JEE483 Maritime Engineering Design

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HEATING, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

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MODULE

1. Introduction

The field of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) is the science and practice of
controlling indoor climate, to provide healthy and comfortable interior conditions for
occupants of a sea going vessel in a well-designed, energy-efficient, and low- emissions
manner. Comfortable conditions depend not only on the temperature and humidity but also
includes sensitivity to air movement, air freshness and purity. Good ventilation is vital to
the health and well-being of those on board ship and a very important factor of any HVAC
system lies in its ability to respond to changing climatic conditions. The HVAC equipment
has to perform within these variations and has to meet the differing requirements of the
occupied spaces of the vessel during the entire voyage. Our study of HVAC systems is
covered by modules 1 and 2. Module 1 provides an overview of HVAC systems while
module 2 is concerned with the air delivery and psychometric (moist air) aspects of the
system.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

 Describe the main components of an HVAC air distribution system,

 Compare the relative merits of single and multi zone systems,
 Discuss air flow distribution and control equipment, and
 Understand the characteristics of axial and centrifugal fans and their selection for a
particular system

2. Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning

Ocean going commercial vessels are built according to Classification Society rules, such as
Lloyds Register, who provide guidelines for ventilation systems, while naval vessels HVAC
requirements are guided by DEF (AUST), 5000, Volume 4, Part 3. Further guidelines can
also be obtained from the various International Standard Organisation (ISO) standards listed
in the references. A key feature is that the air conditioning and ventilation systems should be
designed to be self-contained within the fire zones or water-tight compartments of the vessel.
Although it has an exclusive land based focus, the American Society of Heating,
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Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) handbook is a very important

reference source for anyone engaged in designing HVAC systems.

Regardless of the type of ship, air-conditioning and ventilation-related conditions on ships

have a significant influence on the comfort experienced by passengers, the well-being of the
crew and the smooth operation of equipment, systems and installations. HVAC systems
have the following elements in common:

 Equipment to generate heating or cooling: The equipment is selected with a

capacity to meet the peak load of the space or spaces to be served. Air conditioning
is based on the ventilation requirement for accommodation and incorporates heating
with any necessary humidification and importantly, cooling with de-humidification
as necessary.

 A means of distributing heat, cooling, and/or filtered ventilation air where needed:
air, water, or steam. This can be ventilating the facility using ductwork or
ventilating a galley using ductwork and fans with a hood. It can also refer to
combustion air or the air needed to have combustion for various heating systems.

 Devices that deliver the heat, cooling, and/or fresh air into the shipboard spaces
diffusers, radiators or convectors, and fan coil units.

A ventilation system serves the dual purpose of removing contaminants and heat generated in
a space. To maintain a space at an ambient temperature below that of the outside air, the
supply air temperature must be below the required ambient; thus, some form of cooling must
be provided to lower the temperature of the supply air.

Ventilation systems also play an integral part in protecting naval ships from the effects of
chemical, biological, and radiological warfare. The systems must maintain a positive
overpressure within the ship and, with the use of special filters ensure a clean air supply to
spaces in the ships. The systems may be set up to maintain the protection during all ship
operations or on an as-needed basis only.

2.1. Basic Terms

The terms used to define the atmospheric conditions are fairly well known, but are reviewed
here since it is essential to know exactly what they mean before proceeding further.

 Dry bulb (d.b.) temperature is the temperature as measured by an ordinary

thermometer that is not affected by radiated heat.
 Wet bulb (w.b.) temperature is the temperature registered by a thermometer with
wetted fabric around the bulb. (When moisture evaporates from a surface, i.e. the
skin, the latent heat required, is drawn from the surface causing it to be cooled. If a
thermometer bulb is covered by a wetted fabric and exposed to the air, the rate of
evaporation will depend upon the humidity of the surrounding air. As the heat

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required must come from the bulb, this results in a lower temperature reading than if
the bulb was dry.)
 Psychometric chart or table is used to find relative humidity from dry bulb and wet
bulb readings taken at the same location in a space. (The thermometers may be in a
fixed position or in a football rattle type device.)
 Relative humidity (r.h.) of the air indicates the amount of moisture carried by the air at
a particular temperature as a percentage of the maximum amount that could be carried
at the particular temperature. (The capacity of the atmosphere to hold water vapour is
dependent upon its temperature. At higher temperatures this is much greater than at
the lower temperatures. When the maximum is reached at a given temperature, the air
is said to be saturated. Saturated air has 100% relative humidity.)
 Humidity ratio (W) is the ratio of the mass of water vapour (MW) to the mass of dry
air (Mda) in the sample.

 Dewpoint (d.p.) is the temperature to which unsaturated air must be cooled to bring it
to saturation point and to cause moisture to precipitate. (If an unsaturated mixture of
air and water vapour is cooled at constant pressure, the temperature at which
condensation of water vapour begins is known as the dewpoint. Moisture from air
starts to condense on a cold window or glass when the air near the cold surface
reaches its dewpoint. As the air is further cooled, more moisture is deposited.)

3.0 Ventilation

Space conditions within a vessel can vary greatly in a short time, for example if they are
governed by factors such as body odours and smoking, which may require a fresh air supply
of 12 litre/s per person or more.

Whilst it is desirable that outside air should be cleaned before being introduced to the space,
this is less essential than on land, except when the vessel is in port. Of greater influence are
the impurities such as lint carried in the circulating air, which must be filtered out to prevent
eventual choking of the heating and cooling elements in the conditioning plant. Filters
(Figure 1), unless regularly cleaned can provide a breeding ground for the legionella bacteria.
This is a type of pneumonia which may be fatal to older people, has been blamed on the
presence of a bacteria associated with the air conditioning plant of large buildings. Because
the outbreak which heralded the disease, occurred at a convention for American ex-
servicemen (The American Legion), the identified cause of the problem, was labelled
legionella bacteria and the sickness is referred to as legionnaire’s disease.

There is a risk that the bacteria could flourish in the air conditioning systems of ships. The
organisms breed in stagnant water or in wet deposits of slime or sludge. Possible locations for
bacteria colonies, are at the air inlet area and below the cooler (stagnant water), in the filter,
in humidifiers of the water spray type and in damaged insulation. Provision of adequate
drainage is recommended to remove stagnant water. Regular inspections and cleaning as
necessary of filters and other parts, using a 50 ppm super-chlorinated solution as the
sterilizing agent. The solution is to be used also on the cooler drain area at not more than
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three month intervals. Regular sterilization is necessary for water spray type humidifiers
(steam humidifiers being preferred).

Figure 1. Marine air conditioning unit. (From McGeorge p372).

3.1 Ventilation of boiler and engine rooms

Due to the large amount of heat picked up by the air in these spaces it would be impracticable
to maintain ambient conditions within the comfort zone by air conditioning or any other
means. The practice is to provide copious mechanical ventilation; in boiler rooms, the
quantity is equated to the combustion requirements while in a motor ship engine room the
supply may be 25-50% in excess of the requirements of the engines.

The axial flow fan is particularly suited to handle these large air volumes at the moderate
pressures required, while of course the 'straight-through' flow feature places it at an
advantage over the centrifugal fan.

The increasing adoption of automation, with the provision of a separate control room makes
less significant the fact that comfort conditions cannot be maintained in the engine room all
the time.

3.2 Submarines

When submerged, submarines have a totally enclosed environment and therefore can only
recirculate the air contained within the submarine. High heat loads from the equipment must
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be removed from the space with frequent air exchanges. Bacterial growth in any vessel
HVAC system is to be avoided but within the confines of a dived submarine it is even more
critical that all bacterial growth is to be eliminated.

To maintain crew comfort, the HVAC system must provide air movement and distribution,
remove heat and moisture, remove CO2 and filter out any odour and aerosols present in the
atmosphere. Carbon filters are used to remove odours and fluorocarbons and during
continuous submerged cruising, the air is purified by removing CO and CO2 and oxygen
replaced.

Figure 2 Submarine Ventilation System (Gabler, 2000)

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During snort conditions to recharge the batteries, or while on the surface, special air supply
and exhaust lines known as snort and exhaust masts are used to ventilate the boat. The fresh
air is circulated within the boat and consumed by the diesel generators refer to (Figure 2).

4.0 Thermal Comfort

Heat dissipates from the body to the immediate surroundings through a variety of heat
exchange mechanisms including sensible heat transfer, latent heat transfer from sweat
evaporation, sensible heat transfer during respiration and latent heat transfer from evaporation
of moisture during respiration. It is usual to describe heat transfer in terms of power per unit
area and a measure of naked body surface area was proposed by DuBois and DuBois is.

where
AD = DuBois surface area m2
m = mass, kg
l = length. m
and for average male adult AD = 1.8m2

The unit used to express the metabolic rate per unit area is the met, which is defined as the
metabolic rate of a sedentary person (seated quiet): 1 met = 58.1 W/m2. The reference area
used is the DuBois surface area. A normal healthy male aged 20 has a maximum metabolic
activity of Mact = 12 met, which drops down to met 7 at age 70.

The ASHRAE handbook lists the metabolic heat generation for various activities, examples
list sleeping as 40 W/m2 or 0.7 met, seated quiet as 60 W/m2 or 1.0 met and walking about as
100 W/m2 or 1.7 met. Depending on the nature of their duties, personnel on board a vessel
may dissipate between 1 to 3.8 met or 100 - 225 W/m2.

Since the DuBois surface area is for the naked body, allowances need to be made for clothing
on the area and on the degree of insulation that they provide. Thermal insulation of clothing
is expressed in clo units where

1.0 clo = 0.155 (m2-K)/W.

A winter business suit has about 1 clo of insulation while a summer time short sleeved shirt
and trousers would provide an insulation of about 0.5 clo.

The condition of the air in a space depends on its temperature, humidity and movement. The
effect of the air on people in a space is dictated by their metabolism, state of health,
acclimatization, degree of exertion and the amount of clothing being worn. The aim of every
design is to optimise the parameters affecting the individual, such as air temperature, air
volume, air velocity, CO2 or O2 content, heat radiation and others. The ideal conditions for
comfort vary considerably between one person and another, so it is only possible to stipulate
a fairly wide zone.

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ASHRAE carried out a comprehensive series of tests on a large number of people, to

establish the conditions for thermal comfort and these are summarised in the comfort chart
Figure 3 Since people wear different levels of clothing depending on the situation and
seasonal weather, ASHRAE define comfort zones for 0.5 and 1.0 clo (0.078 and 0.155 (m2-
K)/w clothing levels. The warmer and cooler temperature borders of the comfort zones are
affected by humidity and coincide with lines of constant effective temperature. In the middle
of the zone, a typical person wearing the prescribed clothes would a thermal sensation at or
very near neutral. Near the boundary of the warmer zone, the higher limit of comfort is more
critical than the lower as it is closely associated with the essential process of getting rid of
body heat. Also it is of considerable significance to the air conditioning engineer, who has to
fix the capacity of the refrigerating plant so that it can provide conditions within this limit
when the outside conditions are at their most onerous.

Figure 3. ASHRAE Summer and Winter Comfort Zones

[Acceptable ranges of operative temperature and humidity with air speed ≤ 0.2 m/s for people
wearing 1.0 and 0.5 clo clothing during primarily sedentary activity (≤ 1.1 met)]
(From ASHRAE 2009 Handbook, p 9.12).

McGeorge (2002) notes that protracted investigations have been made by Hall- Thermotank
Ltd., to determine the effective temperature that could be said to represent the upper threshold
of the comfort zone. The reactions of a large number of persons, mostly mariners, some of
whom had just completed a voyage, were analysed. For a person dressed in tropical clothing
and at rest, the threshold value was found to be about 25.6°C effective temperature.

These tests showed that most persons tended to sweat when the temperature rose a degree or
so above this value, and to cease sweating at the same value as the temperature fell again.
The conclusion was therefore reached that there could be a relationship between the threshold
of comfort and the onset of sweating. This does not take into account differences in the
thermal sensations of men and women due to metabolism, general health and other factors
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mentioned previously. Conclusions from the study indicated that in the main, the comfortable
level of warmth for acclimatized persons of all races is very similar in spite of certain
differences in the reaction to heat stress.

At room temperatures above 21°C an air velocity of 0.15-0.2 m/s is desirable, to avoid any
feeling of stuffiness, and to provide proof that the space is being ventilated. On the other
hand, velocities higher than 0.35 m/s are usually classed as draughts and to be avoided
particularly for the person at rest.

People in an atmosphere at 21°C with a 10% relative humidity, would experience discomfort
from dryness in their nose and throat and on the skin. In such situations, the air humidity
should be increased to perhaps 40% with a hot water or steam spray. Ideally, humidity should
be kept to as low an acceptable level as possible so that condensation can be minimized on
cold external bulkheads.

4.1 Heating and cooling loads

The cooling load has a great influence on the design of the equipment since it influences the
quantity of air to be circulated and determines the size of the refrigerating plant. The
following sensible heat gains must be balanced to maintain the required inside temperature,
when cooling is in operation:

1. Heat transmission through the structure. This is dependent on the physical properties
of the materials surrounding the air conditioned spaces and the relative humidity to be
maintained inside. Allowance has also to be made for the effect of sun heat on
exposed surfaces. This is very difficult to define with any accuracy, and is usually
computed with the aid of tables and charts based on experience.

2. Body heat. Account must be taken of the heat gain in the space due to the occupants.
Typical values of 100 - 225 W per active person. Moisture is continually added to air
in accommodation areas from breathing, perspiration and other activities

3. Lighting heat. This can be a significant factor on board ship, where lighting is in use
almost continuously.

4. Fan heat. The energy applied to the air is converted to heat in the passage of the air
through the system.

The air delivered conveys the cooling effect to the spaces. Referring to figure 4, this air must
be delivered at a temperature below that desired in the accommodation fixed by the moisture
content of the air.

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Air in Air out

m Space to be m
T1 conditioned T2
h1 h2

Figure 4. Space to cooled or heated

The air passing through the cooling coils becomes saturated on cooling and gives up
moisture as its temperature falls. When the air leaves the cooler its moisture content remains
unchanged until it enters the accommodation. Once inside the accommodation, the
temperature of the air rises and the relative humidity (but not the moisture content) drops but
it then also mixes with the resident atmosphere.

The quantity of air must be so arranged that the temperature rises to the specified inside
conditions. The required compartment temperature can only be achieved by removing the
total heat load, which includes both the sensible and latent heat as determined with the
following formula:

) ))

where:

m = total mass of air circulated, kg/s,

Q = total heat gain in the spaces, kW,

T2 = Air temperature at exit to compartment, °C,

T1 = Air temperature at inlet to compartment, °C.

A psychometric chart is used to determine the changes of enthalpy h1 and h2.

Invariably this quantity Q is considerably greater than the fresh air requirements discussed
previously, so that the balance is recirculated in order to economize in the cooling load. In
practice, usually about two-thirds of the air delivered to the space is recirculated.

5.0 Air Conditioning Systems

Air conditioning systems may be divided into two main classes:

 Central Air Handling Unit (AHU) type in which the air is distributed to a group of
spaces through ducting. The elements of a central unit comprise a fan, filter, cooling,
and heating coils and plenum chamber. Normally these are all housed within a single
casing, with the possible exception of the fan. The AHU cooling and heating coils are
usually serviced with chilled water at around 6-8oC from a refrigeration source, and

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hot water or steam from a heating source. However, in some systems the refrigerant
is evaporated and expanded directly inside the coils that are used to cool and
dehumidify the air. The use of these DX (or direct expansion) coils is mainly
restricted to small systems where a chilled water system would not be economical.

 Package Unit. A packaged unit (PU) is a self-contained air conditioner that does not
receive hot or cold water from a central plant. It is equipped with its own heating and
cooling sources to condition the air and a fan to move the air. A DX coil is always
used in these systems for cooling. The portion that handles air in a packaged unit is
called the air handler. Indoor Packaged units are freestanding and can be mounted
directly in the conditioned space with or without ductwork. Split Packaged unit
consists of two separate pieces of equipment, an indoor air handler and an outdoor
condensing unit. Indoor air handlers can be wall or ceiling mounted.

Filters are essential to keep the heat transfer elements clean, and they are usually formed of a
terylene fibre mat that can be easily removed for periodic cleaning. The cooler is of the fin
tube type, as are the heaters, usually steam. The air passes from the heaters into a plenum
chamber, and from there into the pipes or ducts leading to the various spaces. The plenum
chamber, acoustically lined, acts as a very effective silencer for the fan noise which otherwise
would be transmitted along the ducts.

5.1 Central Air Handling Units

The central unit type is the most widely used, in one or other of a number of alternative
systems, characterized by the means provided to meet the varying requirements of each of the
spaces being conditioned. The systems in general use are as follows:

1. Zone control system;

2. Double duct system;

3. Multi zone systems

5.1.1 Zone control system

This is the most popular because of its basic simplicity. The accommodation is divided into
zones, having different heating requirements. Separate air heating and cooling capabilities for
each zone are provided at the central unit. The main problem is to obtain a typical sample of
air for thermostatic control of the heaters and coolers, for it may not be possible to choose a
location which is uninfluenced by local factors. This has led to the general adoption of a
compromise solution, which is to vary the temperature of the air leaving the heater in
accordance with the outside temperature prevailing. This can be effectively performed by a
self-actuating regulator controlled by two thermostat sensors, one in the air leaving the
heater, the other outside. Air quantity control in each room served gives individual
refinement. In summer, air temperature is controlled by a multi-step thermostat in the

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recirculating air stream, which governs the automatic capacity control of the refrigerating
plant.

The regulation of temperature by individual air quantity control in this system can give rise to
difficulties unless special arrangements are made. For instance, a concerted move to reduce
the air volume in a number of cabins by crew or passengers would cause increased air
pressure in the ducts, with a consequent increase in air flow and possibly in noise level at
other outlets. This can be avoided but economic factors usually place a limit on this. Some
degree of control is possible through maintaining a constant pressure at the central unit, but
since most of the variation in pressure drop takes place in the ducts, the effect is very limited.
A pressure-sensing device some way along each branch duct, controlling a valve at the entry
to the branch, strikes a reasonable mean, and is fairly widely applied. Figure 5 shows a
typical single zone layout of distribution ducts and terminals for the accommodation in a
tanker or bulk-carrier. In this layout there is no separate return air duct. The air return path is
via the accommodation alley ways to the intakes for the air handling units (AHUs).

Figure 5. Single zone layout of air conditioning for tanker or bulk carrier accommodation.
(Adapted from McGeorge, 2002)

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5.1.2 Double duct system

In this system, two separate delivery ducts are run from the central unit to each of the air
terminals, as shown in Figure 6. In winter two warm air streams, of differing temperatures,
are carried to the air terminals, for individual mixing. The temperatures of both air streams
are automatically controlled. In summer the air temperature leaving the cooler is controlled
by a multi-step thermostat in the recirculating air stream, which governs the automatic
capacity control of the refrigerating plant, as with zone control. Steam is supplied to one of
the heaters, so that two air streams are available at the air terminals for individual mixing.

Figure 6. Double duct system. (McGeorge, 2002).

Table 1. Component legend for Figure 6

1. Filter 7. Automatic steam valve for 13. Condenser

tempered air stream

2. Cooler 8. Automatic steam valve for warm 14. Thermostatic expansion valve
air system

3. Low-duty heater 9. Steam traps 15. Sea water pump

4. High-duty heater 10. Multi-step cooling thermostat 16. Fan starter

5. Pre-insulated air pipes 11. Compressor 17. Compressor starter

6. Sound attenuating air terminal with 12. Auto-capacity control valves 18. Sea water pump starter
volume and temperature control
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5.1.3 Multi zone system

The multizone central units provide a supply duct for each zone and obtain zone control by
mixing hot and cold air at a central unit in response to room or zone thermostats. For a
comparable number of zones, this system provides greater flexibility than a single duct and
involves lower cost than a dual duct system, but it is physically limited by the number of
zones that may be provided for at each central unit.

Typical multizone equipment is similar in some respects to the dual-duct system, but instead
of being mixed at each space served, air at the required temperature is provided as it leaves
the equipment. The system conditions groups of rooms by means of a blow through central
apparatus having heating and cooling coils in parallel downstream from the fan.

Figure 7. Multizone system with hot and cold plenum. (McQuiston et al, 2000).

5.2 Package units

Package or self contained units are becoming an important part of the marine HVAC
industry. They offer significant size reductions and cost savings of the equipment and
installation. Self-contained unit are ideally suited to the engine control rooms of automated
ships. With the additional heat load coming from the equipment housed within the room,
cooling may be required at the same time as the accommodation requires heat from the
central unit system.

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Self-contained units may be free standing units or they can be of the split cycle cassette type
used in domestic and industrial applications. Figure 7A shows the outdoor condenser and
compressor of an industrial split package cassette system and Figure 7B shows the equivalent
type of unit used in a marine application.

Figure 7A. Industrial split cycle system

Figure 7. Condenser and compressor units in a split cycle system fitted to a fast ferry.

.
6.0 Fan selection

The engineer is faced w i t h selecting the right fan for an application. The following
discussion explains the specific characteristics of different types of fans as they relate
to their selection. Radial-bladed fans are not usually used in HVAC systems and are
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not discussed. Friction and eddy losses in the ducts make up the greater part of the pressure
required at the fan, hence the design of the duct system affects the fan power very
considerably. The fan power is a function of the air quantity and the pressure, and is
expressed as follows:

( ) )
)

The efficiency is static or total, depending on whether the pressure is static or total. The total
pressure is the algebraic sum of the static and velocity pressures.
The system is sized for the longest duct branch, so that artificial resistances must be inserted
in other branches to balance the air distribution. In designing the system, account is taken of
static pressure regain to reduce the rate of fall along the ducts. This regain results from a
reduction in velocity when the volume of air in the duct is reduced after an outlet is passed,
and can amount to about 75% of the fall in velocity pressure.

6.1.1 Backward-curved Blade Fans

These are the highest efficiency designs of the centrifugal fan types and for a given
duty, and the fans will operate at the highest speed, compared to the other
centrifugal fan types. These fans are used in applications where power savings will
be significant and can be used in low, medium, and high-pressure HVAC systems.
The performance curve is stable, and this type of fan has a load-limiting power
characteristic (figure 8). The horsepower curve reaches a maximum near the peak
efficiency area and becomes lower for free delivery. If the fan is equipped with a
motor of such size that the maximum requirement is met, there will be no danger of
overloading the motor.

Figure 8 Backward blade tip fan characteristics (McQuiston) et al, 2000)

6.1.2 Forward-curved Blade Fan

This type of fan is usually used in low-pressure HVAC applications, such as packaged
air-conditioning equipment. This design tends to have the lowest efficiency and will
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operate at the lowest speed of the various centrifugal fans. The pressure curve is less
steep than that of the other designs. Referring to Figure 9, there is a dip in the
pressure curve to the left of peak pressure, and the highest efficiency occurs just to the
right of peak pressure. The fan should be applied well to the right of the peak pressure
point. The horsepower curve rises continuously toward free delivery, and this must be
taken into account when the fan is applied and the motor is selected.

Figure 9. Forward blade tip fan characteristics (McQuiston et al, 2000)

6.1.3 Vane axial Fan

Vane axial fans usually have blades of airfoil design, which permits medium to high-
pressure capability at relatively high efficiency. Consequently it is a good choice for all
low, medium, and high-pressure applications used in HVAC systems in and is
particularly advantageous where straight-through flow is required.

The performance curve (Figure 11) shows t h a t the highest pressure characteristics of
the axial design o c c u r s at medium volume flow rate. The performance curve
includes a break to the left of peak pressure, which is caused by dynamic stall.
Application on this part of the curve should be avoided.

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Figure 10 Axial flow fan and ducting used in a fast ferry

Some fans of this design have the capability of changing the pitch of the blade to meet
different a p p l i c a t i o n requirements. In some cases this is accomplished by shutting the
fan down, changing the blade angle to a new position, and restarting the fan. In other
cases, the pitch of the fan blade can be changed with the fan in operation. This latter
method provides good control characteristics for the fan in VAV systems.

Figure 11 Vane axial fan characteristics McQuiston et al, 2000)

7.0 Air Distribution

Air conditioning and heating systems require some form of duct work to channel or direct the
air to spaces where the conditioned air is need. Several issues must be considered in an

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effective design. A primary issue is the trade off between the initial cost of the duct system
and the energy cost of the air distribution system. Larger ducts require a bigger initial
investment but results in lower fan energy costs over the life of the system. Other issues
include space availability, noise level and capacity of expansion. Duct sections may be
either round or rectangular. Both types have advantages and disadvantages. Round ducts
are more efficient that rectangular ducts performing the same task because round ductwork
provides maximum air carrying capacity with minimum pressure loss. However rectangular
ducts can be used in restricted spaces with limited clearance such as between a suspended and
the deck above.

Duct systems are normally categorised as low velocity systems (0.65 to 1.23 Pa/m pressure
loss) and high velocity systems (3.3 to 5.7 Pa pressure loss). Low velocity systems require
larger duct diameters, a disadvantage but one that comes with the bonus of significantly
lower pressure drops. Thus low velocity systems require most installation and higher initial
cost but provide significantly greater energy savings in operation. High velocity systems
result in higher duct pressure drop which results in greater fan power but the ducts are smaller
for a given air quantity and require less space for their installation. Operating costs for a high
velocity system are greater than the equivalent low velocity system. The design of the air
terminals is very important with high velocity distribution, in order to minimize noise and
prevent draughts.

7.1 Flow control devices

Volume Dampers are devices used to control or restrict the airflow in order to achieve
balance in a system and to control makeup and exhaust air. Dampers may be hand operated
and locked in position after adjustment or they may be motor-operated and controlled by
temperature sensors or by other remote signals. The damper may be a single blade on a shaft,
or a multiple blade arrangement as shown in Figure 12. The blades can also be connected to
operate in parallel. Because the damper blades are in the air flow, they cause a pressure loss
even when fully open.

Figure 12 Opposed blade damper assembly.

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Fire Dampers are devices used to close off individual sections of a building during a fire.
Fire dampers in HVAC applications are generally interlocking blade or expanding curtain
type.

Smoke Dampers are used for either smoke containment or for smoke control. They are
basically the same as volume dampers except that they are either open or closed. The
dampers are opened and closed by pneumatic or electric operation.

Turning vanes are used in air distribution systems to prevent turbulence and consequently
high loss in total pressure where turns are necessary in rectangular ducts. Although large
radius turns may be used for the same purpose, that would require more space. When turning
vanes are used, an abrupt 90 degree turn is made by the duct, but the air is turned smoothly by
the vanes.

7.3 Duct material and insulation

Duct insulation is standard practice, being particularly necessary in installations where the
policy has been to reduce the volume of air handled to a minimum, resulting in greater
temperature differentials. The ideal is to integrate the insulation with the duct manufacture, or
at least to apply it before the ductwork is despatched to the ship.

There are a number of high-class fire resistant insulating materials on the market, such as
mineral wool and fibreglass. These, of course, must have a suitable covering to resist the
entry of moisture and to protect the material from damage. Jointing of the duct sections is
usually by sleeves, with external adhesive binding.

Air distribution ducts can be constructed from conventional metalic materials such as
galvanised, steel, stainless, steel copper and aluminium or from nonmetallic materials such as
fiber glass and plastic. One material, Antiphon, that is used in ducts for specialist
applications is a combination of both steel and plastic. Antiphon metal polymer metal
(MPM) dampens the structure borne sound and can be used in place of a normal structural
sheet metal. The makers claim that this can be usually achieved without any increase in the
thickness and weight of the duct.

Antiphon is a formable and weldable sandwich consisting of two metal facing sheets
enclosing a visco elastic inner layer. The two metal facing sheets in antiphon MPM are in
most applications of cold rolled steel, but in principle any type of metal or alloy can be used.
Today the material is produced with laminated cold rolled steel, metallic coated steel,
stainless steel and aluminium. The inner layer is optimised for different temperature ranges
between -5 C and +125 C.

With the ever-increasing speed of technology, modern warships are faced with the need to
upgrade and install more and more equipment Most of this equipment is electronic and it
generates heat. Ventilation systems installed at build are often unable to cope with increased
loads. Ducting is a major part of the ventilation system. The ducting is usually one of the first
systems installed in the compartments and other equipment is then fitted to the deck head
around it making changes almost impossible even during original build program

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Figure 13 Texvent Air Distribution System

(from HMS “Monmouth” Type 23 Frigate)

The need for the system, which could be either an alternative or addition to conventional
ducting, has been evident for some time. Flexible textile ductwork widely used in
commercial land based application has been adapted for use in naval applications

Naval textile ducting was first installed on an operational warship of the UK Royal Navy in
1996. Commonly used materials such as Trevira CS and Texvent for textile ducting are fire
resistant polyesters. Figure 13 shows a Texvent flexible ducting air distribution system used
on board the Type 23 Frigate HMS Monmouth. As can be seen in the photograph, once the
air distribution ducting material is inflated, it operates like a large air filled sock.

The advantages claimed for this ducting are that it is light weight because the duct and
mounting brackets weigh significantly less than conventional ducting. Additionally, material
and installation costs for a textile system is significantly less than that for conventional
ductwork. The ability to fold the fabric makes for easy transportation to site. Duct can be
taken down, leaving the track in place, to ease the installation of other equipment. Systems
can be easily re-configured to cater for changes in layout when re-fitting or modifying
existing vessels.

With traditional ducting systems, each terminal is required to be balanced within 20% of
design airflow (Achieved by means of orifice plates) but with a Texvent system, balancing is
not required because the air diffuses through fabric without the need for any terminals.
Terminal noise is eliminated and duct generated noise is significantly reduced. The tight
weave of the duct collects dust as air diffuses through the fabric and the duct sections are
easily cleaned by in the ships laundry. Thus improving quality of air supplied, which is most
important for crew comfort and in particular medical and food preparation compartments.

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7.4 Air terminals

The best designed air conditioning system is only as good as the means of delivering the air
to the spaces. The main function of the air terminal is to distribute the air uniformly
throughout the spaces without draughts. It is not possible to provide ideal conditions for both
heating and cooling from the same outlet. Too low a discharge velocity in the heating season
can result in stratification, the air at ceiling level remaining warmer than the air at the floor.
Even when cooling, a low velocity stream could fall through to lower levels in localized
streams, without upsetting the stratification. Figure 14 shows an air terminal installed in a
fast ferry.

Careful selection of the discharge velocity and direction of flow in the design stages can
provide an acceptable compromise between good distribution and draught free conditions.
Generally it is found that the ceiling is the most convenient location for their terminal,
although in large public spaces extended slot type outlets on the bulkhead, with near
horizontal discharge, are satisfactory and blend well with decorative features. The usual
recirculation outlet at the bottom of the door normally ensures a good distribution of the air in
the space.

With high air velocities, some control of the noise level in the system becomes essential, and
it is true to say that equipment design, particularly as applied to the terminals, has been
influenced more by this than by any other factor.

Figure 14 Air terminal used in a fast ferry

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8.0 References & extracts from:

ASHRAE, 2009, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning

Engineers: Fundamentals SI edition, ASHRAE, Atlanta, USA.

AS 1921-1976 Air conditioning and ventilation in ships' cabins and living spaces of merchant
ships.

Bleier, F. P., 1998, Fan Handbook: Selection, Application and Design, McGraw Hill, New
York.
DEF(AUST), 5000, Volume 4, Part 3, Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning.

Gabler, U, Submarine Design, 2nd Ed., Bernard and Graefe Verlag, 2000.

ISO 5801:2007 Industrial fans -- Performance testing using standardized airways

ISO 7547:2002 Ships and marine technology - Air-conditioning and ventilation of

accommodation spaces - Design conditions and basis of calculations

ISO 8861:1998 Shipbuilding - Engine-room ventilation in diesel-engined ships - Design

requirements and basis of calculations

ISO 9943:2009 Shipbuilding - Ventilation and air-treatment of galleys and pantries with
cooking appliances

Meier-Peter, H. and Bernhardt, F., Compendium Marine Engineering, Seehafen Verlag,

Hamburg, 2009.

McGeorge, H.D. 2002 Marine Auxiliary Machinery, 7ed Butterworth-Heinemann. UK.

McQuiston, F.C., Parker, J. D. and Spitler, J. D. 2000 Heating, Ventilating and Air
Conditioning; Analysis and Design, 5ed, Wiley, New York.

Harrington R.L., Marine Engineering, SNAME, N.J. 1992.

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