CONTENTS OF THE TEXTBOOK

topics in bold are included in the course

• Principles and Methods of Electric Power Conversion

• Semiconductor Power Switches
• Supplementary Components and Systems
• AC-to-DC Converters
• AC-to-AC Converters
• DC-to-DC Converters
• DC-to-AC Converters
• Switching Power Supplies
• Power Electronics and Clean Energy

Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski
“Introduction to Modern Power Electronics”, 3rd Ed., John Wiley 2015

Chapter 1 2
 Chapter 1

Principles and Methods

of Electric Power Conversion

Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski
“Introduction to Modern Power Electronics”, 3rd Ed., John Wiley 2015

Chapter 1 3
Content
• 1.1 What Is Power Electronics? 1
• 1.2 Generic Power Converter 3
• 1.3 Waveform Components and Figures of Merit 8
• 1.4 Phase Control and Square-Wave Mode 16
• 1.5 Pulse Width Modulation 22
• 1.6 Computation of Current Waveforms 30
• 1.6.1 Analytical Solution 30
• 1.6.2 Numerical Solution 35
• 1.6.3 Practical Example: Single-Phase Diode Rectifiers 38

Chapter 1 4
Types of electric power conversion
and converters

ADJUSTABLE MAGNITUDE AND/OR FREQUENCY

CHOPPERS
CONSTANT MAGNITUDE AND FREQUENCY
DC DC
IN
VE
RT
ER
S

OUTPUT
INPUT

E RS
I
TIF
C
RE

CYCLOCONVERTERS
AC AC VOLTAGE CONTROLLERS
AC
MATRIX CONVERTERS
Fig. 1.1

Chapter 1 5
 Generic power converter

• S1 and S2
• Direct connection I1 S1 O1

• S3 and S4 ii S3 io

• Cross-connection S5
SOURCE vi S4 vo LOAD
• S5
• Ensures closed path S2

for inductive load I2 O2

current
Fig. 1.2

Chapter 1 6
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the generic rectifier
• Output current by
solving

• Current is closer to dc
than voltage, kth
harmonic attenuated

Fig. 1.4

Chapter 1 7
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the generic inverter
• When input is dc-
voltage generic
converter can
opearate as inverter
• Control of switches
remains the same,
square-wave mode

Fig. 1.5

Chapter 1 8
 Configurations of power electronic converters:
(a) current-source, (b) voltage-source
• Current-source
• Voltage source

LOAD
SOURCE CONVERTER

• Circuit theory
• => current sources (a)
cannot be connected in
series (do not open a
current source)
• =>Voltage sources
cannot be connected in

LOAD
SOURCE CONVERTER
paralle (do not short
circuit voltage source)
Fig. 1.6

(b)
Chapter 1 9
 Decomposition of the output waveforms
in the generic rectifier

• Output voltage and

current of the
rectifier can be
decomposed to dc
and ac components

Fig. 1.7

Chapter 1 10
 Waveform components and figures of merit

A periodic function 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 can be defined as such that 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 .

1 2𝜋 2
The rms (root mean square) value, Ψ, of waveform 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 is defined as 𝛹 ≡ 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0

1 2𝜋
and the average value, or dc component, Ψdc, of the waveform as 𝛹𝑑𝑐 ≡ 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡.
2𝜋 0

When the dc component is subtracted from the waveform, the remaining waveform,𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 , is
called the ac component, or ripple, that is,

𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜓 𝜔𝑡 − 𝛹𝑑𝑐 .

The ac component has an average value of zero and the fundamental frequency of f1 = 𝜔/2𝜋.

Chapter 1 11
 Waveform components and figures of merit
(cont.)
The rms value, Ψac, of 𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 is defined as

2𝜋
1 2
𝛹𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝜔𝑡
2𝜋 0

and it can be shown that

2
𝛹 2 = 𝛹𝑑𝑐 2.
+ 𝛹𝑎𝑐

For waveforms of the desirable ideal dc quality, such as the load current of a rectifier, a
figure of merit called a ripple factor, RF, is defined as

𝛹𝑎𝑐
𝑅𝐹 = .
𝛹𝑑𝑐

A low value (e.g., less than 5%) of the ripple factor indicates high quality of a waveform.

Chapter 1 12
Decomposition of the output voltage waveform
in the generic inverter

Fig.1.9

Chapter 1 13
Decomposition of the output current waveform
in the generic inverter

Fig. 1.10

Chapter 1 14
Input current waveform and its fundamental
component in the generic rectifier

Fig. 1.11

Chapter 1 15
 Waveform components and figures of merit

The ac component, ψac(t), of a periodic function, ψ(t), can be expressed as an infinite sum of harmonics,
that is, sine waves whose frequencies are multiples of the fundamental frequency, f1 = 𝜔/2𝜋, of ψ(t). In
the angle domain,

∞ ∞
𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑘=1 𝜓𝑘 𝑘𝜔𝑡 = 𝑘=1 𝛹𝑘,𝑝 cos 𝑘𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑𝑘

where k is the harmonic number, and Ψk,p and φk denote the peak value and phase angle of the kth
harmonic, respectively. The first harmonic, ψ1(𝜔t), is called a fundamental.

The peak value, Ψ1,p, of fundamental of a periodic function, ψ(𝜔t), is calculated as

2 2
𝛹1,𝑝 = 𝛹1,𝑐 + 𝛹1,𝑠

Where
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1
𝛹1,𝑐 = 𝜓(𝜔𝑡) cos( 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡 𝛹1,𝑠 = 𝜓(𝜔𝑡) sin( 𝜔𝑡)𝑑𝜔𝑡
𝜋 0 𝜋 0

Chapter 1 16
 Waveform components and figures of merit
(cont.)
𝛹1,𝑝
The rms value, Ψ1, of the fundamental is 𝛹1 = .
2

The fundamental of a function does not depend on the dc component of the function. Thus, the ac
component, ψac(𝜔t), can be used in place of ψ(𝜔t). When the fundamental is subtracted from the
ac component, the so-called harmonic component, ψh(𝝎t), is obtained as
𝜓ℎ 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜓𝑎𝑐 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜓1 𝜔𝑡 .

The rms value, Ψh, of ψh(𝜔t), called a harmonic content of function ψ(𝜔t), can be calculated as

2
𝛹ℎ = 𝛹𝑎𝑐 − 𝛹12 = 2
𝛹 2 − 𝛹𝑑𝑐 −𝛹12

𝛹ℎ
and used for calculation of the so-called total harmonic distortion, THD, defined as 𝑇𝐻𝐷 =
𝛹1
𝛹ℎ
and which should be possibly low (e.g., less than 5%). Note: THD is often defined as as 𝑻𝑯𝑫 =
𝛹

Chapter 1 17
1.4 Phase control
• How to control the output
• Resistive control can still be found in some
applications altough efficiency is low
• Should not be used in high power applications
• Phase control, SCR, silicon controlled rectifier i.e.
thyristor

Chapter 1 18
 Resistive control schemes:
(a) rheostatic control, (b) potentiometric
control
• Resistors are replaced by base Ii Io

current controlled transistors, R rh

i.e. controllable resistor Vi Vo RL

(a)
• Efficiency in both cases is poor Ii Io

• a)
Vi Rp Vo RL

Ip

• b) (b)

Fig. 1.12

Chapter 1 19
 Output voltage and current waveforms
𝑜
in the generic rectifier with the firing angle of 90

• The turn on of the

switches is delayed 90
degrees

Fig. 1.13

Chapter 1 20
 Control characteristic
of the phase-controlled generic rectifier

Fig. 1.14

Chapter 1 21
Output voltage and current waveforms in the
generic AC voltage controller with the firing
angle of 90o

• In practise realized Fig. 1.15

with Triacs

Fig. 1.16

Chapter 1 22
Output voltage and current waveforms in the
generic inverter with the delay angle of 30o
• The same idea of a delay
can be extended to the
generic inverter, here
delay is assumed to be
30
• Square-wave mode
• Fundamental is

Fig. 1.17

Chapter 1 23
Harmonic spectra of output voltage with the firing
𝑜
angle of 90

• (a) phase-controlled generic

rectifier
• (b) phase-controlled generic AC
voltage controller
• In phase-controlled applications
low frequency components in
the spectrum are high => also
current waveform is poor

Fig. 1.18
Chapter 1 24
Pulse-width modulation
• Phase-modulation distorts the output heavily
• Distorted current is consequence of distorted
voltage
• In most aplication current is more important than
voltage, especially in motor drives
• Also input current is distorted in phase-modulation,
low frequency harmonics and reactive current too

Chapter 1 25
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the generic chopper
Fig. 1.19

• Dc-dc converter as an
example of PWM
• Duty ratio

• Output voltage

• Switching frequency Fig. 1.20

switching
frequency
twice

Chapter 1 26
Output voltage and current waveforms in

• (a) generic PWM rectifier

• (b) generic PWM ac voltage
controller
• Current waveforms much
better than in 1.13 or 1.14

Fig. 1.21
Chapter 1 27
 Control characteristics of (a) generic PWM
rectifier, (b) generic PWM ac voltage
controller
• Linear ratio is still valid
for output voltage

• But for the rms value

Fig. 1.22
Chapter 1 28
Harmonic spectra of output voltage in

• (a) generic PWM

rectifier
• (b) generic PWM ac
voltage controller (N =
24)
• Duty ratio 0,5
• Compare with Fig. 1.18

Fig. 1.23
Chapter 1 29
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the generic PWM inverter
• (a) M = 1
• (b) M = 0.5

Fig. 1.24
Chapter 1 30
1.6 Calculation of current waveforms

• Quasi-steasedy state operation

• Sequence of transient states
• Variable topology
• Current and voltage values at the end of a sequency are
initial values in the next sequence
• Ordinary linear differential equations
• Numerical solutions are used more often

Chapter 1 31
 RL load circuit
io

R
vo

Fig. 1.25

Chapter 1 32
 Calculation of current waveforms

The Kirchhoff Voltage Law for the circuit in Fig. 1.25 can be written as

𝑑𝑖𝑜 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑖𝑜 𝑡 + 𝐿 = 𝑉𝑖,𝑝 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡

It can be solved for io(t) using the Laplace Transform or, less tediously, taking advantage of the
known property of linear differential equations:
𝑖𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑜,𝐹 𝑡 + 𝑖𝑜,𝑁 (𝑡)
where io,F(t) and io,N(t) denote the so-called forced and natural components of io(t), respectively. The
forced component constitutes the steady-state solution:

𝑉𝑖,𝑝
𝑖𝑜,𝐹 𝑡 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑍
𝜔𝐿
𝑍= 𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿)2 𝜑 = tan−1
𝑅

Chapter 1 33
 Calculation of current waveforms (cont.)

The natural component, io,N(t), represents a solution of the homogenous equation

𝑑𝑖𝑜,𝑁 (𝑡)
𝑅𝑖𝑜,𝑁 𝑡 + 𝐿 =0
𝑑𝑡

It can be seen that io,N(t) must be such that the linear combination of it and its derivative is zero.
Clearly, an exponential function

𝑖𝑜,𝑁 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑇

is the best candidate for the solution, which yields 𝑅𝐴𝑒 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐿𝐴𝐵𝑒 𝐵𝑇 = 0

𝑅
−𝐿𝑡
from which, B = -R/L, and 𝑖𝑜,𝑁 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒

Chapter 1 34
 Calculation of current waveforms (cont.)
𝑉𝑖,𝑝 𝑅
− 𝑡
Thus, 𝑖𝑜 𝑡 = 𝑍
sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝐴 𝑒 𝐿

To determine the constant A, note that io(0) = io(T/2) = io(π/ω) (see Figure 1.4). Hence,

𝑉𝑖,𝑝 𝑉𝑖,𝑝 𝑅𝜋
−
𝑍
sin −𝜑 + 𝐴 = 𝑍
sin 𝜋 − 𝜑 + 𝐴𝑒 𝐿𝜔

𝑅𝜋 𝜋
where − 𝐿𝜔 = − tan(𝜑)
Solving for A, it yields

2𝑉𝑖,𝑝 sin(𝜑)
𝐴= −
𝜋
𝑍 1−𝑒 tan(𝜑)

and
𝑉𝑖,𝑝 𝑅
2 sin(𝜑) − 𝑡
𝑖𝑜 𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑 + 𝜋 𝑒 𝐿 .
𝑍 −
tan(𝜑)
1−𝑒

Chapter 1 35
 Numerical calculation of current waveforms
𝑣𝑜,𝑛
Resistive load (R-load): 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 = 𝑅
.

𝑣𝑜,𝑛
Inductive load (L-load): 𝑖𝑜,𝑛+1 = 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 + 𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 .
𝐿

𝑣𝑜,𝑛 −𝐸𝑜
Resistive-EMF load (RE-load): 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 =
𝑅

where En denotes the value of load EMF at t = tn. The EMF, in series with resistance R, is assumed to
oppose the output current.

Inductive-EMF load (LE-load):

𝑣𝑜,𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛
𝑖𝑜,𝑛+1 = 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 + (𝑡𝑛+1 − 𝑡𝑛 )
𝐿

where the load EMF is connected in series with inductance L.

Chapter 1 36
 Numerical calculation of current waveforms
(cont.)

Resistive-Inductive load (RL-load):

𝑣𝑜,𝑛 𝑣𝑜,𝑛 𝑅
− 𝐿 (𝑡𝑛+1 −𝑡𝑛 )
𝑖𝑜,𝑛+1 = + 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 − 𝑒
𝑅 𝑅

Resistive-inductive-EMF load (RLE-load):

𝑣𝑜,𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛 𝑣𝑜,𝑛 − 𝐸𝑛 −𝑅(𝑡𝑛+1−𝑡𝑛 )

𝑖𝑜,𝑛+1 = + 𝑖𝑜,𝑛 − 𝑒 𝐿
𝑅 𝑅

where the load is represented by a series connection of resistance R, inductance L, and EMF E.

Chapter 1 37
Fragments of output voltage and current waveforms
in a generic PWM ac voltage controller

Fig. 1.26

Chapter 1 38
Single-pulse diode rectifier

ii io

Vi Vo

Fig. 1.27

Chapter 1 39
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the single-pulse diode rectifier with an R
load

Fig. 1.28

Chapter 1 40
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the single-pulse diode rectifier with an RL
load

Fig. 1.29

Chapter 1 41
Single-pulse diode rectifier with a
freewheeling diode

ii io

Vi Vo

Fig. 1.30

Chapter 1 42
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the single-pulse diode rectifier
with a freewheeling diode and an RL load

Fig. 1.31

Chapter 1 43
Single-pulse diode rectifier with an output
capacitor

ii io
iC

Vi Vo

Fig. 1.32

Chapter 1 44
Output voltage and current waveforms
in the single-pulse diode rectifier
with output capacitor and RL load

Fig. 1.33

Chapter 1 45
Two-pulse diode rectifier
Vi

ii

io

D1 D4

vo

D3 D2

Fig. 1.34

Chapter 1 46
 Output voltage waveform
in the generic cycloconverter in Example 1.1

Fig. 1.35

Chapter 1 47
 Timing diagram of switches
in the generic cycloconverter in Example 1.1

Fig. 1.36

Chapter 1 48
Voltage ripple factor versus firing angle
in the generic rectifier in Example 1.3

Fig. 1.37

Chapter 1 49
 Output voltage and current waveforms
in the generic PWM rectifier in Example 1.5

Fig. 1.38

Chapter 1 50