kt eee NASER RABBAT THE MEANING OF THE UMAYYAD DOME OF THE ROCK "The genesis of Ila archiectare i the few decals following the dea of the Propet Mbarnmad in 682 i sill obscure, We know from textual and some Archaeological evidence thal, during the reigns ofthe Tour Orthodox Caliph and the early Umayyad, ew ormmunat buildings were constructed in the capita Medina and later Damascus, and in the new set tlemnts or garrison towns (ams) im Syria Iraq, and "Egypt but we Know very litle about thet pans, struc ‘ures, and constuction materials. We do know that hey were all constrcte to fll he immediate needs ofthe Muslin communities or the [amie governments Jn these towns, and that meant they” invatiably belonged ta one of two types, either congregational smonquee such ae thove at Kula (6369), Haars (638 530), and Pusat (642), or goverament houses (dinar, Dl. of dar ein, like the ones im Kuta (838-39) and Damascus (ater 64). These frst buildings were allo fa stlghtorward wiltarian character lacking” any Architectural pretence but the sources ell us thet the feoond generation of Muslim governors paid. more tention to appearance, MuSawiva ordered his ia Sire in‘ Dassen tas dows al tla wih re ‘durable materials after he heard the comment of = Byzantine envy thatthe uppet part wll do fr birds fnd the lower for raz" In 663, Ziad ibn Abhi, Mu‘awviya’s governor in Basra, ordered the congress ‘ional mosque andar ainda in that town reba in Thaked brick wth stone clue taken from ancient set, Although these new buildings represented a ep Up fom the eater one, and may have shown na ene Ili stle, they were stil Tancional in nature td stole in fort and mening, "Yet, only fe decade ater these modest buildings were bul, we find Caliph ‘Abd al-Malie tha Marwan (688-703) ordering the consriction of « rumptuoue building — the Dome ofthe Rock in Jerosalern — that had io precodent in the short history” of Islamic architecture. Tn fact, not only did the Dome of the Rock, dated by an inscription to the year 72 (092), sue pss ll previous Islamic buldingy, it even manifested 2 fullelged sisi, structural and oratental pr fram which put ie ina claw apart aw meaning Behicecturl monument, ‘The Dome ofthe Rock hae no imediely cern ‘te purpose of function other than the commennoraive fone, and even that is rided with anesstainies ‘Muslnsazound the word believe i was ble o com rmemorate 2 decisive event in the Prophet Mubatn- ‘ad's mission, namely his Night Journ (i from Mecca to Jeruslem, and his subsequett Aucension (ona) from dhe Rock to Heaven, wer he received fom God the doctinal principles ofthe rew raigion.? ‘This belief dates from the beginning of th eights ce tary, when the cafist Arabic source, as far as ca be ascertained, which connected the to) events wie fodifed by Tba Ishaq (4.761) under the tie Sata. Dake" However, neither theft that thre is small “dome nex to the Dome ofthe Rock knots the Dome ‘atthe Ascension (gla alm), nor the Dore ofthe Rock's inscriptions,» nor eatly amie sores cor robrorate the mciption of this Bele oth: eighth cea have chosen tis venerated sites the Holy City af the three: monotheistic religion to build the Best truly ‘monumental Islamic building for & purse, or pr poses, ater tan justo celebrate the Prophets Aste Son fo Heaven, since such an atccation appears not to have been flly formulated by his time. Thus, aodeen acheanthip ie presented with the problem a explaining why this pursing monument was bul Many attempts have en made to do anal of them adduced religious reasons forthe Domes bing.” ‘Art historian have used various appriacis in ty ing to determine the meaning ofthe Domecf the Rock. ‘Among them, the writings of Oleg Grabar form the ros! complete corps ons Umayyad phave* Basing is reading om the available contemporary evidence — the Inaden, the ineriptions, and the itt mance = Grabar sees the Dome as a menment whi sed-THe UMAYYAD DOME OF THE CK a Diblical connotations and Christan-Byzanin forms to {impose Islam's presence in the Holy City. The com bation would imply that the new Sith considered cde continuation and the el ofthe wo preceding ‘es: Judas and Christianity. He aso found politic estes; the Unayyas, viewing themacves ab the now masters of the regan, used old, established Mediterranean and to lesser degree Iranian moti, Dat stractured and displayed them through the new [amie vision In another interpretive effort, Prislla Soucek liscened pomible "Solomonic ieferences in the building's omamentacion, Acconding to her theory, Solomon's Temple was praised in the Irie surest for its opulent and symbolic decorations using jewels tnd fonefal tear; dhe same movie are found in the tnoraies ofthe outer octagon ofthe Dame ofthe Rock She conchded, however, that the associations of holiness in the eaty Islamic period were atached to Mount Moriah and dhe Rotk, rather than to the remary of the Temple of Solomon isl Cleary, the question of the reasons behind the building of the Dome of the Rock remains unanswered. In particalar, why was Mount Morish io Jerusalem choten as the see fr this absolutly unprecedented Talamic monument? What were the cteomeanee that prompted “Abd al-Malik, the fith Umayyad alpto fonder is construction? What di he Intend to acon pls by Tes entiely posible thatthe bung had ‘inl @polieal import although i incorporated cer {ain religious tenets as well." ‘Our comprthenson of the Umayyad Dome of dhe ‘Kock is hindered by dhe tack of comtemporary ‘Uinayyad cents. The ealest Isami historical vourees ‘we poses tet the time af the Abbasid, who span Sore a achool of history writing tat sas openly ant Umayyad. Thus, mow of the Umayyad caliphs, including ‘Abd al-Malik, received a biased reporting of their ded that focused mainly on their deviations fora ccepted practices ad. dinshed the Impact of Unhatever lective polices they might have pursued. “The resulting dstorion in our understanding i not cay overcome, and the best we cam dois 0 attempt { secomtruct the historical circumstances of the Dorae’s construction by eidcally patching together the Aisparate pieces of information. fom the. primary sources weave "Another problem facing wx that dhe religious and symbolic interpretations of dhe Rock, the monument, land even Jerusalem tlt which are accepted today are not necesaily the same associations mate by easly “Muslims, They ate inetd the prod of proces that stared after the orignal balding was constacted'* and Swumed its definiive form after the Cruteders tceupied Jerusalem in 1099. The Muslims’ counter: Crusade wine slow to gather momentum Ir the fllow ing century, members of the pietsiecrdes in Syria bqan to preach jad to berate the Holy Lana from the yoke of the Crusaders, and 10 foumulate_ the religious sanctions for this goal. Two grat leaders eloped this ideology and tranelaed ino plan of Sesion, Nur alDin ibn Zingi (1146-74), an later his former general, the famous Salah al-Din ab Ayyubi (117495). They ed che counterolfensive ana the hifi movements and ehe Fatimid countercalipate in Egypt and Syria, wifed the Islamic amies unde the banners of «revived and tane Sunni Team, and proceeded to reconquer the Hely Land from the CCromaders." During this troubled period, numerous books of religious merits (ag) were compiled, in Which the Agta Mosque and the Dome of the Rock became the focus of the fad pitti propagands ‘These books, containing tadiions anrituted to the Prophet in praise of Jerusalem, were wed io stimlate the fervor of Min warriors, and were widely ead in the cies of Salah al-Din army." Aa areal of ir intense movement of compilation, dhe religious and parereligious tations attached to the Asa Mosque End the Dome of the Rock were fixed." Buc applying those post Crusade erations to the interpretation of _Jerosalem’s early Ilinc significance is» questionable rocedare Fortunately, the qverdon of Jena’ belines for the ely Muslims can now be reexamined vith the hep of book of fale, compiled before the First Crusade, fan thus belore the emphasis accorded the sacrednest slike city in order to instigate the Musine vo Gght for it theration. This bok, recently publabed under the tide Rola aKa l-Mugaddas, was rected by Nb Bakr al Wari, 2 itecknown preacher (ed), who lived sometime before 1019." I fers a record ofthe religous merit, and the eschatological sad prophetic associations of che city, collected by a native scholar land i gives a brief account of the constrecton ofthe Domi of the Rock by Als a-Mali Ibm Marwan. For ‘oer purpose, this book provides the most caplet pre Gromade collection of secounte on Jerusalem's significance, These, in tun, can hep ue tae how the sanctity ofthe city wax aasmalaed into the Ini teadton, and om what belie thi sanetity was based in4 nasser Rape the days ofthe building of the Dome of the Rock ‘The trations collected by al-Wasiticoncersing the hagiographical and eschatological asocitions of ‘Mount Moriah, the ste ofthe Dome, deal with few ‘hemes, The thre that recur most alten are the potion ofthe site often contrasted withthe Kain Mecca in the timetable of the Creation an ofthe Day of Judgment the miracles witnesed there by Davi ane Solomon, and their consequent bailing of a Holy House (Baye Mugaddas, Le, che Temple)" and Finally, the Night fourney of the Prophet Miuharomad feom Mecca to che ste, and the events connected with it Thee accounts estblieh that Mount Moriah wat recognized asa sacred spot which Gov designated for the building of His Holy Hlouse ae entrusted! he task to Soman The role ofthe Rock isl is given several versions twas the second place on earth — after the Sie of the Katba — created by God” God ascended from i (9 Heaven after the Creation: the prophets David and Solomon sav miracles performed on the Rock ad the Prophet Muhammad led the other pro- pets acknowledged by Islam in «prayer neat or upon 1 when he journeyed to Jersualem. ‘Most ofthese traditions, with the obvis exception of thote related to Muhammias Night Journey, are Influenced by the older Hibial ana “pars Bibles accounts onthe same. subject The holiness of Jerusalem was, afterall, inherited by Islam trom Jxaism and Christianiey. While chis seems ser evident, i an important point to est in mind specially when we ae ying to race the formation of ‘Mount Merial’ sacredness othe Mun atthe ine leaneminion (ind) of these same traditions to the First transmitters, who were al either Compansone (Gah, pl. of s08, oF companions of the Compan ions ofthe Prophet (abn, pl. oft), we find that most of then were known to have had frond Iowledge of the Jewish tations peraining to the Holy City. The major role ia the wabamision process veas played by Kath alAhbar, a Jewish convert to [Maen and 1, co whom most of he tradions con cerning the eschatological sttibutes of Jerusalem ‘were traced, perhaps because he was famous for bit profound knowledge of the Jewish sacred book. Two ther leading transmitters, Tb ‘Abibas and “Abdalla Tn Amra ihm als, who were repute to be among ‘the most lend apd expected of the Companions of the Prophet, were also foliar with Jewish source. hn ‘Abbas, the Proes cousin, became the patton (mela of Kath al-Ahbar afer his conversion, and he ‘ould ave acquired hi knowledge ofthe fewith rad ions concerning Jerusalem dzetly fom his client.” “Abdallah ibn-*knitu. was believed to tave a deep Knowledge ofthe prophecies of the People othe Book (eit ebtta, i, Jews and Christians), for he war Known to have read the Torah and other now-lamic religious books” inthe beginning, then, Jerusalem and te Rock held primarily Judaic aiscitions which the Muslims Bad ‘doped at the me as pare ofthe religions heritage 10 ‘which alan ai aim. However these fe tana {ers played a dedsive part noe ony inthe reognition ‘of the sanctity of Jerusalem and the eminence of the Rock's sit, but alain the fslaniation ofthese belie Viewed at such, thei of Muhammad etl feito (his scheme a the connection ofthe Prophet of Ilan (oa sacred spot and tothe eaice religions traditions attached to it The fact that ae Wasi’ accounts either lack or give litle emphasis to the Ascesion of the Prophet trom the Rock" may be understond ia light of the confusion that surrounded the dating and location ‘ofthis event inthe eay days of amie hagiography Some Iamic murees ofthe period placed the Ascen- ‘Sion in locations other than Jenssen,» ad tecent ‘cholarship shows thatthe definite aecsption of the vent te Jertalem occured late, ‘We can similarly expan the absence in a-Wasi's text of any account consecting Abraham the ste ot Jerusalem of to Mount Moriah.” In the prophetic ‘chronology established by Islam sine the begining, ‘Abraham war very lary assigned to Mecca at he Uulller of the Kab, an te founder of te fit tre religion, considered the precursor of Team. Assigning bin to Joruale would have contradicted thie bell ‘This eade ws to estallish a clear elationsip between the vee seered tier and the asocitiene of their mosques in eary Islam The Kaba theft House fof Go, and its building is attbuted to Abraham Medina ie identified a8 the City of Nubarnmad, lecause he spent the ater pat of his ie a Jad down the princptes of the new religion there. The names repented and inextricably linked o Jerse, and it ‘acred spot, ate those af David an Soloman, both of thin recognized at God-tent mentengert and God ‘supported kings" "These early scocations of Jrurslem must have con seiated the main reason the Umayyads a 9 dynasty ‘ook such an inerest in the ey and endowed it with Jange building program in order to serve Heir palitealels, since it wae neither thelr capita aoe a major Urban center in their teal. Mutawiya was, a Syiae source reports, made “King of all the Arabs” in Jerusilem, and prayed on that occasion in many Chee tian sanctuaries" Inanie soureca record. that he received the pledge of allegiance (9%) therein the ‘year 860, tut provide no detail "A litlknown tale doe, however, forge a lose segorsal connection between Muy andthe Holy (City AL-Tabar says that Ame ibm as was sent by the Prophet to Oman inthe year 629 and hese from 1 hibe” there prophecy coscering the succesors of the Prophet. The Abr eoceclyfoetld the rule ofthe four Orthodox Caliphs after the death of Muhanad, tnd when he reached the sot corresponding t0 Motawiya's rule, he described him as Prince of the Holy Land (emi a-ala- maga) * AL Tabu used this sory to explain the allance between SAmra and Muawiya, which wae conclided in Jerasale i the Year 638, tn years belore Muay became caliph. ‘Whether thistle was invented by ¢Amro, with the eo Iaboration of Mu‘ewiya, by Mu‘aiya hme, oF by someone lee, i¢ wat probably tied to isan ‘Moawya's alpha dais (which ie why i was proba ‘iy deve in the Ge place. Im any eae, ite impor tance far our purpose Tes in the identification of Mutaseya as Prince ofthe Holy Land, term which avid a strong connection with the region at the time Furtherore, cust ave theant a great deal for Mu‘awiya’spoideal ambitions. Me is reported to have sid "1 have hoped fr this hing ever ince the Prophet told me, O Mawiya when you rule, be fair 1 alo explains his ehove of Jeralem a5 te place in which @ receive the by, for what other city ‘would be more appropriate to celebrate the falflment ‘of such & propheey? This copnecion with the Holy Land was pase on in the tide King ofthe Holy Land to Muteviya's son snd soccesine Var I. In bis free and clever poting {o create a dyaaaty and to appoint his soa as his sue esr, Mu‘awiya needed al the support he could get ‘pecially from members of the inflaetial group of the Prophes's companions In the year 672, “Abdallah ib “Ames in al*As, the highly respected ala who had read the Jewish and Christan books, reportedly pro ‘aimed, * Matas isthe King of he Fly Land and to is bis son.""! Coming fom such a prominent Suthorty, thie remark mutt have. strengthened Mutawiya’s cause, and estended the eminence fink with dhe Holy Land to ie dma Mutawiya, who had built his power base in Syn and Palin, must have benefited fom the political prestige this symbulie asmeation withthe Holy Land hod brought hn, Recognizing te val, he might have planned t0 ive it submtance- One source states tht SMutawiyay afer “Umar, but (Jone) tie Bayt a: Magdis,"* a reference peshaps to the restoration and enlagement ofthe platform on Mount Mota, and he Febuiling of the mosque stribured to “Umar, site ‘designate by early Miss 38 Bayt Megas” This Undertaking would have required planning and veveral years of construction work to cmplete, The versatile nd energetic Maya had the long, prosperous, anc Felaively calm reign needed for both whereas the Short and troubled reigns ofall the clip who sue ‘ended him up unl ‘Abd al-Malik woud not hive allowed sulicient time co complete any such project ‘Abd "al-Malik had strong connetions with Jerusalem set, He was the depay of hie father Mar swan in Palestine during the liter’ shee caliphate (628-84), and presumably his seat of government was In Jerusalem." Another account states Wat ‘Abd al Maik received hi bay's there in Ramadan of 63 (604), which means tat he was in Jerusalem when his father ded. Furthermore, he had already been yin boielly aseciated with the city, AEWasi records prophecy that links “Abd a-Malie with acvine wl bul the Dore of the Rock. Kat al-Abbar had ssi, “"Thave read in the Torah that God addesed the Reck Jerusalem sal end my servant ‘Abe al-Malik boil yon and. adorn you." hiv tradition is samprobable: Kath ded in Homsin 632, when ‘Alb al ‘Mak was stl a sbeyearold boy, ving in Mena with po apparent relationship co Jeruslen. But that doer not mean it was not ase, expecially because it ‘wan teibuted to Kath hmslf, th tine authority who Inurduced, or was made to inteodee, to Islan many teins related to Jerualem. ‘Abd al Mab could tei just ax Meta had sed a simile prophecy, {or twat probably the precedent set by MuStiya that made ‘Abd -Mali sek his own symbolic astocnion with the Holy City, His, however, was nore explct than Musawiya's King ofthe Holy Land, frit ed him dlieily t the most cred spot in the Gly and the cently appropriated Jewish tations avached 1 i Abd a Malik wanted tobe remembered in Jerusalem ss the bullider of the mos impressive manument on Mant Moris over the Sacred Rock, not raeely a the repairer of de platfarm oF the trueture seributed t Umar. Thi desire may be clarified by the cir6 ssasen sana curntances ofthe fire alfof Abd -Mali’s sign and the grave problems that ced him then, since the Dons inseripiony andl mos ofthe Lami istrical reports, including that of a-Wait" show dleaey that the Dome was built during that petod ‘Aba al-Malik came to power in 684, a time of civil strife) and of » cheeatening Byzantine army at the borders, For the fie time inthe history ofthe fsing tnd aggresive Tolamie empire, che Byzantines were thle to reoceupy pare of morthers Syria (Antioch in G8). Bue che internal probleme were even more severe. Ta attend to ther, “Abd al-Malik wos forced to sign a ruc wih Justinian Tin 689, che terms of wich included the payment of 2 yeariytbute to both the Byzantines and their clients the Marais. Tn Jerusalem in particular, where Christians consiuted the overwhelming majority the paychologieal warfare between” Christianity and Islam must have. been heightened by thet politeal developments, and ‘Abd al-Malik mat have fle compelled to provide avery ‘able reminder of his hegemony over the ety. Islamic rule alt reintroduced tothe city Jewish population, perhaps a early asthe time of *Urnar ibn st Khatab (63443)," which in tum revived. the feligious disputes between Jews and Christians, in lahich the Muslims were” by no means neuttal Bystanders. They prefered and ever adopted, the Jewish viewpoint” Some Jewish converts to Ilan {otaly Ket al Abbr, who was instrumental in Aefning the sanecity of Jerusalem in slam) were also ‘spreading antiChraian propaganda, Kath i reported 1 have tld to of hi elatives who were planing to ‘st Jerusnlem o pray init owe (probably the la form on Mount Moriah): "Do no go to the Church of Mary or ‘al“Ammudaya [éhe Two Columns] for these fare seducers (hi). Whoever vst them loses the ‘merits of hi prayers wnlews he starts anew, May Gad fighe the Chriatans, for they ate impotent: they only bit heir Church in Wad Jabannam," The strength ofthese fang, expecially im such periods a ‘Abd al Malik’ reign, belpe explain why the Done is located fom a spot aneded by Judsiam and Islam ut Aiearded by Christianity: why its for sat the sme time of Byzantine maryria and. conspicuously i Ferenc) and why the inscriptions cling the inner ‘sesagonal ara ofthe Dome on both ses comprise the emi Christology ofthe Quean that argues sgunat the deiestion of Chri ‘This amerprecaion i further supported by the explanation given by al Mugaddas for the building of the Dome. He reported conversation wit his uncle, ‘who explained to him l-Walid Ts juifcaion for boiling his magnificent mosque in Damascus. ‘The tnle went on tasty “and in lke manner, it not eve dent how Caliph ‘Abd al Malik, noting the greatness of the Dome ofthe Holy Sepulchre and ite magifcence, vas moved lett should dazzle the minds of Muslim fd 0 ereted, above the Ruck, the Dome which ene teen there." The elo of the spectacular xplay of Fiches in Chrinian churches onthe minds of Mush rast have been contderabe inthe eaty period of the Islamic presence in formerly Christian land Te wat no doubt reflected in the many tradvons prohibiting the Muslims (om vsing she churches of Jervaler, well asia the splendor and the intended dang sapeet ff the Dome ofthe Rock ata time when there was hardly anything comparable it in the whole Iie ‘On the domestic font, dhe real of Iba al Zubaye sud his esaihinent of «rival caliphate in Mecea cm mitued the greatest menace that “Abd alMalik fee, ‘When be became caliph in Damascis, his dominions were Hiited to Syria and Egypt, which had been ‘eured by his father Marwan. The Syrian, who con tuted ‘Abd a-Malie's loyal aemy, sucexded in due ours in crashing Iba al-Zayr' ores odin recap turing Teg and Arabia, But Ibn al-Zubaye's revel nd hothing t9 do with the building ofthe Tome of the Rock, contrary t0 the opinion of some. postvst, historians Basing their theories on al-Vstqub i 874) and the Melkite priest Eusychiv (940) they have interpreted the Dome ofthe Rock a proving a ler native tothe Kath sn Meera which was controled the me by Ibn al-Zubaye. Other scholars have refuted this interpretation by demonstrating the dacrepancies inal¥atqubsreporting, and by showing tt ao wher Inajor Musin source gave the same explanation The Ka‘be appears to have remained the religious ‘eater forthe Umayyads during che entire pero of Tom alZulyr's insurrection (6892) “Abd al-Malik Dimlfled dhe Haj in 694, to your after the comple tion of his Dome of the Rock® The proesion in ‘Mecca, led by him, x described in pcm by al Farag (4. 752), eho was one ofthe majr Umayyad court poets. ditch from the same poem, in which ‘the BayeAetia (che sinetuary 0a Mount Miah) and ‘he Kerbs are mentioned, had bee wud show the almort equal satus that the Dome und the Kavba were ‘apposed to have had under the Umayyads.) The distin read, "To usbeong two house ke Howse of‘ie uuavyAn pom oF THE Rook ” Go (ly al, which we are governors, and the revere house in upper [part of] Ty? [Acti be Jeroen. Te jeer fromthe words themes thn the House of Ataf secondary and in no wey ual Insc tothe Kat, the Howe of Cod 0 hich xd al Mai is ecing the pla: "Anker scot in very indicative of how the Unayyac peeved heir one with hn ab-Zabay nll tbo Yass, an Umayyad prince, went along svt the army ofaajj sem to Mecea to contont Tin ab-Zabye (7692), that be could peer the Hai Wiehe wa thee he proposed mariage o Ibn fiZubayr's ser, which aoderanday angered al Haak: When the later tried to dade hin, Khalid felled, As for our saying tha ese peopl a a ‘aye an the Meena) fought my father [Yai f Sve the calighate, ould sexi you that this mater Sonceras only the fumes of raya [1 which both ‘ld and Ibn ab-Zabaye longed, but no sal tho are now quarreling. But when Ga sets the Probie, Quays wil ea ts understanding el) nd vine" Tee cear tht Kha considered he ‘Umayyad as clan tobe pat of Ques, and that ‘hey undoubtedly were hing Ibn a Zabeye to decide ‘rho within dhe ibe wan be leading family, nd coms ‘uty he leader ofthe Mim community. Te llows tha relingsbing Mecea and fr Kab toa stl ‘Qurasch a bm Zuby, would have Deen a teiount to aditiog plies! deex. Bot putting erate ot place would have been the uae of abolhing one of the fdamentl tenes of slam, thas creating serious problems for «Musi clip. scr palial defeat or tate such agave dep ture fom Islamic. principles. From the satered eco desing His peel i ear that his iowlesge of lure preepie sad tenet wat ndipated andi ese of sverigty (i) con Promising. ‘Abd. alMalie belonged tothe Bret Medina generion brought up fom bik inthe Iii ith He war conidefed among the toe trustworthy scholars of Mai law ga’ in Medina before he moved to Damescus (082). The alge ‘erton of his plousstbuer ter broring calph fe inconnen with the multe of rere in Shronides and biographies o hs adhereace Iasi trations throughout bis tle. He once tod the Medincre “You are te people mst eae care hit cial tang fa as tog ta Many ato have come of he Eat which we Sane vey, We ae only sue of the retng of the {Gero ia co wba oad in soar ra etme the the pny teeted imam [Utena tthe for youy ao fate sions pedi eNom fr at he conned Zaye bn Tha, ‘cased ed ees wha eva fe eine A person who shows sich a strict inerpretation of Islam, accepts only the dictates of the Quran, and rejects unverifiable radidons anno easy be accused fof reverting to disputed belie in order ¢o tify dec ‘Sons such is conferring a sanctity upon the Rock that twat not already part of the Tarte fail. Abd l- Malis motive for building che Dorne must be viewed ‘within the accepted Tlamie framework of his time: he thust have been celebrating a pace that was already senerated by Miskin. “Abd al Malie war an energetic and detennined ‘aliph who fray believed in bis right to command,” ‘Many Muslim authorities of his time sem have re ognized bis git for role.” Later acount, however, though they vouch or his poltieal acumen, condemn his eviatons from the Ilan model of leadership. IP from these commentaries prejudices sguinet ‘Abd al ‘Malik’s brand of rule are eliminated, a mae balanced Plture emerge. In many instances, Abd a- Male wat ware that he had to govern aconing to the principles ‘edvanced by the Mush religious authorities who were bis counselors, He once atked Abu Zura, athecogian, how hei judged by God. The later cited in vesponse 2 Quranic passage (58:25) which dscrites David's ‘uty athe Caliph o€ God am Barth, od hems, HE this is what God required from His chnen messenger, 10 you even more [abide bythe sane obligations." Abel a-Malik's comprehension of sovereignty was apparently influenced and suppored by the Quranic Imerpretation of the divinely ordained ngahip of David In this and other accounts, David and Solomon are often mentioned a Mel models fora Muir ruler perhaps beens the Quran praises them, ad poplar traditions admire their wie rulershi. Anater topo of discussion that cook place in the Calph's court ‘entonsrates how admired were the lors reigns of David and Solomon, and oe sper attempted oak “the kingship of Bantams fe. the Arabs, a rp resented by the Umayyads] 10 the Kingsip of thir brothers Banuabaq fe, he Jews, named that ofthe propher kings Davi and Selon.” Abel al-Male'saterpes eo model his sovereignty8 rset wasnt afer the archetypes of David and Solomon as revealed in Quranic examples were thus bn part manifested in the decision to build the Donte of the Rack on the Sacred ste in Jerusalem, since the Ilan eradion ‘being formed at dis ime preserved the auction of Davie and Solomon with Mount Moriah. In the fs ten years of his ile, when SAbd al-Malik ws faced ‘with numerous challenges to his authority, one can ee his actions as efforts to aie bis kingship. Busing 8 highly visible domme un site celebrated in he past by [David and Solomon and sanctified in the preseat by Islam symbole ‘Abd al-Malik’ poll aspirations. tnd balanced his monarcicalinclsaions and eligioat Convictions. ‘The precedence of David and Solomon building the ‘Temple in che wadtion that was ppropriated by Lala, combined withthe Umayyads Wwe! own symbolic. and real connections with Jerusalem, emphasizes the reading ofthe Dome se 3 ‘monument co the Umayyad Islamic ele, built by the fae caliph sho is rightly credited with itt con selidation In the second par of his rule, after he had regained control ofall the Islami territories, “Abd al’ Malik initiated the process of Arabizing the administration and Islamising the coinage to create an imperial laamic image ofthe state. Under his son al Walid 1 the proces wat carried farther nd the imperial image ‘was expresed in monumental menques til in four major etes ofthe empire: Mecca, Medins, Damases, 4nd Jerusslem, ‘The Domne of the Reck was then sub. ieee toa ait in significance when the mira ofthe Febuil Aqsa mosgue was aligned wih ts north sot Shi, tus eorporatung I Int layer complex whose Teeal print i beeame. The confsion that eventually store over the buildings original memage was probably ‘use when the religious functions ofthe Dome of the Rock andthe whole smnctuarysopplanted the poieal fones, and the events that ha Jed tothe Dome'scon= ‘ruction had ou thei relevance Marshes Esiteof Tecbuligy CCanbrige, Mosc Stim" Er Heo, "Die Grocer amen ‘am lw 1 (910) 2 8 ae Oe Gnas Ee tev ors Pre 6) pe Ecc Chinn, toed Ss alr mach repr yf yo cere eit Sect ic Se ace ‘iinet ig bay may flee Ore ‘Rte Journey a he Atco of Mahan, sca Eran Shocer Ra, tony Wed (Bre ‘Sty Mant ures ch Olle Wee Was Sit Apa can 8) Au amarante i, 2 “a sda wien by 8D. Cove 5. Ie" ets es Grav a (359 $50 amo he Dare eR ee ot ‘me Hoon), p67 hry. aan ‘ere "Kun BF wet 5p he Oar mark also ce oan i ei ci ae ih a Rote here reer) vere Oud Uy natin). 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