for internal or mild outdoor use. Thus, Manganese
phosphating improves wear resistance, prevents welding of metals under load,
increases lubrication efficiency by oil absorption and assures rapid and safe
running of moving parts. Another important material is manganese ferrite, a
soft ferrite widely used in electronics. Large amounts are consumed in the
manufacture of television circuit boards. Manganese for this purpose can come
from ore, oxides, carbonates and even metallic manganese. Manganese is also
used in the process of making electrolytic zinc. In the presence of MnO2, zinc
sulphide concentrates are processed with sulphuric acid. The effect during this
leaching process gives 99% extraction of zinc, 98% of manganese, and 96%
liberation of elemental sulphur.

Aim and scope of the study

Manganese is a critical mineral because of the limited known resources in the

country with relation to our present and proposed steel melting capacity.

The low grade bimetallic ores from Sandur are important on account of their
relative abundance and good export market. Their low silica and phosphorous
content add to their importance because of their suitability for blending with
high grade ores with having high phosphorous content.

Beneficiation and utilization of medium and low grade ore is indispensible as

there is deficiency of high grade, good quality manganese ore in India. There is
a growing demand for richer ore with stringent stipulation of size in the
domestic and international market. This has resulted in accumulation of large
quantities of inferior grade ore fines at the mines because of limited demand.
In order to put these inferior grade ore fines to productive use and make them
saleable, systematic beneficiation of these fines followed by agglomeration of
the concentrate is gaining greater importance in the manganese ore-producing
countries all over the world. In recent years there is an increasing demand on
manganese consumption which stems from the important role of manganese in
carbon steel production (Xin et al., 2009; Xin et al., 2011). A shortage of high-
grade manganese ores in international markets still exist for carbon steels and
this situation has led to price gains for both manganese ores and alloys (Doshi,
2007). In order to achieve the projected demand of ferro alloys, there will be
huge requirement of manganese for steel making. World’s rapidly growing
demand for manganese has made it progressively more important to develop
processes for economical recovery of manganese from low grade manganese
ores (Acharya et al., 2003). According to International Manganese Institute, the
resources of manganese dioxide minerals in the European Union (EU) are
limited. Worldwide reserves of high-grade manganese ores are diminishing at a
critical rate due to the rapid increase in the demand for metals.

High grade manganese ores are typically processed into suitable metallic alloy
formed by pyrometallurgical processes. The nonferrous gangue minerals can be
removed easily by gravity separation techniques but separation of near density
iron minerals requires high intensity magnetic separator or reduction roasting
process to achieve a high Mn/Fe ratio in the concentrate (Narayanan and
Subramanian, 1959; Mohanty et al., 1981; Huaming and Guanzhou, 1998;
Singh et al., 2011).

Mineral beneficiation techniques play a significant role to upgrade low grade

Manganese ores to obtain high value Manganese products. It is seen that the
demand of Manganese ore for Ferromanganese production is steadily
increasing and this has to match with the demand of steel in coming years,
which cannot be met unless the low grade manganese ores are beneficiated.

The proposed research envisages beneficiation of such low grade Manganese

ores from the Sandur Schist Belt, Bellary district, Karnataka state, India.
Manganese ores from this area are continuously mined since 1907. These ores
are in demand for their low silica content and very low phosphorous content
(less than 0.04%). The ores are bi-metal ores and the content of Mn and Fe
varies from one location to another. The ores from the study area are generally
termed as low grade containing 32-35% of Mn. Also local concentration of
high grade ores averaging 50-55% Mn is not uncommon in some sections.

In order to beneficiate the low grade Mn ores of Sandur Schist Belt, the author
has carried out ore microscopic studies to know the major and accessary
minerals as well as ore and gangue minerals present in the ore samples.
Geochemical investigation of the ore samples was carried out to determine the
concentration of major and minor minerals as well as REE’s. IR and DTA-
TGA studies were carried out to identify the other minerals which cannot be
identified with ore microscopic studies. After confirming the presence of
minerals in the samples with various physical and chemical tools, beneficiation
studies were taken up. In beneficiation studies Comminution, liberation and
sizing and screening studies were carried out. The Mn % was observed to be
upgraded by 1-1.5% after screening with 97-99% recovery. The results are
discussed in detail in the respective chapter.

Previous work

Capt. Newbold (1838-1842) first discovered the occurrence of manganese ore

in Sandur Hospet region and subsequently scientifically examined the
Manganese ores in the area. Bruce Foote (1884-1890) reported the occurrence
of manganese ore and brought out the first geological map of the Sandur Schist
Belt. Ghose (1905) prospected the whole of western and southern parts of the
then princely state of Sandur and located some 90 ore bodies among which the
Ramandurg deposit was the important one. Fermer (1906-1909) studied the
manganese ores of the area and classified them under lateroid type. The
stratigraphy and structure of the schist belt and mode of occurrence of
manganese ore were studied in detail by Venkatram and Dutt (1949) of
Geological Survey of India. Naganna (1964) gave detailed mineralogy of the
manganese ores, he classified the Sandur ores into massive-, cavernous- and
mixed-types and gave detailed mineralogy of these ores and concluded that the
massive ore bodies represent the metamorphosed manganese sediments. Mishra
(1972) classified the manganese ore deposits of Sandur into three types, i.e.
Stratiform (Primary bedded one), Podiform and Tabular (Supergene ore). The
other prominent workers on this area are Narayana (1946), Krishnamurthy
(1951), Karunakaran (1956), Seetaramaiah and Patil (1965-68), Shivakumar
and Naganna (1973), Dixit (1973), Krishnamurthy (1974), Shivakumar (1976),
Roy and Hans (1978). Naganna (1976) considered Sandur manganese ores free
of carbonate association as Eugeosynclinal. Roy and Biswas (1977) remapped
the major part of the schist belt. Babu (1977) prepared a large scale geological
map on 1: 15,840 scale of the manganese ore bearing area of the Sandur Schist
Belt and delineated the potential blocks for the detailed exploration.

Location and accessibility

The area under investigation Sandur Schist Belt is a part of Sandur taluk,
Bellary district, Karnataka state (Fig. 1.1) and is bound by latitude 14°55’ to
15°15’N and longitude 76°20’ to 76°40’E, it is included in Survey of India
toposheet nos. 57 B/3,57 A/8 and 57 A/12. The area is marked by several active
mines for manganese and iron ores and is well connected by a number of fair
weather roads.

The administrative taluk Sandur is connected by motorable roads to other taluk

towns such as Hospet and Kudlgi along with the district headquarter Bellary.

Kudlgi and Torangallu are connected by the state highway no. 40 passing
through Sandur. Torangallu is the site where ‘Jindal Vijayanagar steel Limited’
(JVSL) is located and is 30 Km from Sandur.

Torangallu is the nearest railway station which is on the Guntkal-Hubli broad-

gauge line of South Central Railway. A brod-gauge railway line meant for
transportation of iron ore from Donimalai to Chennai via Guntkal passes
through Torangallu.

The Hospet-Swamihalli broad-gauge branch line of South Central Railway

passes all along the western part of the schist belt and is mainly used for the
transportation of iron and manganese ores.

M/s. Sandur Manganese and Iron Ores Ltd. (SMIORE) hold lease over an area
of 50 sq. Km in Deogiri, Subrayanhalli and Ramandurg ranges, which covers
almost entire area of manganese mineralization of the schist belt.
Fig. 1.1- Location map of Sandur
Fig. 1.2- Sandur Schist Belt location and boundary on Satellite Imagery
Physiography and Drainage of the area

Topography of the region is distinct and unique, the hills of Sandur rise above
the plain topography of the surrounding. The Sandur Schist Belt is marked by
elongated hill ranges running in NNW-SSE direction. This is the result of
structural manifestation of the rocks coupled with weathering agents.

The entire schist belt is trending nearly NW-SE with a length of 53 Kms
(Parallel to strike direction) and spreading over an area of 600 sq. kms. The
central part of schist belt is a valley flanked by hill ranges extending both sides
(NW-SE) with diminishing width. The schist belt is surrounded by granitoids.
Most of the area in the central part of the Sandur valley is plain and has a R.L.
of 500-600 m above MSL, while the hills rise to over 1000 m the highest point
is on Hirray Gutti peak of Kumarswamy range with a R.L. of 1105 m above
MSL. As a result of lateritization, the hills have given rise to flat tops which are
described as plateaus. The change in elevation is abrupt. A perennial river
Narihalla, flows west to East in the area. Kumarswamy range is in the south of
Narihalla, whereas, Ramgad range is to the north. The area has various springs
at several points like Harishankar, Byrethirtha and Ramgad.

Geology of the Area

The Sandur Schist Belt is one of the important greenstone belts of Karnataka
Craton and is named after the town Sandur where it is typically exposed. The
rich manganese ore deposits associated with the schist belt have evoked interest
of economic geologists, mining engineers and metallurgist since long as
evidenced by numerous old workings.

The Sandur Schist Belt forms parts of Dharwar Supergroup. The schist belt is
represented by a thick pile of volcano-sedimentary sequence in which the
volcanic component predominates (fig. 1.3). The entire succession rests
unconfirmably over the granitic gneisses and is intruded by younger granites of
the Closepet. The volcanic suite is represented predominantly by metabasalts
and the associated basic pyroclasts, with subordinate intermediate and acid
lavas. The metasediments are constituted by orthoquartzite, limestone,
manganiferous chert, argillite, wacke, and banded iron formation.

Geologically the Sandur Schist Belt is considered to have formed between

Archean and Protorozoic.

The Sandur Schist Belt comprises of basic igneous rocks (metabasalts and
pillow lava), ferruginous and manganiferous phyllite/shale, younger intrusive
banded ferruginous quartzite, iron and manganese ores and laterite.

Two distinct events of folding/deformation are recorded of which the earlier

one is prominent and responsible for the formation of northerly plunging folds.
The second one is of mild type, associated with the development of strain slip
cleavage trending N800E- S800W. Two important laterite surfaces occurring at
RL’s 1006 m and 792m are well preserved over the succession and are host for
the rich concentrations of iron and Manganese.
Fig. 1.3 Geological map of Karnataka.
Stratigraphically four formations have been distinguished in Sandur Schist Belt
viz. Yeshwantnagar, Deogiri, Donimalai and Nandihalli formations.

The Yeshwantnagr formation is largely composed of volcanic flows; the

Deogiri formation by manganiferous greywacke argillite, and the Donimalai
formation by extensive development of banded hematite and magnetite chert
and jasper. The top most formation Nandihalli is made up of metabasalts with
intercalation of greywacke and argillites. Lateritization has played an important
role in the concentration of manganese and iron in the profile giving rise to rich
accumulation of manganese and iron ore for which the schist belt is world
famous. The detailed account on the geology and stratigraphy about Deogiri
formation is discussed in the geology chapter.

Methods of Investigation

Literature review- The study area was delineated from the geological map of
Karnataka. Toposheets of the respective area were collected. Available
literature and previous work done was studied carefully and reviewed before
starting of actual research work, to decide the course of the research work.

Sampling- Working and abandoned mining pits were sampled for Mn ore
samples. Systematic sampling was carried out. Samples were collected from
various working and abandoned mining sections of Deogiri, SB Halli, and
Ramgad sections. The samples were collected in such way that they represent
all the lithologies associated with Mn mineralization in the area under
investigation. Field photographs were taken for better representation of the
information collected during the field work.

Mineralogical and mineraghaphical studies- The samples collected were

selectively used for different mineralogical and mineragraphical studies to
identify the different minerals associated with the Mn ore deposits of the area
under investigation. The minerals were studied megascopically and also studied
for ore microscopic investigation. The polished sections were studied to
identify different major and accessory minerals associated with the Mn ores of
area under investigation.

Geochemistry- Twenty five samples are crushed and reduced to fine powder
and analyzed in the laboratory to find out major oxides such as MnO2, Fe2O3,
SiO2, Al2O3, P2O5, CaO and MgO.

Fourteen samples are analyzed for trace elements to find out the concentration
of Cu, Co, Ni, Zn, Pb and Cr along with MnO2 and Fe2O3.

Five samples are subjected for REE and trace elements and the contents are
reported in ppm. The elements analyzed are LREE i.e. Lanthanum (La),
Cerium (Ce), Praseodymium (Pr), Neodymium (Nd), Samarium (Sm) and
Europium (Eu). HREE elements were also analyzed i.e. Gadolinium (Gd),
Dysprosium (Dy), Erbium (Er), Ytterbium (Yb) and Lutetium (Lu). Along with
LREE and HREE, Yttrium (Y), Thorium(Th), Uranium (U), Hafnium (Hf),
Zirconium (Zr), Cesium (Cs), Tantalum (Ta), Scandium (Sc), Niobium (Nb),
Gallium (Ga), Vanadium (V), Strontium (Sr) and Rubidium (Rb) these trace
elements are analyzed.

Infrared absorption spectroscopy- Sixteen samples were subjected to

Infrared absorption spectroscopic studies, to study the absorption spectra of the
different Mn ore samples from the area under investigation. The spectras
obtained were then compared to the standard spectras reported from other
locations from different countries in the literature and observations were noted.

Thermal studies- Twelve samples were subjected to the thermal studies to

study their behavior and response to the varying temperature conditions.
Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
studies were carried out as a part of thermal studies. The observations and
results were then compared to the behavior of different Mn minerals reported in
the literature.
Beneficiation studies- The samples were subjected to different beneficiation
studies such as comminution, sizing and screening etc.

Indian scenario of Manganese ores

Indian manganese ores are preferred by many as they are generally hard, lumpy
and amenable to easy reduction. In the Indian continent, the deposition of
manganese must have taken place in varying environmental settings and by
different geological processes but the sedimentary mode of formation far
outweighed other methods such as supergene enrichment etc. These manganese
ores have been selectively exploited either for direct use or for sweetening the
otherwise available phosphor-rich ores. Favourable geological and
geomorphologic settings, existing well connected rail and road links, easy
amenability of ores to beneficiation and liberal Govt. policies make the
exploitation of Indian manganese deposits practically a no risk proposition.

India is now the world’s fifth largest producer of manganese ore as per World
Manganese Organization report for 2012. It is estimated that about 20% of the
world’s manganese deposits are in India which makes India the seventh country
among largest manganese deposits. The important deposits lie in the states of
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Goa.
(Fig. 1.4)

Typically, manganese ore is classified into three grades based on the

manganese content of the ore. High grade ores contain more than 44–48% Mn
while medium grade and low grade ores contain 35–44% and 25–35% Mn
respectively (Acharya et al., 2004). The predominant manganese ores are
Pyrolusite, cryptomelane, psilomelane, braunite, ramsdellite etc.

Indian manganese ore deposits occur mainly as metamorphosed bedded

sedimentary deposits associated with Gondite Series (Archeans) of Madhya
Pradesh (Balaghat, Chhindwara and Jhabua districts), Maharashtra (Bhandara
and Nagpur districts), Gujarat (Panchmahal district), Odisha (Sundergarh
district) and with Kodurite Series (Archeans) of Odisha (Ganjam and Koraput
districts) and Andhra Pradesh (Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts).

The greenstone hosted manganese deposits are older in age and have general
close association of Banded Iron Formation such as in the Dharwarian rocks of
Karnataka and Goa as also the Iron Ore Supergroup of Orissa, namely in
Benai-Keonjhar tracts of North Orissa. As the time sequence changes over
from Archaean to Proterozoic, both the Khondalite-hosted ores (called as
Koduritic in classic literature, Fermor, 1909) as well as the Adilabad beds of
ore with the Penganga sequence, manifesting with practically no association of
iron or BIF, indicate progressive separation of iron or BIF, from manganese.

The Gonditic ores of Sausars and Gangpurs, geochemically from the

intermediate stages wherein BIF association has disappeared but the Late
Archean metasediments were forced in an association with graphitic schists as
well as carbonate rocks. The chemogenic situation as must have been in the
earlier BIF associated phase, has persisted before a clastic-silicate phase of
manganese, possibly get laid up to form Khondalite-hosted ores or the
Penganga bedded ores of manganese. Tertiary-Quaternary lateritisation
processes with alternates wet and dry spells of climate, had affected the
manganiferous sequences of the substrata. Thus the ‘lateritoid’ ores are situated
over some gondites and the Khondalite hosted material as also on the BIF-
associated greenstone hosted ore material.
Fig. 1.4- Distribution of manganese ore in India.
The manganese ore deposits of M.P.-Maharashtra belt, Visakhapatnam
Srikakulam belts of Andhra Pradesh, Gangpur Manganese belt of Orissa and a
part of North Kanara deposits are bedded type.

The deposits of Singhbhum-Keonjhar-Bonai belt, Bellary-Hospet and North

Kanara belt of Karnataka are mainly of lateritoid type. Manganese ores of
Bonai-Keonjhar belt are known for their low phosphorous content. More than
50% of the manganese ore deposits of M.P. - Maharashtra are of high grade.

The total resources of manganese ore in the country as on April 2010 are
placed at 430 million tonnes as per UNFC system. Out of these, 142 million
tonnes are categorized as reserves and the balance 288 million tonnes are in the
remaining resources category (IBM Yearbook, 2012). Gradewise, ferro-
manganese grade accounts for 8%, medium grade 11%, BF grade 34% and the
remaining 47% are of mixed, low, others, unclassified, and not-known grades
including 0.35 million tonnes of battery/chemical grade. State wise, Odisha
tops the total resources with 44% share followed by Karnataka 22%, Madhya
Pradesh 13%, Maharashtra 8%, Andhra Pradesh 4% and Jharkhand and Goa
3% each (Fig 1.2). Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal together shared the
remaining about 3% resources (Table – 1.1).

Most of the manganese deposits in Karnataka are confined to the Precambrian

Dharwar Supergroup of rocks. These manganese ores occurring at Sandur
(76°20’ to 76°40’E and 14°55’ to 15°15’N) in Bellary District, Karnataka are
the main focus of present investigation.

Production of manganese ore in India during 2011-12 was 2.6 million tonnes.
MOIL Ltd. was the largest producer of manganese ore with the share of 40% of
the total production followed by Tata Steel, SMIORE, OMC, Adhunik and
Rungta (IBM Yearbook, 2012) (Fig. 1.3).
 Fig. 1.5- State wise manganese resources of India

Fig. 1.6- Total manganese ore production in India 2010-11

Table 1.1 Indian Reserves/Resources of Manganese Ore as on 01.04.2010
Global scenario of manganese ores

As far as the world scenario of manganese ore is concerned, current estimates

of world manganese reserves including low grade ore, reach several billion
tonnes. But the world reserves of manganese ore in terms of metal content are
placed at 630 million tonnes in 2012, which are unevenly distributed (Fig 1.4).

Reserves are majorly situated in the southern hemisphere, located in South

Africa (24%), Ukraine (22%), Brazil (17%), Australia (15%) and India (9%)
(Table1.2). Only a small fraction of global manganese reserves is clearly
economic. This fact continues to support interest in deep-sea manganese
nodules, which constitute an enormous untapped resource. Most nodules are
found in areas of deep-sea floor at water depths of 5 to 7 km. The Pacific
Ocean alone is estimated to contain about 2.5 billion tonnes of nodules
containing about 25% Mn, making them similar in abundance to low-grade
land-based deposits. Most major steel-making nations lack manganese
resources. North America has less than 1% world reserves. Besides, United
States have lean grade reserves and potentially high extraction cost. This
situation has created an active global trade in manganese ore and manganese
alloys.
 Fig. 1.7- World manganese reserves (%).

Country Reserves (Milli on Tonne s)

Australia 93000

Brazil 110000

China 44000

Gabon 21000

India 56000

Mexico 4000

South Africa 150000

Ukraine 140000

Other countries Small

World : Total (rounded) 630000

Table – 1.2 World Reserves of manganese Ore (By Principal Countries)

World production of manganese ore in 2010 was estimated to be around 42.8
million tonnes as compared to 33.9 million tonnes in 2009. China was the
leading producer contributing about 33% followed by South Africa (17%),
Australia (15%), India and Gabon (7% each). The production of manganese ore
is linked with the production of steel. The steel industry consumes it in the
form of ore and manganese alloys (US Commodities summary, 2012).

96% of global production of manganese today is from barely 8 countries viz.

China (17%), RSA (15%), Australia and Brazil (12% each), Gabon, India and
Kazakhstan (9% each) and Ukraine (8%) in decreasing order of tonnages raised
annually. Ghana and India, both large suppliers in the past, are now exporting
only limited quantities of low or medium grade ore. The ore mined in Mexico
is mostly for internal usage.

Globally, manganese ore mining is dominated by a few firms. One of the

world’s largest manganese ore producing companies is BHP Billiton, a global
mining company with operations in Australia and South Africa. It is followed
by the Privat Group (a Ukrainian company) with operations in Australia, Ghana
and Ukraine. These two companies account for about a third of the worldwide
manganese production, collectively contributing over 10 million tons of
manganese of output per year. The remaining three companies among the top
five manganese producers are Eramet Comilog (a French company producing
over 3 million tons of manganese from mines in Gabon), Assmang Ltd
(producing over 2 million tons of manganese from mines in South Africa) and
Vale (producing over 2 million tons from mines in Brazil). These companies
also dominate manganese alloy production. The top four producers of
manganese alloy are Privat Group, Eramet, BHP Billington, Vale, Nippon
Denko a Chinese Japanese firm (World Manganese organization report, 2012)

The world manganese ore production for the year 2010 was 47.21 million
tonnes, as compared to 35.41 million tonnes during the year 2009 – up by
33.32% indicating strong growth in availability. About 95% of the world’s
production of manganese ore is used directly or indirectly in steel making and
other metallurgical usages.

The world production of manganese ore in 2011was reported at 47.30 million

tonnes. China with 30% of the world production was the leading producer of
manganese ore followed by South Africa, Australia, Gabon, Brazil and India.
China was also the major importer with a share of 61% in the world imports
followed by India (12%) in 2012. India mainly imports manganese ore of the
grade 25-35% Mn. India’s total imports of manganese ore of all grades stood at
1.96 million tonnes mainly from South Africa, Brazil and Australia. South
Africa was the major exporter of manganese ore with a share of 42% in the
total world exports followed by Australia, Brazil, Kazakhstan and other
countries in 2012.